2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunam1

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
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2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
An aerial view of tsunami damage in the Tōhoku

region
Tokyo
Sendai
Map showing the epicenter of the earthquake
Date 14:46:23, 11 March 2011 (+09:00)
Duration 6 minutes[1]
Magnitude 9.0 Mw[2][3]
Depth 32 km (20 mi)
Epicenter 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E38.322°N
location 142.369°ECoordinates: 38°19′19″N
142°22′08″E38.322°N 142.369°E
Type Megathrust earthquake
Countries or Japan (primary)
regions
affected Pacific Rim (tsunami, secondary)
Tsunami wave, flooding, landslides,
fires, building and infrastructure
Total damage
damage, nuclear incidents including
radiation releases
Peak ground
2.99 g
acceleration
Tsunami Yes (10+ meters)
Landslides Yes
Foreshocks 7+ (4+ above 6.0 MW)
Aftershocks 915–916+ (60–61+ above 6.0 MW)
12,787 deaths,[4][5] 4,661 injured,[4][5]
Casualties
14,991 people missing[4][5]
v·d·e
The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami (東日本大震災 Higashi
Nihon Daishinsai[6]?, literally "Eastern Japan Great Earthquake
Disaster"[fn 1]) was caused by a 9.0-magnitude undersea megathrust
earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46
UTC) on Friday, 11 March 2011.[2][3][7] The epicenter was
approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku,
with the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 32 km
(19.9 mi).[2][8] On 1 April 2011, the Japanese government named the
disaster resulting from the earthquake and tsunami the "Great Eastern
Japan Earthquake" (東日本大震災 Higashi Nihon Daishinsai?).[9]
The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to

37.9 meters (124 ft)[10] that struck Japan minutes after the quake, in
some cases traveling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland,[11] with smaller waves
reaching many other countries after several hours. Tsunami warnings
were issued and evacuations ordered along Japan's Pacific coast and at
least 20 other countries, including the entire Pacific coast of the
Americas.[12][13][14]
The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 12,787 deaths,[4][5] 4,661 injured,[4][5]
and 14,991 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000
buildings damaged or destroyed.[4][5] The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and
severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well
as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[11][15] Around 4.4 million households in
northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.[16] Many
electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered
explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings
after cooling system failure. On 18 March, Yukiya Amano—the head of the International
Atomic Energy Agency—described the crisis as "extremely serious."[17] Residents within
a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6 mi)
radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S.
recommended that its citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant.[18] [4]
Estimates of the Tōhoku earthquake's magnitude make it the most

powerful known earthquake to have hit Japan, and one of the five most
powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-
keeping began in 1900.[7][19][20] Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan
said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest
and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[21] The earthquake moved
Honshu 2.4 m (7.9 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by almost
10 cm (3.9 in).[22][23] Early estimates placed insured losses from the
earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[24] The Bank of Japan
offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14
March in an effort to normalize market conditions.[25] On 21 March,
the World Bank estimated damage between US$122 billion and $235
billion.[26] Japan's government said the cost of the earthquake and
tsunami that devastated the northeast could reach $309 billion, making
it the world's most expensive natural disaster on record.[27][28]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Earthquake
o 1.1 Geology
o 1.2 Energy
o 1.3 Geophysical impacts
o 1.4 Aftershocks
• 2 Tsunami
o 2.1 Japan
o 2.2 Elsewhere across the Pacific
• 3 Casualties
• 4 Damage and effects
o 4.1 Nuclear power plants
 4.1.1 Fukushima I and II Nuclear Power Plants
 4.1.2 Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant
 4.1.3 Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant
o 4.2 Ports
o 4.3 Dam failure
o 4.4 Water
o 4.5 Electricity
o 4.6 Oil, gas and coal
o 4.7 Transport
o 4.8 Telecommunications
o 4.9 Space center
• 5 Aftermath
• 6 Media coverage
• 7 Scientific and research response
• 8 See also
• 9 Footnotes
• 10 References
• 11 External links
Earthquake
Map of the Tōhoku earthquake and aftershocks on March 11. - 14.
The 9.0-magnitude (MW) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on

11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46 GMT) in the western Pacific
Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (19.9 mi),[29] with its
epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of
Tōhoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.[1][2] The nearest
major city to the quake was Sendai, on the main island of Honshu,
130 km (81 mi) away. The quake occurred 373 km (232 mi) from
Tokyo.[2] The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large
foreshocks, and hundreds of aftershocks were reported. The first major
foreshock was a 7.2 MW event on 9 March, approximately 40 km
(25 mi) from the location of the 11 March quake, with another three on
the same day in excess of 6.0 MW.[2][30] Following the quake, a 7.0 MW
aftershock was reported at 15:06 JST, followed by a 7.4 at 15:15 JST
and a 7.2 at 15:26 JST.[31] Over eight hundred aftershocks of
magnitude 4.5 or greater have occurred since the initial quake.[32]
United States Geological Survey (USGS) director Marcia McNutt
explained that aftershocks follow Omori's Law, might continue for
years, and will taper off in time.[33]
One minute before the earthquake was

felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early
Warning system, which includes more
than 1,000 seismometers in Japan,
sent out warnings of impending strong
shaking to millions. The early warning
is believed by the Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA) to
have saved many lives.[34][35]
Soil liquefaction in Koto, Tokyo
Initially reported as 7.9 MW by the USGS, the magnitude was quickly

upgraded to 8.8, then again to 8.9,[36] and then finally to 9.0.[3][37]
Geology
This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under

the plate beneath northern Honshu; which plate is a matter of debate
amongst scientists.[23][38] The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8
to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu's underlying plate
releasing large amounts of energy. This motion pulls the upper plate
down until the stress builds up enough to cause a seismic event. The
break caused the sea floor to rise by several meters.[38] A quake of this
magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 480 km (300 mi) and
generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the
plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the rupture is not
very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of an earthquake to
exceed 8.5; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some
seismologists.[39] The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended
from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture.[40] The
Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have
ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km
(310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi).[41][42] Analysis showed that
this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[43] The earthquake
may have had a mechanism similar to that of another large earthquake
in 869 with an estimated surface wave magnitude (Ms) of 8.6, which
also created a large tsunami.[44] Other major earthquakes with tsunamis
struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933.
The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan

Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi
Prefecture.[45] Three other prefectures—Fukushima, Ibaraki and
Tochigi—recorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in
Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a lower 6,
recording an upper 5 in Tokyo.
Energy
This earthquake released a surface

energy (Me) of 1.9±0.5×1017 joules,[46]
dissipated as shaking and tsunamic
energy, which is nearly double that of
the 9.1-magnitude 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and tsunami that killed
230,000 people. "If we could only
harness the [surface] energy from this
earthquake, it would power [a] city the
size of Los Angeles for an entire
year," McNutt said in an interview.[33]
The total energy released, also known
as the seismic moment (M0), was more
than 200,000 times the surface energy
and was calculated by the USGS at
3.9×1022 joules,[47] slightly less than
the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. This is
equivalent to 9,320 gigatons of TNT,
or approximately 600 million times
the energy of the Hiroshima bomb.
Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster
Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g
(29.33 m/s²).[48][fn 2] The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7g,
in the Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading
in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16g.[51]
Geophysical impacts
The quake moved portions of northeast Japan by as much as 2.4 m

(7.9 ft) closer to North America,[22][23] making portions of Japan's
landmass wider than before.[23] Portions of Japan closest to the
epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[23] A 400 km (250 mi) stretch
of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 m (2.0 ft), allowing the tsunami
to travel farther and faster onto land.[23] The Pacific plate itself may
have moved westwards by up to 20 m (66 ft), though the actual
displacement will have diminished with greater distance from the site
of the fault.[52] Other estimates put the amount of slippage at as much
as 40 m (130 ft), covering an area some 300 to 400 km (190 to 250 mi)
long by 100 km (62 mi) wide. If confirmed, this would be one of the
largest recorded fault movements to have been associated with an
earthquake.[53]
The earthquake shifted the Earth's axis by 25 cm (9.8 in). This

deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the
length of a day and the tilt of the Earth.[54] The speed of the Earth's
rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8 microseconds due to the
redistribution of Earth's mass.[55] The axial shift was caused by the
redistribution of mass on the Earth's surface, which changed the
planet's moment of inertia. Because of conservation of angular
momentum, such changes of inertia result in small changes to the
Earth's rate of rotation.[56] These are expected changes[54] for an
earthquake of this magnitude.[22][55]
Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo,

particularly in Urayasu, Chiba.[57] The liquefaction damaged houses in
the town and trapped almost 30 cars in the Tokyo Disneyland parking
lot. Nearby Haneda Airport, built mostly on reclaimed land, was not
damaged. Odaiba also experienced liquefaction, but damage was
minimal.[58]
Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted two days after the

earthquake. The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is
not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[59] In
Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to
have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 m (1.6 ft).[60]
Aftershocks
Further information: List of foreshocks and
aftershocks of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and
tsunami
Japan experienced over 900
aftershocks since the earthquake with
about 60 being over 6.0 M and three
over 7.0 M. A 7.7 M and a 7.9 M
quake occurred on March 11[61] and
the third one on April 7, 2011, with a
disputed magnitude. Its epicenter was
underwater, 66 km (41 mi) off the
coast of Sendai. The Japan
Meteorological Agency assigned a
magnitude of 7.4, while the U.S.
Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1.[62]
At least four people were killed, and
electricity was cut off across much of
northern Japan.[63]
Tsunami
The earthquake which was caused by 5 to 8 meters upthrust on 180-km
wide seabed at 60 km offshore from the east coast of Tōhoku[64]
resulted in a major tsunami which brought destruction along the
Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands and resulted in the loss of
thousands of lives and devastated entire towns. The tsunami
propagated across the Pacific, and warnings were issued and
evacuations carried out. In many countries bordering the Pacific,
including the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from
Alaska to Chile;[12][13][14] however, while the tsunami was felt in many
of these places, it caused only relatively minor effects. Chile's section
of Pacific coast is one of the furthest from Japan, at about 17,000 km
(11,000 mi) away,[65] but still was struck by tsunami waves 2 m (6.6 ft)
high.[66][67] A wave height of 37.9 meters (124 ft) was estimated at
Tarō, Iwate.[10]
Japan
Wave height map of the tsunami from NOAA
The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was

the most serious on its warning scale; it rated as a "major tsunami",
being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high.[68] The actual height predicted varied,
the greatest being for Miyagi at 10 m (33 ft) high.[69] The tsunami
inundated a total area of approximately 470 km² in Japan.[70]
The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST around 67 km (42 mi) from
the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated
the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first
affected, and then areas further north and south based on the
geography of the coastline.[71][72] Just over an hour after the earthquake
at 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which
is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[73][74] with waves
sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they
traveled inland.[75][76] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai
Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of
vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and
being engulfed by it.[77] A 4 m high tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[78]
Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[79]
Water column height on 11 March 2011 at DART Station, 690 NM Southeast of Tokyo
Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by
surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and
destructive than the actual quake. There were reports of entire towns
destroyed from tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in
Minamisanriku;[80] one thousand bodies had been recovered in the
town by 14 March 2011.[81]
Among several factors causing the high death toll from the tsunami,
one was the unexpectedly large size of the water surge. The tsunami
walls at several of the affected cities were based on much smaller
tsunami heights. Also, many people caught in the tsunami thought that
they were located on high enough ground to be safe.[82]
Kuji and Ōfunato were almost entirely destroyed[83][84] Also destroyed

was Rikuzentakata, where the tsunami was reportedly three stories
high.[85][86][87] Other cities reportedly destroyed or heavily damaged by
the tsunami include Kamaishi, Miyako, Ōtsuchi, and Yamada (in Iwate
Prefecture), Namie, Sōma and Minamisōma (in Fukushima Prefecture)
and Shichigahama, Higashimatsushima, Onagawa, Natori, Ishinomaki,
and Kesennuma (in Miyagi Prefecture).[88][89][90][91][92][93][94] The most
severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670-km (420 mi)-long
stretch of coastline from Erimo in the north to Ōarai in the south, with
most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the
earthquake.[95] Near Ōarai, people captured images of a huge whirlpool
that had been generated by the tsunami.[96] The tsunami washed away
the sole bridge to Miyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island's 900
residents.[97] A two meter high tsunami hit Chiba Prefecture about 2
1/2 hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities such as
Asahi.[98]
Tsunami flooding on the Sendai Airport runway
On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

published details of tsunami observations recorded around the
coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations
included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 m (9.8 ft) at the
following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the
earthquake at 14:46 JST:[99]
• 15:12 JST – Iwate Kamaishi-oki – 6.8 m (22 ft)

• 15:15 JST – Ōfunato – 3.2 m (10 ft) or higher
• 15:20 JST – Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa – 3.3 m (11 ft) or higher
• 15:21 JST – Miyako – 4.0 m (13.1 ft) or higher
• 15:21 JST – Kamaishi – 4.1 m (13 ft) or higher
• 15:44 JST – Erimo-cho Shoya – 3.5 m (11 ft)
• 15:50 JST – Sōma – 7.3 m (24 ft) or higher
• 16:52 JST – Ōarai – 4.2 m (14 ft)
NOAA animation of the tsunami's propagation
These readings were obtained from recording stations maintained by

the JMA around the coastline of Japan. Many areas were also affected
by waves of 1 to 3 meters (3.3 to 9.8 ft) in height, and the JMA
bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts,
tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites."
The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged
from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake
had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation
details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the
tsunami waves.[100][101]
On 23 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute reported

tsunami height by visiting the port sites or by telemetry from offshore
as follows:[102][103]
• Port of Hachinohe – 5–6 m (16–19 ft)

• Port of Hachinohe area – 8–9 m (26–29 ft)
• Port of Kuji – 8–9 m (26–29 ft)
• Mooring GPS wave height meter at offshore of central Iwate (Miyako) – 6 m
(20 ft)
• Port of Kamaishi – 7–9 m (23–30 ft)
• Mooring GPS wave height meter at offshore of southern Iwate (Kamaishi) –
6.5 m (22 ft)
• Port of Ōfunato – 9.5 m (31 ft)
• Run up height, port of Ōfunato area – 24 m (79 ft)
• Mooring GPS wave height meter at offshore of northern Miyagi – 5.6 m (18 ft)
• Fishery port of Onagawa – 15 m (50 ft)
• Port of Ishinomaki – 5 m (16 ft)
• Mooring GPS wave height meter at offshore of central Miyagi – could not
measure
• Shiogama section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 4 m (13 ft)
• Sendai section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 8 m (26 ft)
• Sendai Airport area – 12 m (39 ft)
A joint research team from Yokohama National University and the

University of Tokyo also reported that the tsunami at Ryōri Bay (綾里
白浜), Ōfunato was about 30 m high. They found fishing equipment
scattered on the high cliff above the bay.[104] At Tarō, Iwate, a
University of Tokyo researcher reported an estimated tsunami height
of 37.9 m (124 ft) reached the slope of a mountain some 200 m
(660 ft) away from the coastline.[10] This height is deemed the second
record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that follows 38.2 m
(125 ft) of 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[105]
Elsewhere across the Pacific
Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

(PTWC) in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and warnings for locations
in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami
warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean.[106][107] Russia evacuated
11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands.[108] The United
States West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center issued a
tsunami warning for the coastal areas of most of California, all of
Oregon, and the western part of Alaska, and a tsunami advisory
covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all of
Washington and British Columbia, Canada.[109][110] In California and
Oregon, up to 2.4 m (8 ft) high tsunami surges hit some areas,
damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10 million of
damage.[111] Surges of up to 1 m (3.3 ft) hit Vancouver Island in
Canada[110] prompting some evacuations, and causing boats to be
banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following
the wave strike, leaving many island residents in the area without
means of getting to work.[112][113]
A Bonin Petrel, trapped in the sand on Midway Atoll by the tsunami
In the Philippines, waves up to 0.5 m (1.6 ft) high hit the eastern
seaboard of the country. Some houses along the coast in Jayapura,
Indonesia were destroyed.[114] Authorities in Wewak, East Sepik, Papua
New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city's Boram Hospital
before it was hit by the waves, causing an estimated US$4 million in
damages.[115] Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at
US$3 million, with damage to private properties, including resort
hotels such as Four Seasons Resort Hualalai, estimated at tens of
millions of dollars.[116] It was reported that a 1.5 m (5 ft) high wave
completely submerged Midway Atoll's reef inlets and Spit Island,
killing more than 110,000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll
National Wildlife Refuge.[117] Some other South Pacific countries,
including Tonga and New Zealand, and U.S. territories American
Samoa and Guam, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not
report any major damage.[118] However in Guam some roads were
closed off and people were evacuated from low-lying areas.[119]
Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges
were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[120] Peru
reported a wave of 1.5 m (5 ft) and more than 300 homes damaged.[120]
The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses,
[121]
with waves of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[122][123] In the Galapagos Islands,
260 families received assistance following a 3 m (9.8 ft) surge which
arrived 20 hours after the earthquake, after the tsunami warning had
been lifted.[124][125] There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the
islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities.
[126][127]
Casualties
Tsunami damage between Sendai and Sendai Bay.
The National Police Agency has confirmed 12,787 deaths,[4][5] 4,661

injured,[4][5] and 14,991 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures.
[4][5]
The total number of fatalities is expected to reach tens of
thousands.[128] Prefectural officials and the Kyodo News Agency,
quoting local officials, said that 9,500 people from Minamisanriku in
Miyagi Prefecture—about a half of the town's population—were
unaccounted for.[129] NHK has reported that the death toll in Iwate
Prefecture alone may reach 10,000.[75] On 14 March, Kyodo News
Agency reported that some 2,000 bodies were found on two shores in
Miyagi Prefecture.[130]
Save the Children reports that as many

as 100,000 children were uprooted
from their homes, some of whom were
separated from their families because
the earthquake occurred during the
school day.[131]
The Japanese Foreign Ministry has confirmed the deaths of nineteen
foreigners.[132] Among them are two English teachers from the United
States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program;[133] a
Canadian missionary in Shiogama;[134] and citizens of China, North and
South Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan and the Philippines.
It was reported that four passenger trains containing an unknown

number of passengers disappeared in a coastal area during the tsunami.
[135]
One of the trains, on the Senseki Line, was found derailed in the
morning; all passengers were rescued by a police helicopter.[136] Der
Spiegel later reported that five missing trains in Miyagi Prefecture had
been found with all passengers safe, although this information could
not be confirmed locally.[137]
By 9:30 UTC on 11 March, Google Person Finder, which was

previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New
Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and
their locations.[138][139] The Next of Kin Registry (NOKR) is assisting
the Japanese government in locating next of kin for those missing or
deceased.[140]
Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies, and

99.9%[citation needed] of bodies are cremated; burials are often banned by
law.[citation needed] The thousands of bodies, however, exceed the capacity
of available crematoriums and morgues, many of them damaged,[141]
and there are shortages of both kerosene—each cremation requires 50
liters—and dry ice for preservation.[142] The single crematorium in
Higashimatsushima, for example, can only handle four bodies a day,
although hundreds have been found there and hundreds of people are
still missing.[143] Governments and the military have thus been forced
to bury many bodies in hastily dug mass graves with rudimentary or no
rites, although relatives of the deceased have been promised that
cremation will occur later.[144]
The tsunami is reported to have caused several deaths outside of Japan.

One man was killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept
out to sea.[145] At the mouth of the Klamath River, south of Crescent
City, California, a man who is said to have been attempting to
photograph the oncoming tsunami was swept out to sea and confirmed
dead.[146][147][148]
Damage and effects
In Tarō district, Miyako, Iwate, search-and-rescue activities are visible amidst the debris
left by the tsunami.
The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and

resulting tsunami were enormous, with most of the damage being
caused by the tsunami. Video footage of the towns worst affected
shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any
structures left standing.[149] Estimates of the cost of the damage range
well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite
photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many
regions.[150][151] Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions
of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40% of its
34,751 km (21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the
tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls, collapsing some
in the process.[152]
Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 190,000

buildings were destroyed or damaged by the quake and tsunami. Of
those, 45,700 were destroyed. The damaged buildings included 29,500
structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400
in Fukushima Prefecture.[153] The earthquake and tsunami created an
estimated 25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan.[154]
Nuclear power plants
Further information: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents
The Fukushima I, Fukushima II, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and

Tōkai nuclear power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors,
were automatically shut down following the earthquake.[155]
Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a
periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a
reactor has been shut down, and to maintain spent fuel pools. The
cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators, as well as
in the case of Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant.[156] At Fukushima I
and II tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup
power systems, leading to severe problems at Fukushima I, including
two large explosions and radioactive leakage. Over 200,000 people
were evacuated.[157] Sea water was pumped onto the plant to attempt to
cool it.
Europe's energy commissioner Guenther Oettinger, in remarks to the
European Parliament on 15 March, ignored the damage wrought by the
tsunami along the coast and called the nuclear disaster an
"apocalypse", saying that the word was particularly well chosen, and
that Tokyo had almost lost control of events at the Fukushima power
plant.[158]
Fukushima I and II Nuclear Power Plants
Main articles: Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Timeline of the Fukushima I nuclear

accidents, and Timeline of the Fukushima II nuclear accidents
Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the

cooling system at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in
the evacuation of nearby residents.[159][160] Officials from the Japanese
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency reported that radiation levels
inside the plant were up to 1,000 times normal levels,[161] and that
radiation levels outside the plant were up to 8 times normal levels.[162]
Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima II
nuclear power plant about 11 km (7 mi) south.[163] This brought the
total number of problematic reactors to six.[164]
Destruction at the Fukushima site
Iodine distribution to recovery workers in Japan
It was reported that radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in
Fukushima, Toshigi, Gunma, Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Niigata, and
radioactive cesium in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi and Gunma.
[165][166][167]
Radioactive cesium and iodine were also detected in the soil
in some places in Fukushima. There may be a need to replace the
contaminated soil.[168] Food products were also found contaminated by
radioactive matter in several places in Japan.[169] On April 5, 2011, the
government of the Ibaraki Prefecture banned the fishing of sand lance
after discovering that this species was contaminated by radioactive
caesium above legal limits.[170]
Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant
A map showing epicenter of earthquake and position of nuclear power plants
A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power

Plant following the earthquake.[156][171] The blaze was in a building
housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant's reactor,
[159]
and was soon extinguished.[172] The plant was shut down as a
precaution.[173]
On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared

regarding the Onagawa plant as radioactivity readings temporarily[174]
exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant.[175][176] Tohoku Electric
Power Co. stated this may have been due to radiation from the
Fukushima I nuclear accidents but was not from the Onagawa plant
itself.[177]
Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant
The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down
automatically.[155] On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system
pump for this reactor had stopped working;[178] however, the Japan
Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational
pump sustaining the cooling systems, but that two of three diesel
generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.[179]
Ports
Vessel and facilities damage at the port of Ishinomaki near Matsushima Air Field
All of Japan's ports were briefly closed after the earthquake, though
the ones in Tokyo and southwards soon re-opened. Fifteen ports were
located in the disaster zone. The north-eastern ports of Hachinohe,
Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed, while Chiba port
(which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan's ninth-largest
container port at Kashima were also affected though less severely. The
ports at Hitachinaka, Hitachi, Soma, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Ofunato,
Kamashi and Miyako were also damaged and closed to ships.[180] All
15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29 March 2011.[181]
The Port of Tokyo suffered slight damage; the effects of the quake
included visible smoke rising from a building in the port with parts of
the port areas being flooded, including soil liquefaction in Tokyo
Disneyland's carpark.[182][183]
Dam failure
The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[184] causing

flooding and washing away homes.[185] Eight people were missing and
four bodies were discovered by the morning.[186][187][188] Reportedly,
some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it
completely failed.[189] On 12 March, 252 dams were inspected and it
was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their
crests. The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non-
serious slope failure. All damaged dams are functioning with no
problems. Four dams within the quake area were unreachable. When
the roads clear, experts will be dispatched to conduct further
investigations.[190]
Water
In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million

households were reported to have lost access to water supplies.[16][191]
By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.[192]
Electricity
A map of Japan's electricity distribution network shows the geographic divide between
50 hertz systems and 60 hertz systems
According to Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP), around 4.4 million

households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity.[193]
Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline after the
earthquake, reducing TEPCO's total capacity by 21 GW.[194] Rolling
blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the
earthquake.[195] The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which
normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that
it can currently provide only about 30 GW. This is because 40% of the
electricity used in the greater Tokyo area is now supplied by reactors
in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures.[196] The reactors at the
Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni plants were automatically
taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and have sustained
major damage related to the earthquake and subsequent tsunami.
Rolling blackouts of three hours are expected to last until the end of
April and will affect the Tokyo, Kanagawa, Eastern Shizuoka,
Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures.
[197]
Voluntary reduced electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area
helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts.
[198]
By 21 March 2011, the number of households in the north without
electricity fell to 242,927.[192]
Tōhoku Electric Power cannot currently provide the Kanto region with
additional power, because TEP's power plants were also damaged in
the earthquake. Kansai Electric Power Company (Kepco) cannot share
electricity, because its system operates at 60 hertz, whereas TEPCO
and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; this is due to early
industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan
without a unified national power grid.[199] Two substations, one in
Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture, can convert
between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and
Tōhoku, but their capacity to do so is limited to 1 GW. With the
damage to so many power plants, it could be years before electricity
productions levels in eastern Japan return to pre-quake levels.[200]
In effort to help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the

Kanto region are contributing electricity produced by their in-house
conventional power stations to TEPCO for distribution to the general
public. Sumitomo Metal Industries can produce up to 500 MW, JFE
Steel 400 MW, and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power[201]
Oil, gas and coal

Fire at the Cosmo Oil refinery in Ichihara
A 220,000-barrel-per-day[202] oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was

set on fire by the quake at Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture, to the east of
Tokyo,[203] while others halted production due to safety checks and
power loss.[204][205] In Sendai, a 145,000-barrel-per-day refinery owned
by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set
ablaze by the quake.[202] Workers were evacuated,[206] but tsunami
warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when
officials planned to do so.[202]
An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may

increase by as much as 300,000 barrels per day (as well as LNG), as
back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the
loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.[207][208]
The city-owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was
severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.[209]
Transport
Japan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections

of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged. The
expressway did not reopen to general public use until 24 March 2011.
[210][211]
All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an
estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city.[212]
In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed.[213]
Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day-12
March.[214] Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11–12
March inside Tokyo Disneyland.[215]
Damage to overhead lines on the Tōhoku Shinkansen
A tsunami wave flooded Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST,[73] about 1 hour

after the initial quake, causing severe damage. Narita and Haneda
Airport both briefly suspended operations after the quake, but suffered
little damage and reopened within 24 hours.[183] Eleven airliners bound
for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.[216][217]
Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East
suspending all services for the rest of the day.[218] Four trains on coastal
lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four-
car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its
occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning.[219] Sixty-
two of 70 JR East train lines suffered damage to some degree.[181]
There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and

out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended.[183] The Tōkaidō
Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its
normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano
Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March. The Tōhoku
Shinkansen line was worst hit, with JR East estimating that 1,100
sections of the line, varying from collapsed station roofs to bent power
pylons, will need repairs. Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially
resumed only in Kantō area on 15 March, with one round-trip service
per hour between Tokyo and Nasu-Shiobara,[220] and Tōhoku area
service partially resumed on 22 March between Morioka and Shin-
Aomori.[221] Services on Akita Shinkansen resumed with limited
numbers of trains on 18 March.[222] Services on Yamagata Shinkansen
resumed with limited numbers of trains on 31 March[223]
Stranded passengers on a Tokyo train are unloaded using a ladder
Minami-Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated

save for its platform;[224] anecdotal evidence suggests severe damage to
the line as well as other coastal lines (including the Ishinomaki Line
and Senseki Line).
The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power

plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around
Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at
10–20 minute intervals, rather than the usual 3–5 minute intervals,
operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down
others; notably, the Tokaido Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sobu Main
Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day.[225] This led to
near-paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and
many people unable to come to work or get home. Railway operators
gradually increased capacity over the next few days, until running at
approximately 80% capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of
the passenger congestion.
Telecommunications
Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the

affected area.[226] On the day of the quake, American broadcaster NPR
was unable to reach anyone in Sendai with working phone or Internet.
[227]
Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic
infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged
portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected
regions; these systems were able to reroute around affected segments
onto redundant links.[228][229] Within Japan, only a few websites were
initially unreachable.[230] Several Wi-Fi hotspot providers have reacted
to the quake by providing free access to their networks.[230] and some
American telecommunications and VoIP companies such as AT&T,
Sprint, Verizon [231] and VoIP companies such as netTALK [232] and
Vonage [233] have offered free calls to (and in some cases, from) Japan
for a limited time.
Space center
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba

Space Center in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Center, which houses a control
room for part of the International Space Station, has been shut down,
with some damage reported.[234][235] The Tsukuba control center
resumed full operations for the space station's Kibo laboratory and the
HTV cargo craft on March 21.[236]
Aftermath
A convoy of fire engines in the tsunami zone

Main article: Aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami included both a

humanitarian crisis and a major economic impact. The tsunami
resulted in over 300,000 refugees in the Tōhoku region, and shortages
of food, water, shelter, medicine and fuel for survivors. In response the
Japanese government mobilized the Self-Defence Forces, whilst many
countries sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors.
Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded, with
the Japanese Red Cross reporting $490 million in donations. The
economic impact included both immediate problems, with industrial
production suspended in many factories, and the longer term issue of
the cost of rebuilding which has been estimated at ¥10 trillion ($122
billion). (This is a summary only – see main article for supporting
references.)
As of April 5, 2011 over $1 billion had been donated to Japan's relief

effort, but little of that money is thought to have reached the
earthquake and tsunami victims.[237]
Media coverage
Japan's national public broadcaster, NHK, and Japan Satellite
Television suspended their usual programming to provide ongoing
coverage of the situation.[238] Various other nationwide Japanese TV
networks also broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the disaster.
Ustream Asia broadcast live feeds of NHK, Tokyo Broadcasting
System, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, TV Kanagawa, and CNN on the Internet
starting on 12 March 2011.[239] YokosoNews, an Internet webcast in
Japan, dedicated its broadcast to the latest news gathered from
Japanese news stations, translating them in real time to English.[240]
NHK has been noted for its calmness, in comparison to foreign

television news such as CNN and Fox News Channel, whose coverage
has contained factual errors and raised alarm among foreign residents
of Japan. The same critics note that the Japanese news media has been
at times overly cautious to avoid panic and reliant on confusing
statements by experts and officials.[241][242][243]
Scientific and research response
Fukushima radiation comparison to other incidents and standards, with graph of recorded
radiation levels and specific accident events.(Note: Does not include all radiation
readings from Fukushima Daini site)
A large amount of data was collected that provides "the possibility to

model in great detail what happened during the rupture of an
earthquake."[22] The effect of this data is expected to be felt across
other disciplines as well, and this disaster "would provide
unprecedented information about how buildings hold up under long
periods of shaking – and thus how to build them better. We had very
little information about that before now".[244]
Seismologists had anticipated that the "big one" would strike the same
place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake—in the Sagami Trough,
southwest of Tokyo.[245][246] Since 1976, when Katsuhiko Ishibashi said
a large earthquake in the Suruga Trough was forthcoming, the
government tracked plate movements, in preparation for the so-called
Tokai earthquake.[247] Occurring 373 km (232 mi) northeast of Tokyo,
the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists, since the
Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, but was not
expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.[246][247]
See also
• Aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
• Humanitarian response to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
• 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, Nuclear power in Japan#Seismicity
• List of cities and towns severely damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and
tsunami
• Seismicity in Japan
o List of earthquakes in Japan
o Seismicity of the Sanriku coast
o Historic tsunamis
Footnotes
1. ^ While the Japan Meteorological Agency announced the English name as The
2011 off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku Earthquake,[248][249] the Japanese nomenclature of
the earthquake varies between media sources. NHK[250][251] uses Tōhoku Kantō Great
Earthquake disaster (東北関東大震災 Tōhoku Kantō Daishinsai?); Sankei Shimbun,
[252]
Asahi Shimbun,[253] Mainichi Shimbun,[254] Jiji Press,[255] Fuji Television,[256] Kyodo
News,[257] Tokyo Shimbun,[258] Chunichi Shimbun[259] and Tokyo Broadcasting System[260]
use East Japan Great Earthquake disaster (東日本大震災 Higashi Nihon
Daishinsai?); Tōhoku-Kantō Great Earthquake (東北・関東大地震 Tōhoku-Kantō
Daijishin?) has been used by Kyodo News,[261] Tokyo Shimbun[262] and Chunichi
Shimbun;[263] East Japan Giant Earthquake (東日本巨大地震 Higashi Nihon
Kyodaijishin?) has been used by Yomiuri Shimbun,[264] Nihon Keizai Shimbun[265] and TV
Asahi,[266] and East Japan Great Earthquake (東日本大地震 Higashi Nihon Daijishin?)
is used by Nippon Television,[267] Tokyo FM[268] and TV Asahi.[269]
2. ^ The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami has been assigned GLIDE identifier
EQ-2011-000028-JPN by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center.[49][50]
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External links
Find more about 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
• Compiled video footage of the Earthquake / Tsunami

• Countdown to Catastrophe: MegaQuake – Japan and Beyond (documentary)
• Earthquake Report from United States Geological Survey (USGS)
• Poster of the Great Tohoku Earthquake from United States Geological Survey
(USGS)
• Scientific information about the Tohoku earthquake
• Earthquake Swarm Google Earth Animation on YouTube
• Pacific Tsunami Warning Center at National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
• Japan Earthquake 2011 All Partners Access Network (APAN)
• Japan Incident Map at Esri
• Map of Tsunami Innundation Areas in Japan from ReliefWeb
• Japan Disaster: Most Shocking Pics – slideshow by Life
• Massive earthquake hits Japan Photos from The Boston Globe
• Japan Earthquake: before and after aerial and satellite images from ABC News,
credited to Post-earthquake images of Japan
• Satellite Photos of Japan, Before and After the Quake and Tsunami The New York
Times
• Diverse satellite imagery taken under the aegis of the International Charter on
Space and Major Disasters
• 110311 JapanEarthquake at the Federation of Earth Science Information Partners
(ESIP Federation)
• 2011 Japanese Earthquake and Tsunami at Google Crisis Response
• Red Earthquake and Tsunami Alert in Japan at the Global Disaster Alert and
Coordination System (GDACS)
• Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Datafeeds gathering and Japan Data Profile inputs
for Common Operational Datasets at CrisisCommons
• Japan: Earthquake and Tsunami – Mar 2011 ReliefWeb
• Map of the Damage From the Japanese Earthquake The New York Times
[show]v · d · e2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

[show]v · d · e← Major earthquakes in 2011
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Categories: 2011 earthquakes | Earthquakes in Japan | 2011 in California | 2011 in Japan |
2011 in Oregon | 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami | Civilian nuclear power accidents
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Guinea | Natural disasters in Peru | Natural disasters in Washington (state) | Nuclear
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2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunam1

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2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunam1

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2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An aerial view of tsunami damage in the Tōhoku

The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to

Estimates of the Tōhoku earthquake's magnitude make it the most

The 9.0-magnitude (MW) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on

One minute before the earthquake was

Soil liquefaction in Koto, Tokyo

Initially reported as 7.9 MW by the USGS, the magnitude was quickly

This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under

The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan

This earthquake released a surface

The quake moved portions of northeast Japan by as much as 2.4 m

The earthquake shifted the Earth's axis by 25 cm (9.8 in). This

Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo,

Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted two days after the

Wave height map of the tsunami from NOAA

The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was

Kuji and Ōfunato were almost entirely destroyed[83][84] Also destroyed

Tsunami flooding on the Sendai Airport runway

On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

• 15:12 JST – Iwate Kamaishi-oki – 6.8 m (22 ft)

NOAA animation of the tsunami's propagation

These readings were obtained from recording stations maintained by

On 23 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute reported

• Port of Hachinohe – 5–6 m (16–19 ft)

A joint research team from Yokohama National University and the

Elsewhere across the Pacific

Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center

The National Police Agency has confirmed 12,787 deaths,[4][5] 4,661

Save the Children reports that as many

It was reported that four passenger trains containing an unknown

By 9:30 UTC on 11 March, Google Person Finder, which was

Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies, and

The tsunami is reported to have caused several deaths outside of Japan.

The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and

Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 190,000

Nuclear power plants

Further information: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents

The Fukushima I, Fukushima II, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and

Fukushima I and II Nuclear Power Plants

Main articles: Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Timeline of the Fukushima I nuclear

Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the

Destruction at the Fukushima site

Iodine distribution to recovery workers in Japan

Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant

A map showing epicenter of earthquake and position of nuclear power plants

A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power

On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared

Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant

The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[184] causing

In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million

According to Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP), around 4.4 million

In effort to help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the

Oil, gas and coal

A 220,000-barrel-per-day[202] oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was

An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may

Japan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections

A tsunami wave flooded Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST,[73] about 1 hour

There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and

Minami-Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated

The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power