What is an antenna?

„ An antenna is a passive structure that

Introduction to serves as transition between a
transmission line and air used to
Antenna transmit and/or receive electromagnetic
waves.
principles
Source Receiver
Dr. Sandra Cruz-Pol Circuit

Tx Rx
INEL 5305
Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez

Antenna Types of antennas

„ Can be divided into two groups

• Wire antennas:
„ dipoles, loops, Yagi-Uda…

• Aperture antennas:
„ parabolic, horns, microstrip antennas…

http://www.kyes.com/antenna/antennatypes/antennatypes.html

Ulaby, 1999 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(electronics)#Overview

Wire antennas Wire antennas

Log periodic Yagi Log periodic

Yagi
Yagi-Uda with reflector

1
 Reflector and Pyramidal horn
Aperture antennas
antennas

Dipole with
parabolic and
corner reflector

Spherical (main reflector)

with Gregorian feed

Related parameters Spherical coordinates

„ Solid angle, ΩΑ and Radiation intensity, U θ=0
z (zenith)
„ Radiation pattern, Pn, sidelobes, HPBW
„ Far field zone, rff
„ Directivity, D or Gain, G
„ Antenna radiation impedance, Rrad
„ Effective Area, Ae θ
θ=90
All of these parameters are expressed in terms of a φ=90
transmission antenna, but are identically
applicable to a receiving antenna. We’ll also y
study: φ
φ= azimuth x
„ Friis Transmission Equation
θ=90
„ Radar Equation θ= elevation φ=0

Solid Angle
Radiation Intensity
„ Is the power density per solid angle:

U = r 2 Pr [W/sr]
where
s1 = r dθ s2 = r sin θ dø
s = θr = arco dA = s1 s2
dA = r2 sin θ dø dθ
Pr = ½ Re {E × H*}rˆ [W/m 2 ]
= r2 dΩ
θ = ángulo plano dΩ = elemento de ángulo sólido is the power density also
•El arco total en un círculo: • El área total en una esfera:
= 2πr = 4πr2 known as Poynting vector.
•Angulo total: = 2π [radianes] •Angulo sólido total: =4π [rad2]
=4π [sr]
1 steradian (sr) = (1 radian)2

2
Total radiated power by antenna Radiation Pattern
„ Radiation pattern is Field pattern:
„ Can be calculated as; the 3D plot of the
E (θ , φ )
gain, but usually the En (θ , φ ) =
two dimensional Emax (θ , φ )
Prad = ∫ U ⋅ dΩ [W] horizontal and
vertical cross
or sections of the Power pattern:
radiation pattern are
P (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ )
Prad = ∫ Pr ⋅ dS [W] considered. Fn (θ , φ ) = =
Pmax (θ , φ ) U max (θ , φ )
„ Refers to the
variation of the
relative amplitude of Where U is the radiation
the radiation as a intensity to be defined later.
function of direction.

Total Solid Angle of an antenna Isotropic antenna

„ It’s an hypothetic antenna,
Ω A = ∫∫ Fn (θ , φ )dΩ [sr] z
Ω
žA A
i.e., it does not exist in real
life, yet it’s used as a
4π measuring bar for real
antenna characteristics.
Is as if you changed the
radiation pattern „ It’s a point source that
beam of an antenna Patrón
occupies a negligible space.
Has no directional
into a pencil beam |Pn|
preference.
shape and find out Ω isotropic = ∫∫ (1)dΩ
what’s the equivalent y 4π

solid angle occupied by x „ Its pattern is simply a sphere π 2π

so it has ΩA= Ωisotropic= 4π
this pattern. [steradians]. ∫ ∫ (1) sin θ dθ dφ = 4π
θ =0 φ =0

Radiation Pattern Pattern – polar plot

|En| Patrón |Pn|
„ Whenever we _1 normalizado - 0 dB
1
speak of -.7 -3dB

radiation -10dB Lóbulo

patterns, we
-.25 principal
| ø HPBW
| ("Mainlobe")
normally mean
| |
HPBW HPBW .5

we are at a Patrón de Campo

(Escala lineal)
Patrón de campo o de potencia
(Escala logarítmica) NNBW
distance far
enough from COORDENADAS RECTANGULARES

the antenna
} Lóbulos menores
Note that when plotted in
known as the decibels, the power and
PATRON TIPICO
(Coordenadas polares esféricas, 2 dimensiones)
far field. field patterns look exactly
the same.

3
 Dipole antenna pattern Sidelobes
„ Antennas sometimes show side lobes in
the radiation pattern.

„ Side lobes are peaks in gain other than

the main lobe (the "beam").

„ Side lobes have bad impact to the

antenna quality whenever the system is
being used to determine the direction of a
signal, for example in RADAR systems.
Note the radiation pattern is
donut shaped.

Sidelobes of dipole arrays Antenna Pattern with sidelobes

sidelobe

Many applications require sidelobe levels

(SLL) to be below -20dB.

Gain or Directivity Directivity and Gain

„ All practical antennas radiate more than the
isotropic antenna in some directions and less in
others.
„ Gain is inherently directional; the gain of an
antenna is usually measured in the direction
which it radiates best.

D = Dmax (θ , φ ) = Pmax / Pave = U max /U ave

An isotropic antenna and a practical antenna If lossless antenna, G=D

fed with the same power. Their patters
would compare as in the figure on the right.

4
 Gain or Directivity Directivity
„ For an antenna with a single main lobe
„ Gain is measured by comparing an pointing in the z-direction , ΩA can be
antenna to a model antenna, approximated to the product of the HPBW
typically the isotropic antenna which
radiates equally in all directions.
Ω A ≅ β xz β yz
4πr 2 4π then
D (θ , φ ) = =
∫∫ Fn (θ , φ )dΩ pΩ The Directivity:
4π 4π 4π
D = 4π/Ω A ≅ = Ae
Do = Ω isotropic /Ω A β xz β yz λ2

Far field Beamwidth, HPBW

„ The distance at which the fields „ Is the “distance” in radians o degrees
transmitted by an antenna (spherical) between the direction of the
can be approximated to plane waves. radiation pattern where the radiated
„ It’s defined as power is half of the maximum.
10 log 0.5 = -3 dB
rff = 2 D 2 / λ 20 log 0.707 = -3 dB
D = is the largest physical dimension of the
antenna for " pencil beam" shape;
λ = wavelength of operation λ
rff = distance from the antenna to the observation HPBM ≈ 70 o
point D

Antenna Impedance Antenna efficiency, η

„ An antenna is “seen" by the generator as a load with
impedance ZA , connected to the line. „ Efficiency is the ratio
ZA
of power put into the
Z A = (Rrad + RL ) + jX A antenna terminals to
„ The real part is the radiation resistance plus the
ohmic resistance.
the power actually
radiated Prad = η Pin
• Minimizing impedance differences at each interface will
„ Radiation in an
reduce SWR and maximize power transfer through each part antenna is caused by
of the antenna system. radiation resistance
which can only be
G =η D
• Complex impedance, ZA , of an antenna is related to the
electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use.
„ The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line
measured as part of
and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the total resistance
feed line as an impedance transformer. including loss
More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load (see
„
below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, resistance.
matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or
matching sections such as the gamma match.

5
 Radiation Resistance Radar equation
„ What is a radar?
„ The antenna is connected to a T.L., and
it “sees” it as an impedance. „ Received power by a radar from a single
target is
„ The power radiated is
Prad =
1 2
I o R rad Pt Go2 λ2o
2 Pr = σe − 2τ
(4π ) R
3 4

„ The loss power is Ploss =

1 2
Io R L
2 „ Where σ is the backscattering coefficient of
the target [m2]

Prad R rad
η= =
Prad + Ploss R rad + Rloss

Antenna polarization Antenna Bandwidth

„ The polarization of an antenna is the
polarization of the signals it emits.
• The ionosphere changes the polarization of
signals unpredictably, so for signals which
will be reflected by the ionosphere,
polarization is not crucial.
• However, for line-of-sight communications, it
can make a tremendous difference in signal
quality to have the transmitter and receiver
using the same polarization.
• Polarizations commonly considered are
vertical, horizontal, and circular.
„ The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of
frequencies over which it is effective, usually
centered around the operating or resonant
frequency.
• The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by
several techniques, including using thicker wires,
replacing wires with cages to simulate a thicker wire,
tapering antenna components (like in a feed horn), and
combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and
allowing the natural impedance to select the correct
antenna.

Effective Area Example

„ How a Rx antenna extracts energy „ Determine the direction of maximum
from incident wave and delivers it to radiation , pattern solid angle,
a load? directivity and HPBW in the y-z plane
for an antenna with normalized
Prec λ 2 D radiation intensity given by
Ae = =
Pinc 4π ⎧ 2
⎪⎪cos θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤
π
and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
F (θ , φ ) = ⎨ 2

Above is valid for any antenna under ⎪

⎪⎩0 elsewhere
matched-load conditions
2π
Answers :(0,0), , 6, 90o
3

6
 Friis Transmission Eq.
„ In any communication link, there
is a transmitting antenna and a
receiver with a receiver antenna.

TX
Pt
Pisotr = A t A r Pt
4π R 2 Prec = Ar Pt =
λ2 R 2 RX
G t Pt AP
Pt = Gt Pisotr = = t t
4π R 2 λ2 R 2 G t G r Pt λ 2
Prec =
(4π R )2

Antenna Arrays Planar Arrays

„ Uses many antennas synchronized
with each other to increase
„ Pattern multiplication, AF
⎡ Nψ ⎤
⎡Patrón ⎤ ⎡Factor ⎤ ⎢ sin 2 ⎥
E (r ) = ⎢⎢antena ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢del ⎥ AFN = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ N sin ψ ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣individual⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Arreglo⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
Uniform illumination Tschebyscheff Illumination
⎡ ⎛M ⎞ ⎤⎡ ⎛ N ⎞⎤
|T4 (x)|
⎢ 1 sin⎜ 2 ψ x ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ 1 sin⎜ 2 ψ y ⎟ ⎥
-R AFn (θ , φ ) = ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎥
⎢ M sin⎛ ψ x ⎞ ⎥ ⎢ N ⎛ψ y ⎞ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
1
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
x
-1 0 1x
°