Name/ID__________________________________________________________________________

 
 

FINAL EXAMINATION April 29, 2009

COURSE: ATOC 240
TITLE: Science of Storms

Examiner: Dr. Eyad Atallah

STUDENT NAME _____________________________

McGill ID NUMBER ___________________________

INSTRUCTIONS:

Instructions: Answer your choice of any 25 questions. Each question is worth 4

points. If you answer more than 25 questions, only the first 25 questions will be
marked. All answers should be short-answer, from several words to several
sentences. Provide all answers on the test sheet itself. No notes, texts, or
calculators are permitted. Translation dictionaries are permitted. Please place your
name and student number on each page of this exam. Good luck and have a nice
summer.

Bonus questions (Questions 31 and 32 are bonus questions based on our discussion
of the documentary “An Inconvenient Truth”. Each bonus question is worth 3
points.

This exam comprises 13 pages, including the cover page.

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1) What are some of the factors that contribute to the intensity of cyclones along the East
Coast of the North America?

There are three main reasons here

1) Increased latent heating because of the moisture source of the Atlantic.
2) Enhanced temperature contrasts between the land/ocean
3) The presence of multiple jet streaks.

Note than any 2 of the three are sufficient for full credit.

2) Draw a typical configuration of a low pressure system and its associated warm and cold
fronts. Be sure to indicate in your sketch the location of the relatively warm and cold air
masses.

Cool/cold

Cold Warm

3) People often confuse hail and ice pellets. What are the differences in the formation
processes of these two precipitation types?

The answer here has to do with how they are formed. Hail is created from small ice particles
being carried by a strong updraft through a cloud, where it comes into contact with supercooled
water, creating a growing ball of ice. The hail then starts to fall, until it is picked up by the
updraft again and carried back into the cloud. This happens several times! Consequently hail
stones are comprised of many layers. On the other hand ice pellets form when snow ALMOST
completely melts as it is falling, but then passes through a sufficiently deep freezing layer near
the surface to refreeze.
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4) What is the typical progression of precipitation types that you would expect during a
winter storm, ahead of an approaching warm front?

A typical progression would be snow to ice pellets to freezing rain to rain. Half credit
should be given if the relative order is correct, but the list progresses from rain to snow.

5) Two things that are important in determining the strength of lake effect snow events are
the degree and the depth of instability. Explain what each of these terms represent and the
impact it can have on lake effect snowstorms.

The degree of instability is essentially given by how steep the lapse rate is. So essentially,
the greater the difference in temperature between the lake and the air above the lake, the more
unstable it is, and the heavier the precipitation will be. The depth of the instability is simply how
deep the conditionally unstable layer is. The deeper that it is, the larger the vertical extent of the
cloud that forms, and the stronger the lake effect snowstorm is.

6) What is the impact of wind speed on lake effect snowstorms?

The issue if the wind speed is essentially one of time spent over the lake. If the wind is relatively
slow, the air parcel has more time to pick up moisture from the lake resulting in heavier lake
effect bands. The one caveat to this however is that the faster the wind speed, the more likely that
waves and sea spray are created which in turn makes evaporation more efficient. For this
question EITHER argument should be accepted.
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7) Why does most of the snow in a lake effect snowstorm fall on the DOWNWIND side of
the lake?

The answer here is starts with the fact that friction is stronger over land than over water.
Consequently, there is convergence of the wind on the downwind side of the lake. (3 points) This
convergence leads to rising motion/adiabatic cooling and eventually cloud production on the
downwind side of the lake. (1 point)

8) Discuss the impact of wind direction on the intensity of lake effect snowstorms.

When the wind is blowing down that LONG axis of the lake, usually a single and very intense
band of snow develops (small area, but large accumulations). However, if the wind is blowing
along the short axis of the lake, the result is a multiple less intense snow bands (large area, but
small accumulations).

9) Describe at least two conditions necessary for the formation of a very cold air mass.

The air mass has to be spend a significant amount of time

1) Over high latitudes(the idea is there shouldn't be much incoming solar radiation)
2) Over a land mass(water would act to heat the air mass in the winter)
3) Preferably over snow covered areas as this is useful for radiative cooling.
4) The air mass should be generally cloud free.
Any 2 will get full credit.
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10) Why are there more cold air outbreaks over southern Canada than over parts of extreme
north-western Canada?

The idea here is that the coldest air masses are usually located over north-western Canada.
Therefore, their “normal” conditions generally represent temperatures that are about as cold as
they can get. When the cold air masses are displaced, the result is a cold wave over parts of
southern Canada, and a general warm or mild period in north-western Canada. Or in other words,
air that is coming from almost anywhere else would actually represent a warm-up from their
normal conditions.

11) Once a cold air mass forms, why do they generally travel to the southeast?

The idea here is that air masses follow the jet stream and that truly cold air masses are generally
associated with surface high pressure. Since surface high pressure systems form on the front side
of an upper-level ridge, the surface high pressure system must necessarily move to the southeast
in the direction of the upper level flow. (this alone is sufficient for full credit).

Another “side” answer is that the cold air masses are channelled by the Rocky Mountains to the
southeast. This answer on its own is worth 2 points.

12) Briefly explain why storms with freezing or frozen precipitation are uncommon in
Western Europe.

The question here is VERY similar to a homework question from earlier in the year. The idea
here is that the coldest air masses over Europe and Asia form over Siberia. Since the jet stream
generally flows from west to east, it is very unusual to get an air mass cold enough to support
snow over Western Europe. Alternatively, the answer could read that the relatively warm
Atlantic waters to the west of Europe modifies any air masses sufficiently that they become too
warm to support snow.
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13) Why is strong wind shear detrimental to the strength of a tropical cyclone?

The idea here is that strong vertical wind shear tilts the convection associated with a hurricane.
The end result is that the latent heat release (which serves as the primary energy source in the
storm) is spread over a much larger area, resulting in a weaker tropical cyclone.

14) In general, during what season are tropical cyclones most frequent? Be sure to briefly
explain your answer.

Some variance in the answer is acceptable here. Either late summer, early fall, or both are
acceptable answers. The reason is that this is the time of year when sea surface temperatures are
at their warmest, because the ocean has a higher heat capacity and warms more slowly than the
land masses. If someone chooses to answer in terms of months the answer should be from
August to October but this should only get 3 points as it is specific to the Northern Hemisphere.

15) Why are hurricanes more likely in New York City (40° N latitude) than in Los Angeles,
California (34° N)?

The idea here is that the water is warmer near New York than it is near Los Angeles. This is
because the Gulf Stream is a warm current that runs northward along the east coast of North
America. The West Coast has a cold current that runs southward from the Gulf of Alaska
towards California.
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16) Briefly explain why the eye of a hurricane is generally cloud free.

The short answer is that the eye is cloud free because of subsidence in the eye. The subsidence
results in air that is warmed through compression, and consequently has a lower relative
humidity. (This answer is sufficient) For completeness, the subsiding air is a small fraction of all
the air rushing upp through the eye wall. Most of that air get “evacuated” away from the storm in
the outflow layer, but a small percentage of that air sinks back down in the eye. (Be prepared for
a diagram here)

17) Discuss at least two trigger mechanisms for the formation of tropical cyclones.

1) The intertropical convergence zone ITCZ. The convergence of air at the surface often
results in thunderstorms which can act as a trigger for a hurricane.
2) Easterly waves can act as a trigger for a hurricane through convergence on the east side
of the wave.
3) Finally, a cold front penetrating into tropical latitudes can act as a trigger for
thunderstorms.

18) You live in Tampa Bay, on the West Coast of Florida and there is a hurricane moving
from west to east directly towards your location. If you decide to evacuate, would you be
better off moving to the north or south? (Briefly explain your answer)

The answer here is that you would be better off moving to the north. This is because the winds
blow counter clockwise in a hurricane in the Northern Hemisphere. Consequently, the winds on
the north or “left side” of the hurricane in this case will both be weaker AND offshore, resulting
in less wind and storm surge damage on the north side of the hurricane.
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19) Why are North American thunderstorms most common over the south-eastern United
States?

The answer here is very simply the proximity of the Gulf of Mexico as a source of warm/moist
air.

20) In general, thunderstorms are more likely along and ahead of cold fronts than along and
ahead of warm fronts. Briefly explain why this is true. (Hint: think in terms of stability)

The answer is that thunderstorms are more likely ahead of cold fronts. This is because the air
mass ahead of cold fronts is relatively warm and unstable. The stability ahead of a warm front is
quite high, because you have warm air riding OVER cold air at the surface.

21) A balloon sounding indicates that the wind shear over your location is VERY weak. If a
thunderstorm forms in the afternoon/evening, how long should you expect the storm to
last? (Be sure to explain your answer)

The weak wind shear suggests that the thunderstorm will be an air mass thunderstorm.
Consequently the life cycle would be on the order of an hour or two max. The reason is that the
updraft in an air mass thunderstorm becomes quickly overwhelmed due to drag from the
precipitation that develops.
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22) Briefly discuss at least two indications that a microburst might be occurring.

Visual indications are

1) If it is a dry microburst, you will see a wall of dust or dirt quickly advancing
2) If it is a wet microburst the appearance of the rainshaft will be such that it is wider at the
surface than aloft. This is because you are seeing the air spread out once the microburst
hits the ground.

If you are in a plane, a sudden change in altitude is a good indication of a microburst.

If you are on the ground a sudden strong gust of cold air is a good indication of a
microburst.

23) Briefly discuss how a microburst might form. (Hint: think in terms of cold air formation)

Most microbursts are the result of evaporative cooling. Relatively dry air at the jet stream level
mixes with wet air associated with the thunderstorm updraft. The end result is that the air cools
through evaporation. After the air cools, it becomes heavier (denser) than the surrounding air and
starts to sink rapidly, resulting in a microburst.

24) Why do the upper halves of thunderstorms tend to be positively charged while the lower
halves tend to be negatively charge?

The distribution of charge in a thunderstorm occurs because of the differing weights of the snow
and hail particles. The lighter snow particles, which become positively charged upon contact
with hail stones through the process of interface charging, are easily carried into the upper part of
the thunderstorm by the updraft. On the other hand, the heavier hail stones which are negatively
charged fall to the bottom half of the thunderstorm, resulting in the typical distribution of charge
we see in a thunderstorm.
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25) Given that the bottom half of a thunderstorm is generally negatively charged, what charge
(if any) should be expect on the surface of the earth? (Be sure to explain your answer)

The short answer here is that the ground should become positively charged because of inductive
charging. Remember that like charges repel each other, so the electric field created by the
negative ions in the base of the thunderstorm repels the electrons near the surface. Thus, because
of the absence of electrons near the surface, there is a net positive charge on the ground.

26) The wind near the surface is blowing from the south at 10 knots, while the wind at 5 km
is blowing from the west at 80 knots. If a thunderstorm forms, should you be worried
about the possible development of a tornado? Explain.

A tornado is a threat in this situation because of the high values of wind shear. The high wind
shear values produce strong rotation about a horizontal axis. The updraft of the thunderstorm
then tilts this rotation into the vertical axis, potentially creating a tornado.

27) Why do tornadoes generally form at the interface between the main updraft and the rear
flank downdraft?

Tornadoes occur at the interface between the updraft and rear flank downdraft for two reasons:
1) This location acts to stretch the rotating tube of air, increasing its rotation rate through the
conservation of angular momentum.
2) The downdraft act to bring the rotation to the surface.
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28) Briefly describe the difference between a tornado watch and a tornado warning. In
general, what is the approximate lead time for a tornado warning?

A tornado watch means that conditions are favourable for the creation of a tornado, while a
tornado warning means that a tornado is imminent. Warnings are issued when a tornado is either
sighted, or Doppler radar indicates strong rotation in a thunderstorm. The lead time is about 15
minutes for a tornado warning.

29) Discuss how people can impact the frequency/severity of drought.

People can impact the frequency or severity of drought in several ways:

1) Deforestation can decrease evapotransporation
2) Heavy agriculture can act to dry up lakes, rivers
3) Concrete infrastructures can increase the amount of runoff from rainfall
4) Greenhouse gas emissions warm the air, increasing the rate of evaporation.

There are other possibilities here as well and the grader is advised to use his/her
judgement.
Note any two are sufficient for full credit.

30) Briefly discuss at least 3 factors that make cities warmer than the surrounding
countryside.

Concrete infrastructure absorbs solar radiation more effectively than grass/trees resulting in
higher temperatures.
Heat from mechanical sources such as cars and air conditioners also lead to higher temperatures.
Sky scrapers reflect a higher percentage of radiation towards the surface of the earth.
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31) Give at least one argument presented in “An Inconvenient Truth” for attributing the
current climate warming to anthropogenic green house gas emissions.

32) Al Gore suggests that storms such as hurricanes will become more frequent and intense
as the earth continues to warm. Discuss whether or not this statement is currently
supported by the data at our disposal.
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Bonus Questions_____________________