Submitted By: Daniyal Ahmad

Submitted To: Mr. M. Shahzad

2010-Pet-21
Principles of Stratigraghy:
1. Principle of original horizontality.
2. Principle of Superposition.
3. Principle of faunal Assemblage.
4. Principle of Uniformitrianism.
5. Principle of Igneous Intrusion.

1-Principle of faunal assemblage.

The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal succession, is based on
the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these
fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide
horizontal distances.
Applications
This principle is of great importance in determining the relative age of rocks and strata. The
fossil content of rocks together with the law of superposition helps to determine the time
sequence in which sedimentary rocks were laid down.

Applications
1-we can predict the species of many extinct animal
2-we can use to correlate ages of specific organisms and to understand their biozone and relative age.

Limitations
1-fossils should be in the sedimentary rock
2-fossils should not be so deep that they can be burnout.

2-Principle of Superposition.
The Law (or Principle) of Superposition basically says: "Sedimentary layers are deposited in a time
sequence, with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on the top."

This Principle Gives An Idea About The Age of the earth.

Applications.
If there are the two major rock types in the mountain series, the lower layers has no fossils, while the
upper ones are rich in fossils. We can suggest that the upper layers had formed in the flood, after the
creation of life, while the lower ones had formed before life had existed. This was the first use of geology
to try to distinguish different time periods in the Earth's history .

Limitation.
1-volcanism and external forces shoul d not be occurred
2-turbidity current should not be occurred
3-principle of igneous intrusion
The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when
an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that the
igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of
intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.

Applications
We can predict the faults and the nature of the rock which is present.we can predict the nature of the
magma and the composition of rock

Limitations
Magma should not come to the surface and cool down within the rock.
4-Principle of uniformitrianism.
Uniformitarianism - "The Present is the Key to the Past"
Uniformitarianism is a geological doctrine. It states that current geologic processes, occurring
at the same rates observed today, in the same manner, account for all of Earth's geological
features. Thus, it assumes that geological processes are essentially unchanged today from those
of the unobservable past, and that there have been no cataclysmic events in earth's history. As
present processes are thought to explain all past events, the Uniformitarianism slogan is, "the
present is the key to the past."

Applications
We can correlate the ancient samples and history with the present.

Limitations
Environment and the conditions should be remains constant.plate tectonics activity and
earthquake should not be happened too much

1. 5- Principle of original horizontality:-

The Principle of Original Horizontality was proposed by the Danish geological pioneer Nicholas
Steno . This principle states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under
the action of gravity. The principle is important to the analysis of folded and tilted strata.
Conclusion:
1. From these observations is derived the conclusion that the Earth has not been static and
that great forces have been at work over long periods of time, further leading to the
conclusions of the science of plate tectonics; that movement and collisions of large plates
of the Earth's crust is the cause of folded strata.
2. The important part about it is when you look at faulted and folder rocks. If you see a
layer of rock laying at a 45 degree angle... then some kind of tectonic force was at work,
because you can't deposit a layer of lithified sediment on a slope. Something tipped it.
Limitations:
1-conditions should be constant
2-environment should be uniformly and steadily change
3-external forces i.e.earthquake,,volcanism,should not be greater