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5. Detailed
We have found the Zachman framework to be representation
(component)
useful for organizing the models of our business 6. Real system
enterprise and of our customer. In this paper, we
examine the Zachman framework, show what Table 1. Empty Zachman Framework
kinds of models go in each of its cells and look
Table 2. Models for Building a House That Differ in Detail and Nature
This means that no cell is an island. Each cell is Each organization provides facilities for batting
fundamentally related with other cells in the practice, conditioning and skills development;
same row and same column. From a practical column 1 (what), row 3 (system model).
standpoint, information in multiple columns is
typically discovered simultaneously while The National Collegiate Athletic Association
constructing models in a given row. It is (NCAA) controls college sports. In this role, it
suggested that this information be captured in has created rules governing the allowed
models in the appropriate cell. dimensions and performance of aluminum bats.
For example, the bat shall not weigh less (in
Each row (view) has at least one role ounces) than its length (in inches) (Crisco, 1997:
(stakeholder). That stakeholder’s concerns Nathan, 2003). Financial models could be in
would be the primary focus of the Why cell in every column. Those appropriate for column 1
that row. include cost of equipment such as the bats, cost
of training facilities and cost of physical
conditioning equipment; column 1 (what), row 2
BASEBALL EXAMPLE (business model).
Now we will take models from Baseball and The creator of baseball, until recently believed to
show where they fit within the context of the be Abner Doubleday, would have listed rules,
Zachman framework. When possible, we bats, balls, players, and fields among the list of
selected models that have been published in things important to the game. The rules of ball-
peer-reviewed journals. Although in Tables 1 to and-stick games (baseball, softball, cricket,
4 we print the cells from top to bottom, we think, tennis, etc.) are written to challenge the
for the purpose of this paper, they are best read physiological limits of the human in many
and discussed from bottom to top. dimensions (Regan, 1992). The bat is regulated
to make the game exciting, but traditional;
Column 1, What (data). The physical product column 1 (what), row 1 (scope). By considering
(data item) depicted in column 1 is the baseball other ball-and-stick games, we are testing and
bat; column 1 (what), row 6 (real system). defining the scope of our chosen enterprise.
There are many models for a baseball bat that We do not have enough room in this paper to
explain the Center of Percussion (CoP), moment cover all of Baseball. That would take thousands
of inertia (MoI), coefficient of restitution (CoR), of models. Therefore, we only show slivers of
etc. (Adair, 1994; Cross, 1998; Nathan, 2000 Baseball. For example, in column 1, we only
and 2003; Sawicki, Hubbard & Stronge, 2003; looked at the baseball bat. In contrast, we could
Bahill, 2004). From the perspective of a bat have looked at the ball, or the bat and the ball.
manufacturer, this detailed representation of the We used a different sliver for each column, but
bat can be represented as a model depicting the even at that, we did not restrict our models to
required length, the taper of the handle, the only that one sliver. For example, sometimes we
width of the barrel, the bat weight, etc. This talk about major league baseball and sometimes
model maps to column 1 (what), row 5 (detailed we talk about university baseball governed by
representation). the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA).
The swing of a bat can be modeled with a
translation and two rotations, one about the The sliver used in column 1 (what) was the
batter’s spine and the other between the two physical baseball bat. An alternate sliver for
hands (Brancazio, 1987; Watts & Bahill, 2000); column 1 is information. Multiple TV cameras in
column 1 (what), row 5 (detailed representation). major league stadiums pick up the flight of the
pitch. These TV signals can be used to construct
There is an ideal bat weight and a best weight a computer model for the flight of the ball. These
distribution for each batter (Bahill & Karnavas, data can be used for many purposes. When they
1989 and 1991; Bahill & Morna Freitas, 1995; are used by the TV networks to display to the TV
Bahill, 2004). The team helps the individual audience the location of the pitch relative to the
Column 2, How (function). The activity Two strategies are used by the batter for
modeled in column 2 is one pitch and people’s tracking the pitch using the saccadic and smooth
response to it; column 2 (how), row 6 (real pursuit eye movement systems (Bahill & LaRitz,
system). 1984; McHugh & Bahill, 1985). A
neurophysiologic model shows how the batter
Once the ball is in the air, the movement of the predicts where and when the ball will cross the
pitch depends only on velocity, spin rate and plate (Bahill and. Karnavas, 1993; Bahill &
spin axis (Watts & Bahill, 2000; Bahill & Baldwin, Baldwin, 2004). The batter uses the spin of the
2004; Bahill & Baldwin, 2006); column 2 (how), ball and other visual clues to predict the ball’s
row 5 (detailed representation). motion (Bahill, Baldwin & Venkateswaran, 2005;
Column 3, Where (network). The sliver for The count is the model for how the batter is
column 3 is the baseball field; column 3 (where), doing during an at-bat. Pitch by pitch information
row 6 (real system). is usually recorded by the teams, but it is not
generally available, although many people are
The human brain does not have x, y and z trying to get access to this information; column 4
coordinates of objects. Humans must track (who), row 5 (detailed representation).
objects using neurophysiological parameters. As
a result outfielders run a curved path when Defining and locating the sweet spot of the bat is
tracking down fly balls (McBeath, Shaffer & a human-machine interface problem: the teams
Kaiser, 1995; Shaffer & McBeath, 2002); column help individuals understand this issue (Bahill,
3 (where), row 5 (detailed representation) 2004). The sweet spot of the bat is four inches
wide, but only one-third of an inch high (Baldwin
Batters must predict where and when the ball & Bahill, 2004). This was determined using a
will cross the plate (Karnavas, Bahill & Regan, new performance index of getting a hit, rather
1990; Bahill & Baldwin, 2004); column 3 than the old performance index of getting a
(where), row 5 (detailed representation). home run; column 4 (who), row 4 (technology
model).
Before every pitch all fielders mentally rehearse
where they will throw the ball if they receive a Earlier, we discussed horizontal and vertical
ground ball or a fly ball and they establish integration of models. The two previous
understandings with nearby fielders about where paragraphs offer an opportunity to explore this
each player will go; column 3 (where), row 4 for the baseball models. In basic research, one
(technology model) research group often uses the results of another
group, but they seldom use the actual products.
The placement in the stadium of home plate An exception to this was the model of Baldwin &
affects the area behind the plate, the design of Bahill, 2004. This model used new programs as
protective netting, the orientation to the sun, the well as the equations and the actual programs of
distance to the fences and therefore safety and Nathan, 2003; Sawicki, Hubbard & Stronge,
playing performance; column 3 (where), row 3 2003; and Bahill & Karnavas, 1993. Because the
(system model). models were not designed to be used by others,
George Steinbrenner, owner of the New York Sometimes pitching rotations are planned, but
Yankees, evaluates the worth of his players sometimes they are merely a default, e.g.,
traditionally, and he has the most successful “Spahn and Sain and pray for rain;” column 5
high-salary team in the major leagues. The team (when), row 3 (system model)
Why does the pitcher decide to throw a fastball, Models in row 1 often test the scope of the
a slider, a curveball or a changeup, column 6 enterprise. Angus (2006) uses baseball models
(why), row 5 (detailed representation). to teach general management techniques;
column 6 (why), row 1 (scope).
Critical flicker fusion frequency (CFFF) explains
why pitchers think there is a difference between Gould (2003) explains the intellectual complexity
the two-seam and the four-seam fastballs that causes sagacious Americans to be
although physics shows no difference (Bahill, fascinated with baseball; column 6 (why), row 1
Baldwin & Venkateswaran, 2005; Bahill, 2005); (scope).
column 6 (why), row 5 (detailed representation).
No skip
level 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3
links
Table 4. Number of Papers with Primary Emphasis Indicated in the Related Cell
For the Information Systems Journal papers, we from the beginning, you will likely end up with
found that case studies and papers dealing with point-in-time solutions that do not consider
single software or a particular technique would enterprise-wide implications.
be of interest to researchers and practitioners
and we categorized them as Detailed The big picture. The purpose of identifying a
Representation (row 5). Literature surveys, set of models is to understand enterprises
papers summarizing interviews with many consisting of organizations and systems. The
companies and papers about the usage of purpose of the individual models could be to (1)
software were categorized as Technology understand an existing system or organization,
Models (row 4). Papers about frameworks, (2) create a new design or system, (3) control a
bodies of knowledge and general models for system, (4) improve performance, (5) improve a
how to design and develop information systems system or an organization (6) increase return on
would be of interest to educators and managers investment, (7) plan system development, (8)
and they were categorized as System Models point out important assumptions, (9) help
(row 3). Rows 1 and 2 needed no further formulate system structure, (10) suggest new
elaboration. experiments, (11) guide future data collection
efforts, (12) suggest accuracy for calculating
The contract for Alex Rodriguez was cited in parameters, (13) adjust numerical values of
row-2 (Team Owner) and column-4 (People). parameters, (14) allocate resources, (15) detect
The case study discussing this contract (Cohen critical criteria, (16) identify cost drivers, (17)
& Wallace, 2003; Cohen, 2003) mentions identify bottlenecks, (18) help sell the product
dozens of things that were considered: all of and (19) reduce risk.
them are in the upper-right corner; none of them
are in the lower-left corner. Modeling business processes. To understand
a business process such as design and
Given that we are studying Modeling and management of information systems in a
Simulation in the Enterprise, in which row and particular company, that company could create a
column should this paper be categorized? We database that contains data that answers these
think that it is row 3 (System Model), column 1 questions for each information system they
(What) and column 2 (How). have. Purpose? Owner? Architecture? Inputs?
Outputs? Functions? Interfaces? Interacts with?
Primitives. A pure Zachman framework Cost? Business case? Level? Who? What?
contains primitive models, that is, models that When? Where? Why? How? Standard (e.g.,
deal with only one column at a time. Most UML, RUP, CORBA)? Modeling tool? Simulation
practical models, like Figure 1, are called tool? Zachman row? Zachman column? Then
composite models, because they form a they could reduce the number of classes using
composite of primitive elements from more than affinity analysis. And finally, they could abstract
one Zachman column. Zachman says that this into a metamodel that shows how that
composite models should be derived from company designs and manages information
primitive models: if composite models are built systems.