Emily Summers

AS OCR Biology Revision Pack

UNIT f211 Cells, exchange, transport

Module 1 Cells

Cell Structure
1. State the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, a transmission electron microscope
and a scanning electron microscope.

Light Microscope TEM SEM

Maximum 0.2 micrometres 0.0001 micrometres 0.005 micrometres
Resolution
Maximum X 1500 Over x 1,000,000 Under x 1, 000, 000
Magnification

2. Explain the difference between magnification and resolution

Magnification  How much bigger the image is than the specimen.

Magnification = Length of Image / Length of specimen

Resolution  How well a microscope distinguishes between two points that are close
together.

3. Explain the need for staining samples for use in light and electron microscopy

In Light microscopes and TEM’s the beam of lights/electrons pass through the object,
and there is an image produced as some parts of the specimen absorb more
light/electrons than others, but sometimes the specimen is transparent so it will look
white because light/electrons pass through so the object is stained

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Dye- usually methylene blue/eosin Specimen dipped in metal like lead, the
metal ions scatter electrons to contrast.

4. Calculate the linear magnification of an image

Magnification = Length of Image / Length of specimen

5. Outline the functions of the structures.

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Picture Description Function

Large and contains Nucleus contains the

chromatin. Enclosed by a cell’s genetic material.
nuclear envelope  Chromatin contains DNA
double membrane. and proteins which
Nuclear pores go through regulate cell activities.
the envelope. Nucleolus Instructions for making
inside. proteins.

Flattened membranous RER transports proteins

sacs called cisternae, and SER is involved in
rough is studded with lipid synthesis.
ribosomes, smooth is not.

Stack of flat, membrane Golgi body receives

bound stacks. [Pitta proteins from ER and
bread!] modifies them.
Packages proteins into
vesicles to transport
them  exocytosis
Sausage shaped. Double
membrane separated by Site of aerobic
fluid filled space. Inner respiration, ATP is
membrane is folded to produced.
form cristae and the
middle part of the
mitochondria is called the
matrix.

In plant cells. Double Site of photosynthesis,

membrane. Membranous carbohydrate molecules
sacs called thylakoids, made.
plural=granum.
Plural=grana.

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Enzymes break down

Spherical sacs cells. E.g. white blood
surrounded by a single cell lyosomes break
membrane, with no clear down invading
internal structure. microorganisms and
Contains enzymes. lyosome in the sperm’s
head breaks down the
material surrounding the
egg.

TINY. Site of protein synthesis,

Bound to ER to make they are like an
RER and also in assembly line where
cytoplasm. Consist of two mRNA from the nucleus
subunits. is used to make proteins
 from amino acids.
Eukaryotic- 80S
Prokaryotic- 70S

Small tubes of Involved in cell division

microtubules. A pair can to make spindles which
be found next to the move chromosomes in
nucleus in animal cells. nuclear division.
Also in some protocytists.

Membrane bound sac Keep the plant

found in plants filled with supported, rigid and
cell sap. turgid. Also like a
garbage disposal for
plants.

Support, movement.
Network of protein fibres E.g. Chromosome
movement in mitosis.

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Thick layer, in plants. Gives the cell strength

Made of cellulose in and rigidity
eukaryotic cells and
murein in prokaryotic
cells.
It separates the cell
Thin, flexible layer around contents from external
all eukaryotic cells. Made environment and even
of phospholipids and controls movement of
proteins. substances in and out of
the membrane with
receptor cells.

Enclosed jelly like In eukaryotic cells it

substance within the cell
membrane.
contains organelles, in
prokaryotic cells it
contains enzymes
needed for metabolic
reactions.

Circular and loose. Genetic instructions

Unprotected, unlike in
eukaryotic cells.

Plasmid
Small circle of DNA Exchange DNA easily
and quickly between
eukaryotic cells. Used in
genetic engineering.

A thick polysaccharide Useful for sticking cells

layer outside of the cell together, and as a food
wall reserve. Protects
against phagocytosis
and chemicals.

Rigid tail that rotates. Propels the cell

“The motor is embedded
in the cell membrane and
is driven by a H+ gradient
across the membrane.
Clockwise rotation drives
the cell forwards, while

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anticlockwise rotation
causes a chaotic spin.
This is the only known
example of a rotating
motor in nature”

A tightly-folded area of Contains membrane

the cell membrane bound proteins needed
for respiration

6. Explain the importance of the cytoskeleton in providing mechanical strength to cells, aiding transport within cells and
enabling cell movement.
 Keep cells organelles in position with support
 Strengthen the cell to maintain it’s shape
 Transport material within the cell
 Help the cell to move, e.g. cilia and flagella by protein filaments.

7. Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, the structure of prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells are smaller (0.2-2.0  m)
Don’t have a nucleus, DNA floats free in
cytoplasm and is circular
Less organelles and no membranous ones
70S Ribosomes
Eukaryotic cells are bigger 10-100  m
DNA is protected in nucleus and is linear
Many organelles, plant & animal
80S Ribosomes

8. Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, the structure and ultrastructure of plant cells
and animal cells.

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Cell Membranes

9. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

10. Describe
the roles of the components of the cell membrane; phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins
Phospholipid molecules form a bilayer that is fluid as they always move, with hydrophilic
heads and hydrophobic tails the protein molecules are scattered and can move. Some of
these proteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them, and these are called
glycoproteins. Some lipids have a carbohydrate chain attached to them which are called
glycolipids. Cholesterol is present in the membrane to provide mechanical stability.

11. Outline the effect of changing temperature on membrane structure and permeability

Below 0 degrees the phospholipids have

little kinetic energy so can’t move a lot,
the membrane’s rigid and phospholipids
are closely packed. Channel proteins and
carrier proteins in the membrane
denature to increase permeability of the
membrane and ice crystals can form to
pierce the membrane and make it highly
permeable when it eventually thaws.

0-45 degrees phospholipids can move and

aren’t packed tightly- partial permeability.
P’lipids move more as they have more
kinetic energy + membrane
permeability.

+ 45 degrees the bilayer melts and

membrane is more permeable. Water in
6 cell expands and puts pressure on
membrane, channel proteins and carrier
proteins denature and increases
membrane permeability.
Emily Summers

12. Explain the term cell signalling.

Cell Signalling  How cells communicate with each other,

 One cell releases a messenger molecule (e.g. a hormone)

 The molecule travels to another cell (E.g. in blood)
 The messenger molecule is detected by the cell as it binds to a receptor on It’s
cell membrane

13. Explain the role of membrane-bound receptors as sites where hormones and drugs can bind.

Membrane bound proteins can act as receptors for messenger molecules

Receptor proteins have specific shapes so messenger molecule shapes are

complementary on binding.

Different cells have different receptor types and respond to different messenger
molecules

A cell that responds to a messenger molecule is a target cell

Drugs either trigger a response in the cell or block the receptor to stop it working
14. Explain what is meant by passive transport (diffusion and facilitated diffusion including the role of membrane proteins), active
transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

Diffusion the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of

lower concentration

Facilitated diffusion uses carrier and channel proteins

Active transport Moves substances against a concentration gradient using ATP

Endocytosis Cells take substances in, with part of a cells cell membrane surrounding
it, the membrane pinches off to make a vesicle inside the cell containing the substance.

Exocytosis Cells secrete substances. Vesicles with these substances pinch off from
golgi body sacs and move towards the cell membrane. The vesicles fuse with the cell
membrane and release their contents outside of the cell.
15. Explain what is meant by osmosis, in terms of water potential.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable

membrane from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower
water potential

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16. Recognise and explain the effects that solutions of different water potentials can have upon plant and animal cells.

Hypertonic- Solution with lower water

potential than cell, net movement of
water molecules is out so the cell will
shrink/cerenate.

Hypotonic- Solution with higher water

potential than cell. Net movement of
water is into the cell so it will
burst/haemolyse.

Isotonic- Same. No net movement,

water in and out is equal.

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Cell Division, Diversity and Cellular Organisation

Explain the meaning of the term homologous pair of chromosomes

Humans have 46 chromosomes in total 23 pairs. One chromosome in each pair comes
from the mother, and then the other comes from the father. Same size, same genes
although they can have different versions of the genes (alleles).

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1. A bud forms at the cell

surface
2. The cell undergoes interphase
3. The cell undergoes mitosis
4. Nuclear division is complete
budding cell’s nucleus has an
identical copy of parent cell
dna
5. The bud separates off from
the parent cell with a
genetically identical yeast cell

Meiosis:

1. Gametes are found in all

sexually reproducing
organisms
2. Male & Female join at
fertilisation forming a zygote
dividing into a new organism
3. (Sperm and Egg)
4. (Pollen grains and ovules)
5. Normal body cells of plants
and animals have diploid (2n)
number of chromosomes,
each cell contains two of each
chromosome from each
parent
6. Gametes have the haploid
number of chromosomes (n)
there’s one copy of each
chromosome
7. At fertilisation the haploid
male gamete and female fuse
to make a cell with the diploid
number of chromosomes, half
from sperm half from egg.

Produces cells genetically different-

genetic variation, it creates variation.

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Define the term stem cell

Stem cells are cells that are not specialized and can differentiate into specialized cells
with mitosis and the correct stimulation.
Define the term differentiation, with reference to the production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) and neutrophils derived from stem
cells in bone marrow, and the production of xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes from cambium.

Bones are living organs containing nerves and blood vessels, and the main bones have
marrow in the middle, adult stem cells divide and differentiate to replace worn out
erythrocytes and neutrophils to fight infection.

In plant cells stem cells

are in the cambium. In the
root and stem the stem
cells of the vascular
cambium divide to
differentiate into the xylem
and phloem, the vascular
cambium then forms a ring
inside the root and shoots.
These cells divide and
grow from the ring
differentiating and moving away from the cambium.
Describe and explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how cells of multicellular organisms are specialised for particular
functions, with reference to erythrocytes (red blood cells), neutrophils, epithelial cells, sperm cells, palisade cells, root hair cells and
guard cells.

Neutrophills protect the body against illness, they are flexible so they can engulf
pathogens and they have lots of lysosomes with digestive enzymes that can break
down the pathogens.

Erythrocytes carry oxygen in the blood and they have a

biconcave disc shape to give a large surface area to
volume ratio for gaseous exchange, they don’t have a
nucleus so they have more room for haemoglobin.

Epithelial cells cover organ surfaces and cilia can beat to

move particles, and other like microvilli can fold in the cell
membrane to increase surface area to volume ratio

Sperm cells have a flagellum that enables them to swim

to the egg and they have lots of mitochondria to provide
energy to swim, the acrosome contains digestive
enzymes so the sperm can penetrate the egg surface.

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Explain the meaning of the terms tissue, organ and organ system.

A tissue is a group of similar cells that are specialized to work together to carry out a
particular function.

E.g. Ciliated epithelium, xylem tissue, squamous epithelium tissue, phloem tissue

Organs are groups of different tissues that work together to form a function.

E.g. Lungs squamous epithelium, ciliated epithelium, elastic connective tissue and
vascular tissue.

Organ systems are different organs working together for a different function, e.g. the
respiratory system is made of all of the organs, tissues and cells involved in breathing
like the lungs, trachea, larynx, nose, the diaphragm and mouth.
Discuss the importance of cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.

Mulitcellular organisms work efficiently as they have different cells that are specialized
for various functions

It is beneficial because every different cell can carry out a specialized function in a more
efficient way than unspecialized cells could.

Each cell depends on the other cells for the functions it cannot carry out

So cells, tissues and organs in multicellular organisms cooperate to keep the organism
alive and working well.

E.g. Muscle cells can move well but to do so they need oxygen, so they need
erythrocytes to carry oxygen to them from lungs.

Module 2 Exchange and Transport

Exchange Surfaces & Breathing

Explain, in terms of surface area:volume ratio, why multicellular organisms need specialised exchange surfaces and single-celled
organisms do not.

Smaller organisms have a higher surface area to volume ratio, so single celled
organisms can diffuse substances directly in or out of the cell across the cell surface
membrane.

However, diffusion in multicellular organisms is too slow because:

 Some cells are deep in the body, so large diffusion distance from external
environment

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 Large animals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio so it is difficult to

exchange enough substances to supply a large volume of animal through a small
outer surface
 A lot of multicellular organisms are active so many cells are respiring and so they
need a constant rapid supply glucose and oxygen.

Describe the features of an efficient exchange surface, with reference to diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across an
alveolus.

 a large surface area

 a thin permeable surface
 a moist exchange surface

Describe the features of the mammalian lung that adapt it to efficient gaseous exchange.

On inhalation the air enters the trachea

The trachea divides into two bronchi, and one bronchus goes to each lung

The bronchus divides into bronchioles, which end in small air sacs called alveoli where
gaseous exchange occurs.

The ribcage, intercostals muscles and diaphragm work together to move air in/out

Describe the distribution of cartilage, ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, smooth muscle and elastic fibres in the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and alveoli of the mammalian gaseous exchange system

Goblet cells secrete mucus which traps pathogens and dust in the inhaled air, the cilia
on the surface of cells beat rhythmically to waft mucus at the back of the throat where
it’s swallowed and the stomach’s acidity kills any pathogens.

Elastic fibres in the walls of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli aid ventilation.
They stretch and recoil to push air out when exhaling.

Smooth muscle is in the walls of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and it can relax to
dilate the lumen, to allow air in/out easily.

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Rings of cartilage are in the trachea walls and bronchi to give support and flexibility to
stop them collapsing on inhalation and pressure dropping.

Part of lung Cartillage Smooth Elastic Goblet Cells Epithelium

Muscle Fibres
Trachea Large-C Yes Yes Yes Ciliated
shape
Bronchi Small pieces Yes Yes Yes Ciliated
Larger None Yes Yes Yes Ciliated
Bronchiole
Small None Yes Yes No Ciliated
Bronchiole
Smallest None No Yes No No cilia
Bronchiole
Alveoli None No Yes No No cilia

Outline the mechanism of breathing (inspiration and expiration) in mammals, with reference to the function of the rib cage,
intercostal muscles and diaphragm

Inspiration Expiration
Intercostal and Intercostal and
diaphragm muscles diaphragm muscles relax
contract
Ribcage moves upwards Ribcage moves
and outwards and downwards inwards and
diaphragm flatten diaphragm curved again
increasing volume of
thorax
As the volume of the The thorax volume
thorax increases lung decreases causing air
pressure decreases pressure to increase
below atmospheric above atmospheric
pressure pressure
Air flow into the lungs Air forced out of lungs
Active process needing Passive process not
energy (ATP) requiring energy.
Explain the meanings of the terms tidal volume and vital capacity.
Tidal Volume Volume of air inhaled/exhaled in a normal breath- normally 0.4
dm3

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Vital Capacity The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled/exhaled

Describe how a spirometer can be used to measure vital capacity, tidal volume, breathing rate and oxygen uptake
1. A spirometer has an oxygen filled chamber with a lid that can move
2. The person will breathe through a tube connected to O 2 chamber
3. On inspiration/expiration the lid of the chamber moves up/down
4. The movements are recorded by a pen attached to the lid of the chamber,
and writes on a rotating drum to create a spirometer trace
5. The soda lime in the tube the person breathes into absorbs CO 2
Analyse and interpret data from a spirometer.

Transport in animals
Explain the meaning of the terms single circulatory system and double circulatory system, with reference to the circulatory systems
of fish and mammals.

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In a single circulatory system blood passes through the heart once, whereas in a double
circulatory system the blood goes through the heart twice for each complete circuit of
the body.
Explain the meaning of the terms open circulatory system and closed circulatory system, with reference to the circulatory systems of
insects and fish.

Mammals and fish have closed circulatory system, which means the blood is inside
blood vessels. The heart pumps blood into arteries which branch into capillaries, and
substances like oxygen and glucose diffuse from blood in capillaries to body cells but
blood will stay in the blood vessels, veins take blood back to the heart.

Whereas insects have open circulatory systems meaning that blood isn’t contained in
blood vessels, it flows free through the body cavity.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the external and internal structure of the mammalian heart.

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The left ventricle of the heart is

thicker than the right ventricle as the
right ventricle only pumps to the
nearby lungs, but the left ventricle
pumps to the whole body so must
contract with power.

The ventricular walls are thicker than

atrial walls because the atria only
pump to the nearby ventricles, but
the ventricles push blood out of the
heart.

The AV valves link the atria to the

ventricles to prevent backflow of
blood into the atria as the ventricles
contract.

The SL valves link ventricles to the

pulmonary artery and aorta to stop
backflow of blood to heart after
ventricular contraction.

The cords/tendons attach AV valves to

Describe the cardiac cycle, with reference to the action of the valves in the heart ventricles so they aren’t forced up
into the atria after ventricular
contraction.

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 SAN is a pacemaker and sends out a wave of excitation that spreads over atrial
walls
 Ventricles are electrically insulated by a collagen tissue band, the right and left
atria contract
 The wave of excitation spreads to the AVN from the SAN
 After a small delay of 0.1s so the atria have emptied the AVN passes the wave to
the bundle of His
 The Bundle of His passes the wave to the Purkyne fibres
 The Purkyne fibres carry the wave of excitation to the apex of the ventricle walls
causing them to contract simultaneously from the bottom up.

Describe the cardiac cycle, with reference to the action of the valves in the heart

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Interpret and explain electrocardiogram (ECG) traces, with reference to normal and abnormal heart activity.

P= Contraction/Depolarisation of
atria

QRS= Depolarisation of
ventricles

T= Repolarisation/Relaxation of
19 ventricles
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Too fast heartbeats (i.e. 120 beats a minute) are fine during exercise, at rest however it
shows that the heart doesn’t pump blood efficiently.

With the atria contracting but the ventricles not, e.g. some P’s not followed by a QRS
this could indicate a problem with the AVN, i.e. no impulse from the atria to ventricles.

Fibrillation is when the atria lose their rhythm and don’t contract properly, resulting in
chest pain, fainting or even death.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structures and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries need thick and muscular

walls that are elastic so they can
withstand the high pressure of the
blood inside them, carrying blood
from the heart to the rest of the
body. The endothelium is folded so
the artery can expand, allowing it to
cope with high pressures. They have
narrow lumens to keep blood at high
pressure.

Veins take blood back to the heart at

low pressure so have a wide lumen
with low amounts of elastic or
muscle tissue, they have valves to
prevent backflow of blood. Blood
flow is helped by the muscular pump
system (Muscles contracting
squeezes blood back to the heart) to
aid venous return.

Capillary walls are one cell thick to

shorten diffusion pathway. They are
near cells in exchange tissues like
the alveoli in the lungs for a short
diffusion pathway for gaseous
exchange (i.e. O2 and CO2) there are
lots of capillaries to increase surface
area to volume ratio for exchange,
networks are called capillary beds.

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Explain the differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph.

Blood Tissue Fluid Lymph Explanation

Erythrocytes Yes No No Erythrocytes are
too large and
cannot get through
capillary walls to
tissue fluid
Leukocytes Yes Few Yes Most white blood
cells are in
lymphatic system
& only go to tissue
fluid on infection
Platelets Yes No No In tissue fluid if
capillaries are
damaged
Proteins Yes Few Antibodies Too big to go
through capillary
walls
Water Yes Yes Yes Tissue Fluid and
Lymph have a
higher water
potential than
blood
Dissolved Yes Yes Yes Solutes like salt
Solutes can move freely

Describe how tissue fluid is formed from plasma.

Tissue fluid surrounds the cells and is made from substances that leave the blood, like
oxygen, water, etc. At the start of the capillary bed the pressure inside the capillaries
near the arteries is more than the pressure in tissue fluid, this difference forces fluid out
of the capillaries and into spaces surrounding cells to form tissue fluid.

When the fluid leaves the pressure is less in the capillaries, so the pressure is lower at
the end of the capillary bed nearest veins.

Because of the fluid loss the water potential at the end of the capillaries nearer the veins
is lower than the water potential in the tissue fluid, so some water will re enter the
capillaries from the tissue fluid near the veins by osmosis down a water potential
gradient.

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Describe the role of haemoglobin in carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Hb + 4O2 HbO8

Erythrocytes contain Hb, a large protein with a quaternary structure (Because it has 4
polypeptide chains)

CONFIRMATIONAL CHANGE

Each chain has a haem group containing iron, and is why Hb is red.

Hb has a high affinity for oxygen and each molecule can carry 4 O 2 molecules

It is reversible, and oxygen can dissociate from Hb near the body cells to leave Hb.

The pO2 is a measure of O2 concentration, the greater the concentration the higher the
partial pressure. So pCO2 is the measure of CO2 concentration in a cell.

Haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen varies depending on the partial pressure of oxygen,
i.e. Oxygen loads onto haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin when there is a high
partial pressure, and unloads at lower partial pressures.

Oxygen enters blood capillaries at the alveoli, alveoli have a high partial pressure so
oxygen will combine with Hb to form oxyhaemoglobin.

Respiring cells use oxygen and have a lower partial pressure so erythrocytes take
oxyhaemoglobin to respiring tissues and the oxygen dissociates.

Then the haemoglobin goes back to the lungs to “pick up” more oxygen

A lot of CO2 diffuses into erythrocytes to form

carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase.

10% combines with haemoglobin and is

carried to the lungs.

The carbonic acid splits to produce H+ ions

and Hydrogencarbonate ions.

The increase in H+ ions causes

oxyhaemoglobin to unload oxygen so it can
take up H+ ions to stop the cell acidity
increasing (BUFFER) to form haemoglobinic
acid.
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The Hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse out of the erythrocytes and are transported in
blood plasma. When the blood reaches lungs to low pCO 2 causes Hydrogencarbonate
and H+ ions to recombine into CO2 which then diffuses into the alveoli and is exhaled.
Explain the significance of the different affinities of fetal haemoglobin and adult haemoglobin for oxygen.

100% saturation means that

every Hb molecule is carrying
four oxygen molecules, 0%
means no Hb molecules are
carrying any.

The fetus gets oxygen from it’s mother’s blood across the placenta

By the time the mother’s blood reaches the placenta it’s oxygen saturation has
decreased as some has been used by the mother’s body.

For the fetus to get enough oxygen to survive it’s haemogobin must have a higher
affinity for oxygen than adults.

Transport in plants
Explain the need for transport systems in multicellular plants in terms of size and surface area to volume ratio.

Plants need water, CO2 minerals like nitrates and potassium, and sugars to live and
they need to get rid of waste substances. They are multicellular and have a small
surface area to volume ratio so need transport systems to move substances to and from
cells quickly as diffusion alone is too slow.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the distribution of xylem and phloem tissue in roots, stems and leaves of
dicotyledonous plants.

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Leaf Cross Section

Root Cross Section

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structure and function of xylem vessels, sieve tube elements and
companion cells.

Xylem vessels are long tube

structures formed from vessel
elements joined end to end. There
aren’t end walls so they are not
interrupted tubes, and allow water
to pass through the middle with
ease. The cells are dead and don’t
have cytoplasm, the walls are
thickened with lignin- a woody
substance that supports xylem
vessels and stops them collapsing,
the lignin quantity increases with
Phloem tissue transports solutes age.
like Water andaround
sucrose ions (K+ etc.) move
plants, it is only a transport tissue.
in/out of vessels through pits in
walls without lignin.
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Sieve tube elements are living cells that form the tube for transportation of solutes
around the plant, they are joined end-end to make sieve tubes. The sieves are end
walls with holes in them for solutes to pass through, although they have no nucleus, a
thin layer of cytoplasm and few organelles. The cytoplasm of nearby cells is joined
through holes in sieve plates.

Companion cells are there for each sieve tube element to carry out metabolic processes
for the sieve tube elements that cannot survive on their own as they have no nucleus,
etc., and itself- e.g. they provide energy for active transport of solutes

Define the term transpiration.

The loss of water from the plant’s surface

Explain why transpiration is a consequence of gaseous exchange.

A plant must open it’s stomata for absorption of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis,
which as a consequence allows water to escape because there is a higher water
potential inside the leaf than outside. So water moves out of the leaf by osmosis down
the water potential gradient.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how a potometer is used to estimate transpiration rates.

Really it measures the water uptake

by the plant, but we assume that
water uptake is directly related to
water loss by leaves.

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1. Cut a shoot under water to stop air from going into the xylem at a slant to
increase surface area to volume ratio for water uptake
2. Check that the apparatus has no air bubbles and is full with water
3. Put the shoot into the apparatus underwater to prevent air entering
4. Remove the photometer from the water and make it air and water tight
5. Dry the leaves, let the shoot acclimatize and shut the tap
6. Keep conditions constant throughout the experiment
7. Record the starting position of the air bubble
8. Start a stopwatch and record the distance moved by the bubble per unit time
Explain, in terms of water potential, the movement of water between plant cells, and between plant cells and their environment.

Light Lighter= faster rate of transpiration as the

stomata open for photosynthesis
Temperature Higher= faster rate as water molecules have
higher kinetic energy so they evaporate from
cells quicker, increasing the water potential
gradient between inside and outside of leaf
making water diffuse out quicker.
Humidity Lower= faster, if the air around the plant is dry
the water potential gradient between the leaf
and air is steeper
Wind Higher= faster, air movement blows the water
molecules from the stomata, steepening the
water potential gradient

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how the leaves of some xerophytes are adapted to reduce water loss by
transpiration.

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Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the pathway by which water is transported from the root cortex to the air surrounding the leaves,
with reference to the Casparian strip, apoplast pathway, symplast pathway, xylem and the stomata.

Water travels through the roots via the root cortex into the xylem by two ways

The Symplast Pathway The Apoplast Pathway

Goes through living parts of the cells, the Goes through non living parts of the cells, the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm of nearby cells cell walls, the walls are absorbent and water
connect through plasmodestmata, which are can diffuse by osmosis through them and pass
small spaces in cell walls. through spaces between them.

When water is in the Apoplast pathway it goes to the endodermis cells in the root, but the path
is blocked by the Casparian strip- which is just a waxy strip. The water then must take the
Symplast pathway.

This is not a hindrance because the water than has to go through the cell membrane which
controls substances entering/leaving.

If the water goes past the barrier it moves into the Xylem.

The main pathway used is the Apoplast pathway as it provides the least resistance.
Explain the mechanism by which water is transported from the root cortex to the air surrounding the leaves, with reference to
adhesion, cohesion and the transpiration stream.

Cohesion and tension move water up from roots to the leaves against gravity, water
evaporates from the leaves at the top of the xylem via transpiration

This creates suction/tension which pulls more water into the leaf

Water molecules are cohesive, meaning they stick together, so if one is pulled into the
leaf so are more. The whole column of water in the xylem moves upwards, and it enters
the stem through the roots.

Adhesion is the water molecules being attracted to the walls of the xylem vessels,
helping water rise up.

Explain translocation as an energy-requiring process transporting assimilates, especially sucrose,

between sources (e.g. leaves) and sinks (e.g. roots, meristem).

Translocation is the movement of dissolved substances like sucrose

and amino acids when they are needed in a plant- called assimilates.
This requires energy and happens in the phloem.

Translocation moves substances from sources (where it is produced-

higher concentration) to sinks (where it is used- lower concentration)

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Emily Summers

E.g. The source for sucrose is the leaves and the sinks are mainly food storage organs and the
meristems (growth areas) in the roots, stems and leaves.

Enzymes maintain the concentration from the source to the sink by changing the dissolved
substances at the sink, like by breaking them down or changing them into something else, to
make sure there is a lower concentration at the sink than the source to keep a steep
concentration gradient.
Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism of transport in phloem involving active loading at the source and removal at the
sink, and the evidence for and against this mechanism.

 At the source active transport is said to actively load the dissolved solutes into sieve
tubes of the phloem.
 Lowering the water potential inside sieve tubes and water enters them via osmosis.
 Creating a high pressure inside the sieve tubes at the source end of the phloem.

 At the sink the solutes are removed from the phloem to be used
 Increasing water potential inside the sieve tubes so water leaves by osmosis
 Lowering pressure inside the sieve tubes

 Creating a pressure gradient from the source to the sink

 This gradient is responsible for pushing solutes along the sieve tubes to where they are
required in the plant.

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Emily Summers

For Against
Removing a ring of bark from a tree taking Sugar travels to many sinks not one with
the phloem not the xylem from a woody the highest water potential, as the model
stem a bulge will form above the ring. On indicates
analysis of the fluid in the bulge, there will
be a higher sugar concentration above the
ring than below- so there must be a
downward sugar flow.
Aphids pierce the phloem with their Sieve plates would make a barrier to mass
mouthparts and sap flows into them, the flow, a lot of pressure would be needed for
sap flows out quicker nearer the leaves solutes to pass at a reasonably quick rate
than further down the stem, so there must
be a pressure gradient.
A metabolic inhibitor stopping ATP
production in the phloem stops
translocation, proving it is active transport.
There are experimental mass flow models

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