Waves

• Longitudinal Waves are compression waves, where the particles of the

medium oscillate along the axis of energy transfer

• Mechanical waves are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate
in order to transmit energy. Mechanical waves require a medium in which
to move

• Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium in which to move

• Transverse waves – particles of the medium vibrate at right angles to

direction of wave motion: water waves, visible light, radio, vibrating
strings, earthquake waves

• Velocity (m/s) = Frequency(Hz) x Wavelength(m)

• Period (T) = 1 / Frequency (Reciprocal)

• Wavelength – Distance between two crests or two troughs

• Amplitude - Maximum distance from equilibrium

• Frequency – Number of waves passing a fixed point in 1 second

• Velocity (speed) – Distance moved by a crest in 1 second

• Period – time for one complete wave to pass a fixed point

Newton’s Laws of Motion

• First Law: A body remains at rest or at constant velocity unless acted upon
by an unbalanced external force

• Second Law: The acceleration of a body depends directly on the size of the
unbalanced force and inversely on the mass of the body

• Force = Mass x Acceleration (F=MA)

• Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

• Net (Unbalanced) forces cause motion

 • Balanced forces may not always imply that the object is stationary, may
also be at constant velocity

• Speed = Distance / Time

• Instantaneous speed is speed at a particular point in time

• Velocity has direction (3m/s North)

Electrical Energy

• Current – measured by ammeters, measured in Amperes

• Voltage – measured by voltmeters, measure in Volts

• Resistance – measured in Ohms

• V=IR

• In series circuits, RT = R1+R2, current is constant

• In parallel circuits, VT=V1=V2 and IT = I1+I2 and RT = R1R2 / R1 +R2

Electrical analogies: for example water system – Voltage = Pump,
Resistance = Width of Pipes , Switch = Tap, Current = Water flow

Light Energy

• Absorption – When light hits the surface of an object and most of it is

absorbed, but a little is reflected allowing us to see the object. Opaque
objects such as brick walls and wood

• Reflection – smooth surfaces reflect light in one direction, this is called

regular reflection – angle of incidence = angle of reflection

• Scattering – Indicates that the object is irregular or rough (diffuse

reflection)

• Refraction – The changing of speed (bending) of light rays as they pass

from one medium to another, light bends towards normal to denser
materials and vice versa
 • Refractive Index = sin i / sin r

• Every day situations: pool of water appearing shallower than it really is

and the apparent altitude of sun is higher in the sky than it really is.

Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy is energy that binds nuclear particles (Protons and
neutrons)

• Alpha particle – radiation consisting of a positive particle composed of two

protons and two neutrons (can only travel through a few cm of air,
absorbed by paper and thin foil)

• Beta particle – radiation consisting of a fast electron (can travel through a

few metres of air, requires 3mm of aluminium sheeting to absorb)

• Gamma rays – high energy electromagnetic rays (highly penetrating,

requires 1 m of concrete or lead shields)

• Fission – splitting of large nuclei of lightweight elements to form a heavier

element with the release of energy

Nuclear Fission

• Nuclear fission splits nucleus into fragments using nuclear forces

• Eg firing neutrons at nucleus of U-235 atom

• Nuclear power stations have controlled nuclear fission, used to generate

electricity

• One kg of uranium can release energy produced by 2300 tonnes of coal

Nuclear Fusion

• Nuclear fusion involves fusing together of nuclei of lightweight atoms eg

hydrogen

• In stars hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium – releasing a lot of

energy

• Nuclear fusion requires high temperature and pressure – scientists yet to

develop

• However, hydrogen bombs have been developed – they release more

energy than uranium fission bombs
Advantages of Nuclear Energy

• Large amounts of energy can be generated from small amounts of nuclear

fuel. Useful for submarines and ships and also for countries that do not
have coal and oil reserves

• No green house gas emissions and pollution released into atmosphere

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

• Highly radioactive waste products must be stored safely in secure storage

for thousands of years

• Nuclear power plants present radiation problem after use, need methods
of safe storage for dismantled power plants

• Transportation of nuclear fuel can lead to accidents – leading to the

escape of radioactive material into the environment

Gravitational Force
• Field force

• Gravitational acceleration – the acceleration experienced by a mass in a

gravitational field

• Mass – the amount of matter in a body (kg)

• Weight – The force of gravity acting on a mass (newtons N)

• All bodies have gravity fields

• The more massive a body is, the greater and stronger the gravity field

• W = MG (weight = mass x gravitational acceleration) – F = MA

• Earth gravity = 9.8

• Gravity decreases with altitude – increases with deep into the Earth

Simple Machines

• A machine is a device that makes a physical task easier.

• A lever uses the turning effect (torque) of a force to make a task easier

o Principles of Force
Fulcrum is the turning point of the lever
Load is the resistance to motion
Effort is the force used to cause motion

o First Class Levers – Force Multipliers

Examples: Can-opener, seesaw, hammer and nail

o Second Class Levers – Force multipliers

Examples: Wheelbarrow, nutcracker

o Third Class Levers – Speed Multipliers

Examples: Broom, Softball bat, golf clubs, Human forearm

o F–L–E=1–2–3
1st class levers have fulcrum in the centre
2nd class levers have load in the centre
3rd class levers have effort in the centre

• Inclined Planes – A surface that is set to an angle to the horizontal

o Ramps – Allows objects to be raised with less effort than to lift them
straight up, however work is not saved because an extra distance
needs to be travelled – Force multiplier
Examples: Ramps in car parks, shopping centres

o Wedges – Used to penetrate or split objects, or to stop them from

moving. Reduce the force needed to cut through objects – Force
multiplier
Examples: Axes, knives and front teeth

o Screws – Curved ramp, force multiplier because total length of

thread of screw is so great.
Examples: corkscrew, car jacks, screw

• Wheel and Axle

o Force multiplying wheel and axles: apply a small effort to the wheel
to move a large load with axle, however more distance is travelled
Examples: Doorknob, taps, car steering wheels

o Speed multiplying wheel and axles: Wheel moves a much greater

distance in the same amount of time
Examples: Ceiling fan, car wheel
 • Pulley – Simple machine that consists of a single wheel and axle – does not
decrease the size of the force of effort, changes direction of the effort
Block and tackle is a multiple pulley system, which makes it possible to lift
many times your own weight, but pulling an extra distance

• Gears –Wheels and axles with teeth

Big gears turn smaller gears faster, vice versa
Driven gear is gear that is moved first
Two gears turn in opposite directions
Bevel gear are gears at right angles to each other, changing vertical
motion to horizontal motion
Idler gears can be used to make them turn in the same direction
Examples of gears: Eggbeater, engine gears

Atomic Theory
• Model developed by John Dalton in 1802

• All matter was composed of small, indivisible particles called atoms

• Atom – smallest unit of an element, composed of protons, neutrons and

electrons

• Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons in nucleus of atom

• Electron – negatively charged sub-atomic particle located outside and

moving around the nucleus

• Electron configuration – arrangement of electrons in their shells

• Isotopes – atoms with same atomic number but different mass numbers
(different number of neutrons)

• Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes

• Mass number (A) – the number of protons plus neutrons

• Neutron number (N)= A – Z

• Nucleus – central positive core of atom

• Proton – positive charged subatomic particle located in nucleus

• Neutron – a neutral subatomic particle found in nucleus

• Shells – electron orbits around nucleus

 • Neutral atoms have equal protons and equal electrons

• Atomic weight consist of mixtures of isotopes – measured in atomic mass

units

• Atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons

Elements

• Group – column of Periodic Table containing family of related elements

• Molecules – two or more atoms joined by bonds

• Period – row of elements of Periodic Table

• Group – column of elements of Periodic Table

• Transition Metals are the block of metals not classified into a group

• Periodic Table – arrangement elements according to increasing atomic

number

• As you go down in a periodic table, reactivity in metals increases while in

non-metals it decreases

• As you go across the periodic table, reactivity decreases

• Metallic character increases as you go down and decreases as you go

across

• Group I are the alkali metals, which react strongly with water to form basic
solutions

• Group II are the alkaline earth metals

• Group VII are the halogens: brightly coloured elements: chlorine is green,
bromine is red-brown and iodine is silvery-purple

• Group VIII are the noble gases that are inert and are very unreactive

Compounds and Reactions

• Compound – Pure substance composed of two or more elements that are
chemically combined

• Compounds are not mixtures – they have unique properties that are
different to their elements

• Ion – charged atom

• Cation – positive ion (positively charged atom) – formed when an atom of

a metal loses one or more valence electrons

• Anion – negative ion (negatively charged atom) – formed when atom of

non-metal gains one or more electrons

• All anions end in “-ide”

• Ionic Bond – Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

• Ionic Compound – Compound composed of positive ions and negative ions

(usually with metals and non-metals

• Covalent bond – chemical bond in which electron pairs are shared

• Covalent Compound – compound in which atoms are joined by covalent

bonds

• Remember: Oxygen Gas is a diatomic molecule : O2

• Non-metal + non-metal  covalent compound

• Common Reactions

o Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen Gas

o Acid + base  Salt + Water (neutralisation)

o Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

• Combustion – reaction of fuel and oxidiser (oxygen) to release energy

Fuel + Oxidiser  Products + Energy

• Corrosion – degradation or wearing away of metal on exposure to

environmental agents such as water and air
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
Iron + Oxygen  Iron oxide
For corrosion to occur there must be BOTH air and water
Galvanising prevents corrosion – for example coating iron with zinc

• Decomposition – breakdown of a substance into more simple substances

AB A+B
 o Thermal decomposition – heating the substance
e.g. copper carbonate + heat  copper oxide + carbon dioxide

o Electrical decomposition – decomposition using electrical current

e.g. water  hydrogen gas + oxygen gas

o Photochemical decomposition – caused by visible or UV light

e.g. silver bromide  silver + bromine

• Synthesis – combining of two or more substances to form one product

(opposite of decomposition)
A + B  AB

• Neutralisation – the destruction of the properties of acids or bases when

they react together
Acid + Base  Salt + Water

• Precipitation – formation of an insoluble solid on mixing solutions of ionic

compounds
Salt 1(aq) + Salt 2 (aq)  Salt 3 (s) + Salt 4 (aq)
Precipitate is ionic compound that has a low solubility in the solvent

• Valency – combining power of element in a compound

• Valency of metal and non-metal is equal to charge on its cation and anion

• In ionic compounds total positive charge of cations must equal total

negative charge of anions

• In covalent compounds, total valencies of each element must be equal

• Indicators – substances that change colour in presence of an acid or base

• Indicators can be used to determine whether a solution is acidic, neutral or

basic

• Indicators can be useful in neutralisation reactions to determine the point

where exact neutralisation occurs – useful in colourless solutions

• Effervescence – gas bubbles in a liquid

• Balancing equations

1. Write correct symbols for each substance

2. Make sure atoms or each element balance on both sides

3. Add integers in front of big formula to form atom balance

4. Check and improve

Cell Theory

• All living things are made up of one or more cells

• Cells are the smallest units of living things

• All cells come from pre-existing cells

• Systems serve the needs of cells

o Cells in multi-cellular organisms specialise in different tasks

o The different cells are organised into structures called tissues – cells
that form a tissue have the same function and similar shapes and
sizes, for example nerve tissue, smooth muscle tissue

o Tissues are then organised into organs

o Organs are grouped into body systems or organ systems

o Body systems serve the needs of the cells that make up a multi-
cellular organism

o The different systems have different arrangements of tissues so

that each cell receives the necessary nutrients to live and carry out
their functions, has its cellular products (energy and wastes)

• Cell Division in Growth, repair and reproduction

o Growth – Living things begin their life as one cell, which then divide
many times to produce all the cells that make up the organism. As
the embryo grows, cells become specialised for different functions.
An organism grows because each new cell produced by the division
of an old cell grows to its maximum size and because cells continue
to divide to make sufficient cells for the adult organism

o Repair – Throughout the life of an organism, cells become damaged

or die. These cells need to be repaired and replaced. Skin cells are
readily replaced and new red blood cells are constantly being
formed.

o Reproduction – Reproduction from cell division is asexual

reproduction called mitosis. All cells produced by mitosis are
genetically identical – same number and types of chromosomes. In
sexually reproducing organisms specialised sex cells are produced
by a special type of cell division called meiosis. After two stages of
 meiosis, four new sex cells with half the normal chromosomal
number are formed.

The Watson - Crick Model of DNA

• DNA: deoxyribose nucleic acid

• Spiralled staircase shape – strands composed of nucleotides (Phospate

group, deoxyribose sugar molecule, nitrogen base)

• Nitrogen bases: cytosine, guanine, thymine, adenine,

• Cytosine bonds with guanine, Thymine bonds with adenine

• CG, AT!!!

• DNA molecules are located in the chromosome

• Sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA constructs protein molecules for

different functions

• DNA Replicating – Nitrogen bases split apart, new nucleotides are linked
together by base pairings, two new double helices form

o Advantages – No possible risk of contracting diseases or cancers

o Disadvantages – No resistance to bacteria

• DNA Mutations – Change in sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA molecule

by deletion or substitution

o Advantages – Developed resistance to disease which is then passed

onto offspring

o Disadvantages – Resistance to antibiotics is bad for organisms as

then it becomes difficult to treat the bacteria.

• Genes are segments of the DNA molecule containing many triplet codes

• Genes are responsible for production of different proteins

• Gene segments are separated by other non-coding segments

• Features of an organism
 o Inherited genes – 23 chromosomes from mother, 23 from father,
features of child will depend on types of alleles inherited – dominant
and recessive alleles

o Environmental effects
Availability of food and water – poor nutrition will affect survival
Infectious diseases – Individuals with high immunity will have a
greater chance of survival
Latitude and sunlight – Individuals with different skin colour and
tone can survive in different environments, e.g. dark skin survive in
equator

The Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection

• Charles Darwin explained how living things had evolved over Earth’s
ancient history

• Evidence for Evolution

o Fossil Record – Fossil records showed that fossils in deeper

sedimentary strata were less complex than the body structure than
fossils in higher strata. Oldest fossil layers contained traces of
simple single-celled organisms. The fossil evidence therefore
supports the view that the earliest life forms were very simple and
that they changed into more complex organisms. It also shows that
more than one new species sometimes develop from pre-existing
species

o Evidence from horse fossils – The modern horse is shown to be

much bigger than their ancestors as they were as small as a dog.
Fossil evidence describing the development of the horse supports
evolution because it shows that organisms change over a long time.

o Evidence from comparative anatomy – Comparative anatomy shows

that bones at the ends of limbs of different vertebrates are based
on a common structure, thus showing evidence of evolution from a
common ancestor

o Evidence from comparative embryology – Shows that genes are

inherited from ancestor in distant past; ancient characteristics have
been passed on as organisms evolved

o Evidence from geographic distribution of living things – Organisms

became geographically isolated via plate tectonics and had to
evolve to produce new species to suit different environments;
 comparisons of ferns from separated continents show that modern
species shared a common ancestor

o Evidence from DNA analysis – Chimpanzees and humans share

identical amino acid sequences in some enzymes. We also both
have about 98% same DNA, showing that humans and chimpanzees
would’ve shared a common ancestor. The great similarities of some
enzymes and DNA of chimpanzees and humans supports evolution,
as they point to a recent common ancestor that gave rise to
humans and chimpanzees

• Theory of Natural Selection

o Natural variation in characteristics

o Organisms struggle to survive – disease keeps population in check

o Organisms with favourable characteristics in a given environment

will survive to produce – these organisms have better chance of
survival

o Population of future characteristics will contain greater proportion of

individuals who have these favourable characteristics

o Preservation of favourable characteristics – change in

characteristics in natural population, and environment effectively
selects certain characteristics for survival. This is called survival of
the fittest

Humans

• Coordination Systems in Humans

o Communication and Control Systems – Nervous system and

endocrine system

o Nervous system is when the brain is connected to the rest of the

body by nerve fibres that transmit and receive information as
electrical signals

o Endocrine system is when various glands produce hormones that

control various bodily processes
• The Nervous System

o Network of nerve tissues that transmit electrical signals

o Nervous tissues that are composed of nerve cells are called

neurones

o Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and spinal cord

o Peripheral nervous system – Consists of nerves that connect the

CNS to the rest of the body

o Structure and types of neurones

Axons are fibres that conduct electrical impulses away from the cell
body (also covered with myelin sheath so that impulses don’t cross
over to other neurones
Dendrites conduct electrical impulses towards the cell body

o Types of Neurones
Sensory Neurones – Carry impulses towards the CNS, sense organs
have sensory receptors that transmit information to spinal cord
Connector Neurones – Part of CNS and are located in spinal cord,
they receive information from sensory neurones, information is
relayed up spinal cord to the brain
Motor Neurones – Carry electrical impulses away from the CNS
towards muscles or glands, which then muscles contract or glands
release hormones

o Structure of the CNS

CNS protected by layers of fluid, membrane and bone, brain is
protected by skull, spinal nerve protected by spine

o Functions of Parts of Brain

Cerebrum – Controls voluntary movements, memory, intelligence,
behaviour, emotions, speech, vision, speech, smell, touch, hearing
Cerebellum – Controls muscles involved in involuntary movement
such as balance
Brain stem – Connects brain to spinal cord, breathing, heart rate,
swallowing, thirst and temperature

o Peripheral nervous system

Information relayed to body from CNS
43 pairs of voluntary nerves
Involuntary nerves control heart, iris, bladder and bowel
Reflex Arc – if sensory neurone is stimulated messages are sent via
connector neurones to motor neurones and an effector muscle or
gland can produce a rapid response to discomfort
• The Endocrine System

o Various glands release hormones directly to bloodstream and bodily

fluids (vascular system

o Vascular system carries hormones to various organs or cells

o Endocrine system important in controlling growth, metabolism and

reproduction

o Functions of endocrine glands:

Endocrine Hormone Function of Hormone

Gland

Pituitary Growth Stimulates Growth and DNA

Hormone synthesis

Pancreas Insulin Stimulates glucose uptake in all

Glucagon cells
Stimulates the liver to break
down glycogen into glucose

Thyroid Thyroxine Stimulates metabolism and heart

rate

Adrenal Adrenalin Stimulates heart rate and blood

pressure

Parathyroid Parathyroid Stimulates calcium ion release in

hormone bones

• Disease

o Disease in a multicellular organism is the result of abnormal cell

function and the breakdown of one or more organs or body systems

o Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens (disease producing

microorganisms): bacteria, viruses, protozoa and some fungi

o Non-infectious diseases can be caused genetically, environmentally

and physiologically
Genetic – Mutations, cell reproduction going wrong, different
chromosomes, eg Down Syndrome and haemophilia
Environmental – Toxic chemicals, high-energy radiation may
damage chromosomes, leading to mutations, e.g. cancer
Physiological – Caused by organs not working
• Responses of body systems to disease

o Barriers to microbe entry

Acidic environments – Acids on skin and acids produced in the
stomach kill many microbes or slow down their production. Urine is
also acidic and kills microbes trying to enter through urethra
Mucus linings – Airways are lined with sticky mucus that traps
microbes inhaled
Hairs – Nose hairs and cilia (microscopic hairs) trap microbes

o Phagocytes – White blood cells that attack foreign substances, pus

is the remains of dead microbes. Fever also helps to destroy
microbes

o Immunity – Specialised white blood cells called lymphocytes are

produced by immune system as a response to infection – naturally
induced active immunity

o Antibodies – Special proteins that bind to pathogens and immobilise

or destroy them

o Immunisation – Introducing a serum or vaccine that stimulates

body’s immune system to produce antibodies

o Vaccination – Artificially induced active immunity

Vaccines contain either: killed microbes, harmless strains of living
pathogens or modified toxins that stimulate the immune system
without destroying it

o Antibiotics – Needed when body cannot resist attack of pathogenic

bacteria
Antibiotics damage the microbe’s cell membrane, interfere with
metabolism of the microbe, prevent DNA replication and prevent
cell wall forming around new microbes

• Reproductive System – Male

Organ (s) Functions

Scrotum External sac holding testes, helps to regulate

temperature

Testes Site of sperm production, glands that produce male

hormones – testosterone

Vas deferens (sperm Tube that carries sperm away from testes
duct)

Glands, prostate, Produces protective and nutritive fluids for sperm;

 seminal vesicles, combination of the two is semen
Cowper’s gland

Urethra Tube that carries semen during mating, also expels

urine from bladder

Penis Deposits semen in the vagina

• Reproductive System – Female

Organ (s) Functions

Ovaries Site of egg production; glands which produce

female hormones such as oestrogen and
progesterone

Fallopian tubes Tubes through which an egg moves following

(oviducts) ovulation, site of egg fertilisation when sperm is
present

Uterus (womb) Muscular organ in which fertilised egg will implant

and grow to produce baby

Vagina Canal in which semen is deposited, canal through

which baby is born

The Big Bang Theory

• Big Bang Theory (Gamov, 1948) – Theory of the origin of the universe; it
states that the universe cam into existence about 13 billion years ago due
to the creation of space-time and the partial conversion of energy into
matter

• Evidence of Big Bang Theory: expanding universe

o Red shift of stars and galaxies – Astronomers analysed and

investigated light from distant stars and galaxies with a
spectroscope. They found that characteristic frequencies of key
lines was shifted towards the red end of the visible spectrum The
observation was made by Edwin Hubble in the late 1920s and
indicated that the stars and galaxies were moving away

o Cosmic background radiation – Two astronomers Penzis and Wilson

detected uniform microwave radiation originating from intergalactic
space. The radiation was equivalent to a background temperature
 of -270oC. In 1989, the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE)
found small amounts of matter scattered in the intergalactic spaces.
Observations were consistent with the theory that the universe was
cooling following the hot “Big Bang” billions of years ago

• Use of electromagnetic radiation to provide information about the universe

o Radio Waves – to observe objects that emit mainly radio waves

rather than visible light and to observe clouds of hydrogen in space

o Infrared Waves – Telescopes and spectrometers are used to detect

objects that are too cool to emit visible light, that measure the
temperature of the atmosphere of solar system planets and to
determine the temperature of the background radiation in deep
space

o Visible Light – Optical and space telescopes and spectrometers are

used to observe and measure various optical sources such as
planets, comets, stars and galaxies, measure the red shift of space
objects to determine the extend of the expansion of the universe
and to measure the colour and temperature of the stars

• Problems in obtaining information about the universe

o Earth’s atmosphere – Atmosphere absorbs various components of

electromagnetic spectrum to different extends. Infrared, UV and X-
Rays are significantly absorbed by atmosphere. Visible light is
scattered and refracted and clear images are hard to obtain.

o Light pollution – Telescopes have to be build in sparsely populated

areas where there is little visible light pollution (such as large cities)

o Radio wave pollution – Mobile phones and other microwave sources

make it more difficult for radio astronomers to detect weak radio
signals from space

o Solar storms – Solar flares release bursts of electromagnetic

radiation that interfere with other electromagnetic sources from
space

o Optical systems in telescopes – Lenses and mirrors produce some

degree of distortion of images. Telescopes are limited by their
resolution,

Components of the Universe

 • Relating features of the universe to the Big Bang Theory

o Matter was irregularly scattered and then gravity began to pull

matter together to form various astronomical structures.

o Star formation continues today, a sign that matter is still expanding

and condensing through gravity

• Life of a star

o Stars are born with vast clouds of hydrogen gas and interstellar
dust. This matter gradually condenses to form a dull red protostar.
As it continues to condense. The matter heats up, until the centre
becomes hot enough to begin nuclear fusion reactions, producing
helium.

o The star (yellow-white) will continue to expand and its surface will
cool. It will form a red giant which is about 100 times bigger. When
the star runs out of nuclear fuel, the core begins to shrink. Material
from the star is ejected to form a bright planetary nebula that drifts
away. The remaining core finally turns into a small white dwarf star.
It will then cool and form a black dwarf.

o Large stars 5-10 times heavier than the sun are blue-white that turn
into a red supergiant. When the star collapses the outer layers of
the star explode, producing a supernova. The remaining core
collapses to form a neutron star or pulsar

o Stars 30 to 50 times the size of the sun form very large supergiants
and after the supernova stage the core contracts to form a black
hole

Plate Tectonics

• Plate Tectonics – study of the forces that cause the movement of the
crustal plates
Proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1915

• Caused by convection currents in the upper mantle (asthenosphere) and

gravitational forces

• Theories of plate tectonics:

 o Structure and rock composition of mountains in eastern North
America can be matched to those of mountains across north-
western Europe, likewise with west Africa and East South America

o Fossils of fern-plant (Glossopteris) and Triassic reptiles found across

southern continents

o Coal found above the Arctic Circle. Shows that Arctic Circle Area had
once drifted from warmer climates

• Collision zones (convergent plate boundary) – plates pushing into each

other, causes mountains e.g. Himalayas. Also cause earthquakes

• Subduction Zones – Ocean plate collides and slides underneath

continental plate at the edge of continent. Causes mountain building,
volcanic activity and results in earthquakes and tsunamis

• Spreading Zones (Divergent Plate Boundary) – Plates move apart and

molten rock rise to surfaces – forms new sea beds, volcanoes, mid-ocean
ridges and rift valleys

• Transform fault zones – Plates sliding past each other, causing

earthquakes

• Continental drift – movement of continents because of plate tectonics

Impacts of Natural Events on Earth

Atmosphere (Gaseous)

• Release of poisonous gases (sulfur dioxide) and volcanic dust from

volcanoes – dust clouds can then block sunlight and cause atmospheric
cooling

• Release of smoke and gases from bushfires

• Cyclones and hurricanes damage environment and surroundings

• Lightning generates nitrogen oxides that produce acid rain

Hydrosphere (Water)

• Lava released from mid-ocean ridges increases concentration of minerals

in sea water

• Acid rain produced from volcanic eruptions can produce acidic waterways
 • Erosion of land during floods can cause minerals and sediments to enter
waterways

• Earthquakes can cause tsunamis

Lithosphere (Rocky material)

• Earthquakes can form new landforms

• Volcanoes create new landforms

• Avalanches create new landforms

• Erosion of rocks by running water

Biosphere (Life forms)

• Volcanoes release poisonous gases

• Earthquakes can kill living things through destruction of habitat or in case

of tsunami drown

• Cyclones can destroy habitats of living things

• Bushfires burn away habitats and wildlife

Fossils

• Fossils are remains or impressions of a living organism from the past

• Conditions

o Little movement

o Lack of oxygen so that they don’t decompose

o Organisms of ocean have remains fall to sea floor and get covered
with sediments

o Sedimentary rock favour fossilisation but igneous and metamorphic

rocks do not favour fossilisation as fossils are destroyed through the
heat and pressure

• Fossil Record
 o Relative dating
Law of superposition states that the oldest fossils are on the bottom
of a strata, allows geologists to establish relative age of strata.
NOTE: simplest fossils are located in the deepest sedimentary
layers

o Absolute Dating of rocks and fossils

Established by techniques such as radiometric dating. Scientists can
measure amounts of certain radioactive elements and use their
half-life to determine the age of the sample e.g. carbon-14 and
potassium-40

o Geological time scale – determined by fossil record e.g. major live

forms during the periods

Earthquakes

• Site of earthquake is called the focus

• Point on Earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the

epicentre

• Seismographs are machines that detect and record earthquake waves,

earthquake magnitude measured with Richter scale.

Ecosystems

• Ecosystem – Community of living things within the environment that

includes abiotic and biotic components

• Abiotic components of an ecosystem are non-living components: energy,

light, water qualities, temperature, rainfall, humidity, air quality, wind
speed and soil attributes

• Biotic components involve interactions with living things: competition for

food, water, living space, shelter, mating, predators, interactions of
organisms

• Feeding Relationships

o Producers: Living things that make their own food through

photosynthesis : plants, algae, phytoplankton
 o Consumers: Living Things that obtain food by consuming other
living things. First order consumers eat producers i.e. herbivores.
Higher order (second and third) consumers eat other animals
(carnivores)

o Scavengers: Eat the remains of dead animals

o Decomposers: Microbial decomposers recycle remains of organisms

not eaten, putting nutrients back into environment

• Cycles in Life:

o Water Cycle – Evaporates into atmosphere, turns into water vapour,

when water vapour cools, water is returned to ground as rain snow
or hail

o Carbon –Oxygen Cycle – All living things contain compounds of

carbon and oxygen. Oxygen is used by animals and plants for
cellular respiration. Plants use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis to
make glucose and then release oxygen into atmosphere. When
living things die, decomposers recycle carbon and oxygen back into
environment. Combustion of fossil fuels also returns carbon to the
atmosphere

o Nitrogen Cycle – Absorbed by roots of plants through nitrates and

ammonium salts in soil. Nitrogen compounds in plants make their
way through food chains. Nutrients are recycled by decomposers.
Nitrogen can also be recycled back into air by denitrifying bacteria
in soil. Lightning causes nitrogen oxides to form in atmosphere.

• Impacts of Human Activities in Ecosystems

o Waste – Sewage pollutes aquatic environment. If sewage waste

contains heavy metals (mercury) or toxic compounds (pesticides
and herbicides) then organisms low on food chains can absorb
these pollutants and pass them on to organisms higher up in the
food chain

o Acid Rain – Acidic gases (sulfur dioxide) from factories and industry
return as acid rain. Acid rain can then leach minerals from soils
making the soils infertile. Acid Rain also damages leaves so that
they cannot photosynthesise. Water ways become acidified so fish
eggs cannot hatch.

o Algal blooms – Using fertilisers can cause rain to wash fertilisers into
waterways, causing algae to grow excessively. When algae die the
decomposition of their bodies uses up the dissolved oxygen in the
water, leading to death of other aquatic organisms
 o Introduced species – Animals can add extra competition to food.
Plants can also overpopulate and take up land or make it unsuitable
for future farming. Introduced species can also bring in disease
which could infect the native population

o Loss of habitat – Removal of trees by logging has caused some

living things to be endangered as they are vulnerable to predators.
Farming and urban development also causes this as land has to be
cleared

o Salination – Salination from soil can kill plants and render the land
useless for farming

• Conservation of Environment

o Maintenance of Habitat – National parks being established to

preserve environments and habitats

o Recycling – Metals can be recycled as it can be cheaper than to

mine for new metals. Recycling of plastics also uses less oil

o Reducing Consumption and Waste – Saving water as Australia is a

drought-affected region, by obeying water restrictions and using
energy efficient machines.

o Restoration – returning places to a state where plants and animals

are able to live again

o Biodegradable waste – Scientists are developing biodegradable

wastes that will not remain and cause damage to the environment.

Energy Resources

• Energy is stored as potential energy and used as kinetic energy

Potential energy:

o Chemical energy – fuels, food, batteries

o Nuclear Energy

o Gravitational potential energy – hydroelectricity

• Factors that make natural resources economically important

o Abundance of resources - Exports of uranium to countries that use

nuclear power

o Natural Landscape – so that wind farms or hydroelectricity can be

produced

• Renewable Energy Sources – Energy sources that will not become

depleted over time and which can be readily replaced

o Wind Energy – Moving air turns windmills and wind turbines

o Wave Energy – Kinetic energy in waves is used to turn turbines

o Solar Energy – Energy of Sun’s electromagnetic waves can be

trapped using photovoltaic cells and transformed into heat or
electrical energy

o Geothermal Energy – Hot rocks inside the Earth can be used to boil
water and generate electricity

o Hydro-electricity – Water from high dams flows through pipes

gaining kinetic energy which then turns turbines

o Biomass – Decaying biomass can produce methane gas which can

be burnt to boil water and turn turbines

o Tidal – Kinetic energy from tides turns reverse turbines

o Ocean Thermal – Liquid ammonia flows through pipes from deep

ocean, up to warm part of ocean and becomes a gas, turns turbine

• Ways to Conserve fossil fuels:

o Reduce wastage and develop new technologies to extract maximum

amount of energy from fuels

o Develop renewable energy

o Produce renewable liquid fuels such as ethanol

• Contributing factors to pollution

o Combustion of fossil fuels – Hydrocarbon fuels are burnt – emits

carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide

o Release of acidic oxides - nitrogen oxides from industry and

vehicles contributes to acid rain
 o Enhanced greenhouse effect – caused by excessive use of fossil
fuels, 25% more carbon dioxide than 200 years ago and twice as
more methane. Stemmed from Industrial Revolution

Technology

• Uses of electromagnetic radiation

Band Name Wavelength Sources of Uses of waves

band waves
(approximate)

Radio / TV 100km – 10mm Radio / TV Radio / TV

transmitters communication, radio
astronomy

Microwave 10mm – 0.1mm Radar Satellite

transmitters communications, cooking
microwave food
ovens

Infrared 0.1mm – Electric Heating rooms, medical

0.001m radiators heat treatments, night
vision systems

Visible Light 400nm – Stars, electric Human vision,

700nm lamps photosynthesis,
photography astronomy

Ultraviolet 400nm – 1 nm UV lamps, UV astronomy,

(UV) stars sterilisation

X-Rays 1nm – 0.001nm X-Ray tubes, Medical radiography

black holes (diagnosis and
treatment), flaws in
structural materials, X-
Ray Astronomy

Gamma 0.01nm – Radioactive Sterilisation, killing

Rays 0.001nm minerals cancer cells

• Applications in Communications Technology

 o Radio – Waves are modulated by combining a carrier wave and an
audio signal. These signals are generated in the AM and FM bands.
The lower the frequency the greater the distance the wave can be
transmitted. AM waves (500-1700 kHz) are amplitude modulated,
meaning that their amplitudes vary with time. FM (85-110 MHz)
waves are frequency modulated, meaning that their quality of
transmission is higher than AM.

o TV communication involves the transmission of both audio and

video signals. Video travels on AM signal while audio travels on FM
signal. TV waves have very high frequency (300-30 MHz) and
ultrahigh frequency (3000-300 MHz).

o Digital Transmission involves telephones, computers and TV where

the wave signal (analogue signal) has to be converted into digital
form. A modem is a device that allows conversion between
analogue and digital signals.

o Satellite communication uses microwaves that can be relayed from

repeater stations at about 40km apart or can be transmitted to
geostationary satellites and then relayed back to receiver on Earth.

o Radar uses microwaves. Police use Doppler radars in their speed

guns. Radar towers at airports use microwaves to determine the
distance of aeroplanes from airports.

o Microwaves transmit and receive signals at 890 – 960 MHz, which

are very short radio waves. Mobile phones transmit signals to an
antenna at the local base station which then transfer the
information to a computerised switching centre for relay to another
cell network or landline phone.

• Technology in the Nuclear Industry

o Medicine
Diagnostic nuclear imaging – Gamma-emitting radioisotopes are
attached to chemicals and then given orally or injected into patient.
The radiopharmaceutical then travels to a specific organ and
concentrates. A gamma camera then scans and obtains an image of
the organ e.g. Iodine-123 is used to diagnose epilepsy
Therapeutic Radioisotopes – These are used to target cancerous
growths e.g. Iodine-131 can kill cancer cells, cobalt-60 can be used
to kill cancerous tissue

o Industry
Gamma radiography – Flaws in welded metallic joints can be
detected by passing gamma rays from a radioisotope through the
material onto a photographic film e.g. cobalt-60
 o Gauging – Variations in thickness of plastic film can be monitored by
passing radiation through the film as it passes at high speed
through detector, e.g. beta rays from strontium-90

o Problems
Exposure to large doses can cause nausea, headaches, vomiting
Nuclear energy damages living cells and too much exposure can
cause cancer (leukaemia)
Damage reproductive mechanisms in cells, including DNA, leading
to birth defects in offspring

• Biotechnology – use of biological discoveries to produce modified

organisms and products

o In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) – For infertile women, eggs are retrieved

and fertilised under special conditions in lab. Fertilised eggs can
then he implanted back into the womb to allow the embryo to
develop. Fertilised eggs and young embryos can be frozen and
stored for later use

o Genetically modified (GM) foods - Foods that are genetically

modified to develop new traits such as improved insect or virus
resistance. Benefits – increased crop yields, improved taste and
quality of crops, increased resistance to livestock and crops.
Concerns – Transfer of antibiotic resistance to other organisms,
unknown effects on other organisms, development of new allergies
in humans

o Stem cell Research – Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can be
induced under certain experimental conditions to turn into
specialised cells. Two types - embryonic and adult stem cells –
embryonic found in 3 to 5 day old embryos while adult stem cells
are found in brain, heart, bone marrow. Scientists want to continue
stem cell research, but are often impeded by ethical and religious
groups, who consider that using them for research is the equivalent
to terminating a human life. They hope that stem cells can be used
to replace damaged tissue and organs through cloning. E.g.
Parkinson’s disease can be cured by replacing damaged neurones in
the brain, test drugs.

• Advantages of Biotechnology

o Many diseases and genetic defects may be eliminated

o GM foods can last longer

o GM crops are not as vulnerable to disease as unmodified crops

 o Foods can be modified to have more nutritional value

o Genetic modifications can result in people living longer

• Disadvantages of Biotechnology

o Genetically engineering is interfering with God’s work

o Unpredictable problems may arise in the future

o It is unsafe (with little evidence but strong belief)

o GM may hold unknown dangers to the ones they are trying to

eliminate

• New materials (made resources)

o Space research technologies have led to the development of new

materials such as Velcro for attaching fabrics to each other, Teflon
used in non-stick frypans, space blankets for bush walking, Kevlar
for strong sails

o Changing an atom’s structure in a nuclear reactor has led to new

materials such as radioisotopes which are used in medicine

o Ability to manufacture synthetic materials for example polyester,

nylon, etc has led to many new fabrics

o Transgenic DNA technology that has led to development of

genetically modified foods

o New chemical methods in the metal industry have resulted in new

alloys being made

o New and improved mining techniques have made it easier to locate

various minerals and to extract greater quantities of them.
History of Science

• Culture Science

o Aboriginal Science – Read weather signs from the Moon, big ring
around the Moon meant a lot of rain, small ring means a little rain.
When the Moon is to one side of a ring, it means there is wind
coming

o Chinese – Invented and used magnetic compasses

• Rejected Models and Theories

o Model of the Solar System

140, Ptolemy said that all celestial objects orbited the Earth
1543, Copernicus claimed that the Sun was the centre of the Solar
system, however his model was not accepted because of religious
views at the tiem
In 100 years time, after the invention of the telescope, Galileo
convinced scientists that Copernicus’ model was correct

o Model of the Atom

Ancient times atoms were thought to be indivisible balls of matter
In the 1800s, scientists made some observations and concluded
that some components of atoms were positive, some were negative
charged – plum pudding model
Later modified as a result of Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering
to introduce idea of central nucleus with electrons orbiting it
Later found that nucleus contained neutrons, no charge – forms our
current model of the atom
 o Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution of how organisms acquired
characteristics during their lifetime as they could change by
adapting to different environments was replaced by Darwin’s
theory of evolution by natural selection

• Social, Religious, Ethical values Impact on Science

o Stem cell research – concerns that using stem cells is like

terminating human life, since the best stem cells are found when
cells in fertilised ova first divide

o Cloning – Disputes value of human life

• Developments in Science led to Development of New Technologies

o Semiconductors – Solar cell, also marked beginning of silicon chip

technology - computer technologies such as microprocessors

• Developments in technology have transformed science

o Discovery of X-Rays and being able to see inside human body

o Electromagnetic radiation and computer imaging allows

examination of bodies without exploratory surgery

o Invention of microscope allowed scientists to investigate cells and

bacteria

o Invention of telescope allows us to study stars and planets

Nature and Practice of Science

• Model – Mathematical, physical, experimental or logical representation

based on a simplified set of assumptions. Models are often elaborated to
develop theories

• Theory – A coherent explanation of a body of experimental evidence,

based upon a small number of assumptions. A theory provides predictions
that can be tested against observations
 • Law – A simple and precise statement that has, at one time, been
regarded to be universally valid. It describes phenomena that occur with
unvarying regularity under the same conditions

• For an idea to become a theory or a law, it has to be able to be applied to

explain different observations in a variety of situations, not just one.

• Scientific Argument – Argument for an issue determined by its effects

scientifically – for example effects of leaked nuclear waste

• Economic Argument – Whether or not a scientific process is carried out

due to economic reasons, for example cost to build nuclear power plants

• Legal Argument – Whether scientific phenomena will constitute legally, for

example complying laws and regulations for nuclear power use

Applications and Uses of Science

• Scientific concepts that have been used in technological developments

o Fleming’s discovery that the mould Penicillium notatum released a

substance that prevented bacteria growing, Howard Florey, knowing
that penicillin had antibacterial properties, verified penicillin was an
effective antibacterial substance and developed a way to mass
produce it. They also discovered other antibiotics and led to the
production of synthetic antibiotics

o Reflection of light – used in periscopes in submarines

o Sun’s solar energy – infrared radiation used in solar water heaters

• Society Supporting Science

Health, Economical, Environmental Benefits
E.g. space exploration, finding valuable minerals and resources on other
planets
stem cell research and medical benefits
Nuclear energy being very efficient and no emissions like fossil fuels

o Finding cures for various diseases

o Development of new technologies

 o Long term benefits

Implications of Science for Society and Environment

• Different Cultures View on Science

o Aboriginal people believe that spirits of ancestors are in different

parts of the land. So the Aboriginals sometimes oppose mining in
certain areas. E.g. The Mirrar people did not want uranium mining
at Jabiluka in NT, and successfully shut down the mine

• Considering Scientific Advances

Social, Religious, ethical, environmental (ecosystems), legal, economical
arguments must all be considered and whether science can outweigh
them all

• Social and ethical considerations in Science

Biotechnology – stem cell research and cloning

Current Issues, Research and Developments in Science

• Australian Scientific Contributions

o Fiona Wood
Worked as a plastic surgeon in Britain and migrated to Perth with
Australian husband. Invented spray-on skin so that the period of
skin culturing was reduced from 21 to 5 days. She explored tissue
engineering and started growing sheets of skin before producing
spraying skin cells, developed scarless, woundless healing. In
October 2002, a large portion of survivors from the Bali Bombings
arrived at Royal Perth Hospital. She led a team to save 28 people
suffering major burns. Named Australian of the Year 2005.

o Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet

Medical doctor, who grew animal viruses in labs and used these to
 test influenza, poliomyelitis, Q fever and other diseases. He was
twice nominated for the Nobel Prize. He was also interested in the
body’s response to infection, studied the way in which the body can
differentiate between infection or foreign objects and its own
tissues. From his research, Burnet developed a theory for cellular
basis of immunology; Burnet received the Nobel Prize in medicine in
1960.

• Issues raised in media

o Carbon Credits – Trading of allowance of carbon emissions among

nations where different nations are allocated different quotas, for
example if one country is cutting emissions well below quota, it can
trade the gap to another county that is exceeding their quota

• Scientific Skills
Knowledge of chemistry – laboratory technician, understanding of soils
and rocks – mining engineer, geologist, physics knowledge useful for
electrical engineers, builders

• Possible Career Paths in Science

Doctor, Dentist, Biologist, Botanist, Ecologist, Geologist, Technician,
Pharmacist, Electrician, Engineer, Optometrist