Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Overview
The purpose of the story is to introduce
some basic concepts relating to production
and this we do through a story of a
hypothetical village called Palampur.*
Farming is the main activity in
Palampur, whereas several other
activities such as small scale
manufacturing, dairy, transport, etc. are
carried out on a limited scale. These
production activities need various types
of resources — natural resources, man-
made items, human effort, money, etc. As
we read through the story of Palampur,
we will learn how various resources Picture 1.1 Scene of a village
combine to produce the desired goods and
electric connections. Electricity powers all
services in the village.
the tubewells in the fields and is used in
Introduction various types of small business. Palampur
Palampur is well-connected with has two primary schools and one high
neighbouring villages and towns. Raiganj, school. There is a primary health centre
a big village, is 3 kms from Palampur. An run by the government and one private
all weather road connects the village to dispensary where the sick are treated.
Raiganj and further on to the nearest • The description above shows that
small town of Shahpur. Many kinds of Palampur has fairly well-developed
transport are visible on this road starting system of roads, transport, electricity,
from bullock carts, tongas, bogeys (wooden irrigation, schools and health centre.
cart drawn by buffalos) loaded with jaggery Compare these facilities with those in
(gur) and other commodities to motor your nearby village.
vehicles like motorcycles, jeeps, tractors The story of Palampur, an imaginary
and trucks. village, will take us through the different
This village has about 450 families types of production activities in the
belonging to several different castes. The village. In villages across India, farming
80 upper caste families own the majority is the main production activity. The other
of land in the village. Their houses, some production activities, referred to as non-
of them quite large, are made of brick with farm activities include small
cement plastering. The SCs (dalits) manufacturing, transport, shop-keeping,
comprise one third of the population and etc. We shall take a look at both these
live in one corner of the village and in types of activities, after learning a few
much smaller houses some of which are
general things about production.
of mud and straw. Most of the houses have
* The narrative is partly based on a research study by Gilbert Etienne of a village in Bulandshahr district in Western
Uttar Pradesh.
The Story of Village Palampur 1
Organisation of Production capital. We shall learn more about human
capital in the next chapter.
The aim of production is to produce the • In the picture, identify the land, labour
goods and services that we want. There and fixed capital used in production.
are four requirements for production of
goods and services.
The first requirement is land, and
other natural resources such as water,
forests, minerals.
The second requirement is labour, i.e.
people who will do the work. Some
production activities require highly
educated workers to perform the
necessary tasks. Other activities require
workers who can do manual work. Each
worker is providing the labour necessary
for production.
The third requirement is physical
capital, i.e. the variety of inputs required
at every stage during production. What
are the items that come under physical Picture 1.2 A factory, with several labourers
capital? and machines
(a) Tools, machines, buildings: Tools and
Every production is organised by
machines range from very simple tools
combining land, labour, physical capital
such as a farmer’s plough to and human capital, which are known as
sophisticated machines such as
factors of production. As we read
generators, turbines, computers, etc.
through the story of Palampur, we will
Tools, machines, buildings can be used learn more about the first three factors
in production over many years, and of production. For convenience, we will
are called fixed capital. refer to the physical capital as the capital
(b) Raw materials and money in hand: in this chapter.
Production requires a variety of raw
materials such as the yarn used by Farming in Palampur
the weaver and the clay used by the
potter. Also, some money is always 1. Land is fixed
required during production to make Farming is the main production activity
payments and buy other necessary in Palampur. 75 per cent of the people
items. Raw materials and money in who are working are dependent on
hand are called working capital. farming for their livelihood. They could
Unlike tools, machines and buildings, be farmers or farm labourers. The well-
these are used up in production. being of these people is closely related to
There is a fourth requirement too. You production on the farms.
will need knowledge and enterprise to be But remember that there is a basic
able to put together land, labour and constraint in raising farm production.
physical capital and produce an output Land area under cultivation is practically
either to use yourself or to sell in the fixed. Since 1960 in Palampur, there has
market. This these days is called human been no expansion in land area under
2 Economics
cultivation. By then, some of the larger areas of land more effectively. The
wastelands in the village had been first few tubewells were installed by the
converted to cultivable land. There exists government. Soon, however, farmers
no further scope to increase farm started setting up private tubewells. As a
production by bringing new land under result, by mid-1970s the entire cultivated
cultivation. area of 200 hectares (ha.) was irrigated.
The standard unit of measuring land Not all villages in India have such
is hectare, though in the villages you high levels of irrigation. Apart from
may find land area being discussed the riverine plains, coastal regions in
in local units such as bigha, guintha our country are well-irrigated. In
etc. One hectare equals the area of a contrast, plateau regions such as the
square with one side measuring 100 Deccan plateau have low levels of
metres. Can you compare the area of irrigation. Of the total cultivated area
a 1 hectare field with the area of your in the country a little less than 40
school ground? per cent is irrigated even today. In
the remaining areas, farming is
largely dependent on rainfall.
2. Is there a way one can grow more
from the same land?
To grow more than one crop on a piece of
In the kind of crops grown and facilities
land during the year is known as multiple
available, Palampur would resemble a
cropping. It is the most common way of
village of the western part of the state of
increasing production on a given piece of
Uttar Pradesh. All land is cultivated in
land. All farmers in Palampur grow
Palampur. No land is left idle. During the
atleast two main crops; many are growing
rainy season (kharif) farmers grow jowar
potato as the third crop in the past fifteen
and bajra. These plants are used as cattle
to twenty years.
feed. It is followed by cultivation of potato
between October and December. In the
winter season (rabi), fields are sown with
wheat. From the wheat produced, farmers
keep enough wheat for the family’s
consumption and sell the surplus wheat
at the market at Raiganj. A part of the
land area is also devoted to sugarcane
which is harvested once every year.
Sugarcane, in its raw form, or as jaggery,
is sold to traders in Shahpur.
The main reason why farmers are able Picture 1.3 Different crops
to grow three different crops in a year in
Palampur is due to the well-developed
system of irrigation. Electricity came early Let’sDiscuss
to Palampur. Its major impact was to
• The following Table1.1 shows the land
transform the system of irrigation.
Persian wheels were, till then, used by under cultivation in India in units of
farmers to draw water from the wells and million hectares. Plot this on the graph
irrigate small fields. People saw that the provided. What does the graph show?
electric-run tubewells could irrigate much Discuss in class.
40
20
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
4 Economics
pesticides to produce best results. Higher • Modern farming methods require the
yields were possible only from a farmer to start with more cash than
combination of HYV seeds, irrigation, before. Why?
chemical fertilisers, pesticides etc.
Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Suggested Activity
Western Uttar Pradesh were the first to • During your field visit talk to some
try out the modern farming method in farmers of your region. Find out:
India. The farmers in these regions set
up tubewells for irrigation, and made use 1. What kind of farming methods—
of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers and modern or traditional or mixed— do
pesticides in farming. Some of them the farmers use? Write a note.
bought farm machinery like tractors and 2. What are the sources of irrigation?
threshers, which made ploughing and 3. How much of the cultivated land is
harvesting faster. They were rewarded irrigated? (very little/nearly half/
with high yields of wheat. majority/all)
In Palampur, the yield of wheat grown 4. From where do farmers obtain the
from the traditional varieties was 1300 kg inputs that they require?
per hectare. With the HYV seeds, the yield
went up to 3200 kg per hectare. There 3. Will the land sustain?
was a large increase in the production of
wheat. Farmers now had greater amounts Land being a natural resource, it is
of surplus wheat to sell in the markets. necessary to be very careful in its use.
Scientific reports indicate that the modern
farming methods have overused the
Let’sDiscuss natural resource base.
• What is the difference between In many areas, Green Revolution is
multiple cropping and modern farming associated with the loss of soil fertility
method? due to increased use of chemical
• The following table shows the fertilizers. Also, continuous use of
production of wheat and pulses in groundwater for tubewell irrigation has
India after the Green revolution in reduced the water-table below the
units of million tonnes. Plot this on a ground. Environmental resources like soil
graph. Was the Green revolution fertility and groundwater are built up over
equally successful for both the crops? many years. Once destroyed it is very
Discuss. difficult to restore them. We must take
• What is the working capital required care of the environment to ensure future
by the farmer using modern farming development of agriculture.
methods?
Suggested Activity
Table 1.2: Production of pulses and wheat • After reading the following reports from
Production Production newspapers/magazines, write a letter
of Pulses of Wheat to the Agriculture Minister in your own
words telling him how the use of
1965 - 66 10 10 chemical fertilizers can be harmful.
1970 - 71 12 24
1980 - 81 11 36 ....Chemical fertilizers provide
1990 - 91 14 55
minerals which dissolve in water and
are immediately available to plants.
2000 - 01 11 70 But these may not be retained in the
soil for long. They may escape from land, 240 families cultivate small plots of
land less than 2 hectares in size.
the soil and pollute groundwater,
Cultivation of such plots doesn’t bring
rivers and lakes. Chemical fertilizers
adequate income to the farmer family.
can also kill bacteria and other micro-
organisms in the soil. This means In 1960, Gobind was a farmer with
some time after their use, the soil will 2.25 hectares of largely unirrigated
be less fertile than ever land. With the help of his three sons
before....(Source: Down to Earth, New Gobind cultivated the land. Though
Delhi) they didn’t live very comfortably, the
family managed to feed itself with a
.....The consumption of chemical
fertilizers in Punjab is highest in the little bit of extra income from one
buffalo that the family possessed.
country. The continuous use of chemical
Some years after Gobind’s death, this
fertilizers has led to degradation of soil
health. Punjab farmers are now forced land was divided among his three
to use more and more chemical sons. Each one now has a plot of land
fertilizers and other inputs to achieve that is only 0.75 hectare in size. Even
with improved irrigation and modern
the same production level. This means
cost of cultivation is rising very farming method, Gobind’s sons are
fast.....(Source: The Tribune, not able to make a living from their
Chandigarh) land. They have to look for additional
work during part of the year.
You can see the large number of small
4. How is land distributed between plots scattered around the village in the
the farmers of Palampur? picture. These are cultivated by the small
You must have realised how important land farmers. On the other hand, more than
is for farming. Unfortunately, not all the half the area of the village is covered by
people engaged in agriculture have plots that are quite large in size. In
sufficient land for cultivation. In Palampur, Palampur, there are 60 families of medium
about one third of the 450 families are and large farmers who cultivate more
landless, i.e. 150 families, most of them than 2 hectares of land. A few of the large
dalits, have no land for cultivation. farmers have land extending over 10
Of the remaining families who own hectares or more.
6 Economics
Picture 1.6 Work on
the fields: Wheat crop—
ploughing by bullocks,
sowing, spraying of
insecticides, cultivation
by traditional method,
cultivation by modern
method, and cutting of
crops.
Let’sDiscuss Let’sDiscuss
• In the Picture 1.5, can you shade the • Would you agree that the distribution
land cultivated by the small farmers? of cultivated land is unequal in
• Why do so many families of farmers Palampur? Do you find a similar
cultivate such small plots of land? situation for India? Explain.
• The distribution of farmers in India and
the amount of land they cultivate is given 5. Who will provide the labour?
in the following Graph 1.1. Discuss in
the classroom. After land, labour is the next necessary
factor for production. Farming requires a
Graph 1.1: Distribution of Cultivated Area great deal of hard work. Small farmers
and Farmers
along with their families cultivate their
Cultivated Area Number of Farmers own fields. Thus, they provide the labour
required for farming themselves. Medium
36%
20% and large farmers hire farm labourers to
work on their fields.
Let’sDiscuss
• Identify the work being done on the
64% 80%
field in the Pictures 1.6 and arrange
Small farmers Medium and them in a proper sequence.
(Less than 2 ha.) Large farmers
(More than 2 ha.) Farm labourers come either from
landless families or families cultivating
Source: Agricultural statistics at glance 2003:
Dept of agriculture and cooperation, small plots of land. Unlike farmers, farm
Ministry of agriculture, Govt of India. labourers do not have a right over the
The Story of Village Palampur 7
Dala and Ramkali are among the poorest native of the village
crops grown on the land. Instead they are labourer might be employed on a daily
paid wages by the farmer for whom they basis, or for one particular farm activity
work. Wages can be in cash or in kind like harvesting, or for the whole year.
e.g. crop. Sometimes labourers get meals Dala is a landless farm labourer who
also. Wages vary widely from region to works on daily wages in Palampur. This
region, from crop to crop, from one farm means he must regularly look for work.
activity to another (like sowing and The minimum wages for a farm labourer
harvesting). There is also a wide variation set by the government is Rs 60 per day,
in the duration of employment. A farm but Dala gets only Rs 35–40. There is
8 Economics
heavy competition for work among the farmer. Tejpal Singh agrees to give
farm labourers in Palampur, so people Savita the loan at an interest rate of
agree to work for lower wages. Dala 24 per cent for four months, which is
complains about his situation to Ramkali, a very high interest rate. Savita also
who is another farm labourer. has to promise to work on his field as
Both Dala and Ramkali are among the a farm labourer during the harvest
poorest people in the village. season at Rs 35 per day. As you can
tell, this wage is quite low. Savita
Let’sDiscuss knows that she will have to work very
• Why are farm labourers like Dala and hard to complete harvesting on her
Ramkali poor? own field, and then work as a farm
• Gosaipur and Majauli are two villages labourer for Tejpal Singh. The harvest
in North Bihar. Out of a total of 850 time is a very busy time. As a mother
households in the two villages, there of three children she has a lot of
are more than 250 men who are household responsibilities. Savita
employed in rural Punjab and Haryana agrees to these tough conditions as
or in Delhi, Mumbai, Surat, Hyderabad she knows getting a loan is difficult
or Nagpur. Such migration is common for a small farmer.
in most villages across India. Why do 2. In contrast to the small farmers, the
people migrate? Can you describe medium and large farmers have their
(based on your imagination) the work own savings from farming. They are
that the migrants of Gosaipur and thus able to arrange for the capital
Majauli might do at the place of needed. How do these farmers have
destination? their own savings? You shall find the
answer in the next section.
6. The capital needed in farming
You have already seen that the modern
Let'sdiscussthestorysofar....
farming methods require a great deal of We have read about the three factors of
capital, so that the farmer now needs production—land, labour and capital—
more money than before. and how they are used in farming. Let us
1. Most small farmers have to borrow fill in the blanks given below.
money to arrange for the capital. They Among the three factors of production,
borrow from large farmers or the we found that labour is the most
village moneylenders or the traders abundant factor of production. There are
who supply various inputs for many people who are willing to work as
cultivation. The rate of interest on farm labourers in the villages, whereas
such loans is very high. They are put the opportunities of work are limited. They
to great distress to repay the loan. belong to either landless families or
Savita is a small farmer. She plans . They are paid low wages,
to cultivate wheat on her 1 hectare of and lead a difficult life.
land. Besides seeds, fertilizers and In contrast to labour,
pesticides, she needs cash to buy is a scarce factor of production. Cultivated
water and repair her farm land area is . Moreover,
instruments. She estimates that the even the existing land is distributed
working capital itself would cost a (equally/unequally) among
minimum of Rs 3,000. She doesn’t the people engaged in farming. There are
have the money, so she decides to a large number of small farmers who
borrow from Tejpal Singh, a large cultivate small plots of land and live in
The Story of Village Palampur 9
conditions not much better than the Tejpal Singh, the large farmer, has a
landless farm labourer. To make the surplus of 350 quintals of wheat from all
maximum use of the existing land, his lands! He sells the surplus wheat at
farmers use and the Raiganj market and has good earnings.
. Both these have led to What does Tejpal Singh do with his
increase in production of crops. earnings? Last year, Tejpal Singh had put
most of the money in his bank account.
Modern farming methods require a
Later he used the savings for lending to
great deal of . Small
farmers like Savita who were in need of a
farmers usually need to borrow money to
loan. He also used the savings to arrange
arrange for the capital, and are put to
for the working capital for farming in the
great distress to repay the loan. Therefore,
next season. This year Tejpal Singh plans
capital too is a scarce factor of production,
to use his earnings to buy another tractor.
particularly for the small farmers.
Another tractor would increase his fixed
Though both land and capital are capital.
scarce, there is a basic difference between Like Tejpal Singh, other large and
the two factors of production. medium farmers sell the surplus farm
is a natural resource, products. A part of the earnings is saved
whereas is man-made. It and kept for buying capital for the next
is possible to increase capital, whereas season. Thus, they are able to arrange
land is fixed. Therefore, it is very for the capital for farming from their own
important that we take good care of land savings. Some farmers might also use the
and other natural resources used in savings to buy cattle, trucks, or to set up
farming. shops. As we shall see, these constitute
the capital for non-farm activities.
7. Sale of Surplus Farm Products
Let us suppose that the farmers have Non-Farm Activities in Palampur
produced wheat on their lands using the We have learnt about farming as the main
three factors of production. The wheat production activity in Palampur. We shall
is harvested and production is complete. now take a look at some of the non-farm
What do the farmers do with the wheat? production activities. Only 25 per cent
They retain a part of the wheat for the of the people working in Palampur are
family’s consumption and sell the engaged in activities other than
surplus wheat. Small farmers like agriculture.
Savita and Gobind’s sons have little
surplus wheat because their total 1. Dairy — the other common
production is small and from this a activity
substantial share is kept for their own Dairy is a common activity in many families
family needs. So it is the medium and of Palampur. People feed their buffalos on
large farmers who supply wheat to the various kinds of grass and the jowar and
market. In the Picture 1.1, you can see the bajra that grows during the rainy season.
bullock cart streaming into the market The milk is sold in Raiganj, the nearby large
each carrying loads of wheat. The traders village. Two traders from Shahpur town
at the market buy the wheat and sell it have set up collection cum chilling centres
further to shopkeepers in the towns and at Raiganj from where the milk is
cities. transported to far away towns and cities.
10 Economics
Let's Discuss
• Let us take three farmers. Each has grown wheat on his field though the
production is different (see Column 2). The consumption of wheat by each
farmer family is the same (Column 3). The whole of surplus wheat this year
is used as capital for next year’s production. Also suppose, production is
twice the capital used in production. Complete the tables.
Farmer 1
Year 1 100 40 60 60
Year 2 120 40
Year 3 40
Farmer 2
Year 2 40
Year 3 40
Farmer 3
Year 1 60 40
Year 2 40
Year 3 40
Let’sDiscuss
• Compare the production of wheat by the three farmers over the years.
• What happens to Farmer 3 in Year 3? Can he continue production? What
will he have to do to continue production?
12 Economics
Further, he has attached a wooden cart Let’sDiscuss
to his buffalo and uses it to transport
• What is Kishora’s fixed capital?
various items. Once a week, he goes to
• What do you think would be his
the river Ganga to bring back clay for
the potter. Or sometimes he goes to working capital?
Shahpur with a load of jaggery or other • In how many production activities is
commodities. Every month he gets some Kishora involved?
work in transport. As a result, Kishora • Would you say that Kishora has
is able to earn more than what he used benefitted from better roads in
to do some years back. Palampur?
Summary
Farming is the main production activity in the village. Over the years there have
been many important changes in the way farming is practiced. These have allowed
the farmers to produce more crops from the same amount of land. This is an
important achievement, since land is fixed and scarce. But in raising production
a great deal of pressure has been put on land and other natural resources.
The new ways of farming need less land, but much more of capital. The medium
and large farmers are able to use their own savings from production to arrange
for capital during the next season. On the other hand, the small farmers who
constitute about 80 per cent of total farmers in India, find it difficult to obtain
capital. Because of the small size of their plots, their production is not enough.
The lack of surplus means that they are unable to obtain capital from their own
savings, and have to borrow. Besides the debt, many of the small farmers have
to do additional work as farm labourers to feed themselves and their families.
Labour being the most abundant factor of production, it would be ideal if
new ways of farming used much more labour. Unfortunately, such a thing has
not happened. The use of labour on farms is limited. The labour, looking for
opportunities is thus migrating to neighbouring villages, towns and cities. Some
labour has entered the non-farm sector in the village.
At present, the non-farm sector in the village is not very large. Out of every
100 workers in the rural areas in India, only 24 are engaged in non-farm activities.
Though there is a variety of non-farm activities in the villages (we have only
seen a few examples), the number of people employed in each is quite small.
In the future, one would like to see more non-farm production activities in the
village. Unlike farming, non-farm activities require little land. People with some
amount of capital can set up non-farm activities. How does one obtain this capital?
One can either use his own savings, but more often has to take a loan. It is
important that loan be available at low rate of interest so that even people without
savings can start some non-farm activity. Another thing which is essential for
expansion of non-farm activities is to have markets where the goods and services
produced can be sold. In Palampur, we saw the neighbouring villages, towns and
cities provide the markets for milk, jaggery, wheat, etc. As more villages get
connected to towns and cities through good roads, transport and telephone, it is
possible that the opportunities for non-farm activities in the village would increase
in the coming years.
26 hectares
d. FACILITIES:
Educational
Medical
Market
Electricity Supply
Communication
Nearest Town
14 Economics
13. What are the non-farm production activities taking place in your region? Make
a short list.
14. What can be done so that more non-farm production activities can be started
in villages?
References
ETIENNE, GILBERT. 1985. Rural Development in Asia: Meetings with Peasants, Sage
Publications, New Delhi.
ETIENNE, G ILBERT. 1988. Food and Poverty: India’s Half Won Battle, Sage Publications,
New Delhi.
RAJ, K.N. 1991. ‘Village India and its Political Economy’ in C.T. Kurien (Edited)
Economy, Society and Development, Sage Publications, New Delhi
THORNER, DANIEL AND A LICE THORNER. 1962. Land and Labour in India, Asia Publishing
House, Bombay.