3.

WAVE LOADS*

A body submerged in water that is moving (waves, currents) will experience forces.
We will first look at two different cases:

1) Submerged cylinder exposed to constant current (constant velocity)

2) Submerged cylinder in a constant accelerating current

Finally, we will assume that cylinders in waves experience a combination of these two cases.
We will do this for slender cylinders, i.e. cylinders with a small diameter compared to the
wave length, and later extend this to larger cylinders. The difference is that we assume that
water will flow around the cylinders in the case of a small diameter, whereas some of the
water will be reflected if the diameter is larger.

3.1 Submerged Cylinder Exposed to Constant Current

Consider a cylinder submerged into water with no waves, but with a current with constant
velocity c0 . The figures show the cylinder from above, and are typical pictures taken from
experiments. Figure 1 shows the case with almost symmetric current on upstream and
downstream sides. The picture is very similar to the case where we presume ideal fluid, no
friction between the water particles, and no eddy currents. Gradually, eddy currents arise on
the downstream side, due to friction between the cylinder and the flow. These eddy currents
will eventually get so large that they will leave the cylinder, see Figure 3. When this happens,
we get variations in the force acting on the cylinder. We will get forces acting both parallel
and perpendicular to the current direction.

Figure 1: Current Figure 2: Increasing eddy currents Figure 3: Large eddy currents

In general, the flow pattern is depending on

• Current velocity
• Time
• Diameter of the cylinder
• The roughness of the cylinder

*
This chapter is based on lecture notes written by O.T.Gudmestad
We are often differentiating between small and large bodies. A small body has small
characteristic dimensions compared to the wave length. The point is that the body is not
disturbing the velocity and acceleration of the fluid considerably.
The force components on a submerged cylinder in constant current:

• In current direction: Drag force

• Perpendicular to current direction: Lift force

These forces are caused by:

• Friction between fluid and cylinder, which cause eddy currents. There are differences
between a very smooth cylinder and a rough cylinder (e.g. due to marine growth). A
rough cylinder will set up larger eddy currents and the forces will be larger.
• Difference in pressure between upstream and downstream side. This difference is
caused by the fact that the water particles in the eddy currents on the downstream side
have high velocity. High velocity means lower pressure, due to the Bernoulli equation.
Hence, we have a lower pressure on the downstream side, which causes a force in the
current direction. This principle is fundamental when it comes to airplanes, see Figure
4. The wings have a shape so that the wind has higher velocity above the wing than
underneath. Hence, the pressure is largest underneath, which results in a lifting force.

Figure 4: wing exposed to air current

3.1.1 The drag force

In order to estimate the force acting on a submerged cylinder, we could have integrated the
pressure. Unfortunately, the eddy currents are very difficult to describe analytically, and we
would have needed non-linear theory. However, experiments have shown that the drag force
f D per unit length of the cylinder is approximated to be

1
fD = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C D ⋅ D ⋅ u⋅ | u | (1)
2

Where ρ is the density of the water, C D is the drag coefficient determined from experiments,
D is the diameter of the cylinder and u is the horizontal water particle velocity.

Note that

• u⋅ | u |= ( sign of u ) ⋅ u 2 has the value u 2 , but it always follows the direction of u.

Hence, the force has the same sign as the direction of the flow.
 • It is always a good idea to do a dimension control.
Since f D = force / unit length = N / m , we expect that the expression for f D has the
same unit:

1 kg m m kg kgm 1 N
⋅ ρ ⋅ C D ⋅ D ⋅ u⋅ | u | ~ 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ m ⋅ ⋅ ~ 2 ~ 2 ⋅ ~
2 m s s s s m m

• u = u(z,t) is varying with the water depth, so that f D will also vary with water depth.

• The total force acting on the submerged cylinder is

surface

FD (t ) = ∫f
−d
D ( z , t )dz

The maximum total force is when the surface is at its maximum:

max surface

FD (t ) max = ∫f
−d
D ( z , t )dz

We are here assuming that the top of the cylinder is reaching the water surface at all
times.

3.1.2 The drag coefficient

The drag coefficient C D is dimensionless and a function of several parameters as the

Reynolds number Re for the flow and the roughness k of the cylinder surface:

C D = C D ( Re , k / d )

The bigger k is, the bigger C D is and the bigger f D is. We must therefore try to keep
platform legs from being too rough, which implies that seaweed and mussels must be
removed if possible.

The Reynolds number Re is dimensionless and given as

u⋅D
Re =
ν

Here, u is the velocity of the water particle (mean fluid velocity), D is the diameter of the
cylinder and ν is the viscosity of the water. Since u is decreasing with depth, Re is
decreasing with depth. Hence, we should use different drag coefficients with depth. There are
many standards where we can find values for the drag coefficient, i.e. the Norsok standard N-
003. Usually, we use one drag coefficient over the complete structure.
 Figure 5: The drag coefficient

Figure 5 shows how the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number are connected. As we can
see, the drag coefficient drops dramatically for Re ~ 10 5 . When C D ~ 1.2, the Reynolds
number is very small and we have undercritical flow, i.e. large eddy currents and hence large
forces.

Figure 6: Undercritical flow

When C D ~ 0.3, Re ~ 10 5 and we get critical flow. Now the eddy currents are much less
stretched out and we have less force.

Figure 7: Critical flow

When Re ~ 10 7 , we have overcritical flow. However, C D will depend upon the roughness of
the cylinder. In general, we have that:

• C D ,rough ~ 1.0 − 1.1

• C D , smooth ~ 0.7 − 0.9

For currents in the ocean, u ⋅ D is typically in the range 1-10 m / s ⋅ m . The viscosity for
water is approximatelyν ~ 10 −6 m 2 / s , so that Re ~ 10 6 − 10 7 .

3.1.3 The lifting force

The lifting force f L per unit length of the cylinder is approximated after experiments to be

1
fL = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C L ⋅ D ⋅ u⋅ | u | (2)
2

Where C L is the lifting coefficient and the other terms are the same as above. Recall that we
here discuss the force acting on bodies in constant current.

3.2 Submerged Cylinder in a Constant Accelerating Current

Consider a cylinder submerged into water with no waves, but with a constant accelerating
current. What would have happened if we removed the cylinder? The pressure against the
surface of the “imaginary” cylinder results in a force that is sufficient to give the mass the
acceleration it has. The force per unit length is given as:

πD 2
f = f FK = m ⋅ a = m ⋅ u& = ( ρ ⋅ ) ⋅ u&
4

Here, ρ is the density of the fluid, and ρ ⋅ πD 2 / 4 is the mass of a unit length of the cylinder.
If we put the physical cylinder back, the force must be the same as for the imaginary cylinder.
The force f FK is called the Froude Krylov force. If D / L < 1 / 5 , where L is the wave length,
the acceleration u& is assumed to be constant and equal to the acceleration of the flow at
z = −d / 2 .

For real cylinders which fulfill the requirement D / L < 1 / 5 = 0.2 , the fluid near the cylinder
will be dragged along the flow. We will therefore get an additional mass which is accelerated.
The total mass force acting on the cylinder per unit length will now be

πD 2
f M = (m + m A ) ⋅ u& = ( ρ ⋅ ) ⋅ C M ⋅ u&
4
Here, m A is the additional mass, and C M = (1 + m A / m) is the mass coefficient, which also is
dimensionless. When the acceleration is not changing much over time C M ~ 2 . The mass
force is sometimes also called the inertia force.

3.3 Submerged Cylinder in a Wave – a Combined Situation

In the case of waves, the cylinder sees a combination of velocities and accelerations for the
water particles. In case of a cylinder that is small enough so that the acceleration is constant
over the cylinder, i.e. D / L < 1 / 5 , Morison and several others formulated a total force acting
on a unit length of a cylinder in a wave:

πD 2 1
f ( z, t ) = f M + f D = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ u& + ⋅ ρ ⋅ C D ⋅ D ⋅ u⋅ | u | (3)
4 2

This is called the Morrison’s equation, and is based on experiments. Note that this force is just
the sum of the mass force and the drag force. The total force acting on the entire cylinder is

surface ξ ξ
F (t ) = ∫ f ( z, t )dz = ∫ f
−d −d
M ( z , t )dz + ∫f
−d
D ( z , t )dz

Under the crest top, u& = 0 and f M ( z , t ) = 0 . The total force is hence

ξ0
F (t ) = ∫f
−d
D ( z , t )dz

When the wave crosses the mean water level, u = 0 and f D ( z , t ) = 0 . The total force is then

0
F (t ) = ∫f
−d
M ( z , t )dz

Unlike the case of constant current, where it took time before eddy currents were created, it is
enough time for this in the case of waves. The question is if it is time to create a drag term. If
many eddy currents are created for each half wave period, the drag force will be important.
However, if there are not that many eddy currents, the situation is close to when we have
constant acceleration. Between these cases, we have complicated conditions.

3.3.1 The Keulegan-Carpenter number

At constant current we looked at the Reynolds number. We now introduce a new parameter
that is being used to classify the wave forces; the Keulegan-Carpenter number

u 0T
N KC = (4)
D
Here, u 0 is the amplitude of the wave velocity, i.e. the biggest water particle velocity under a
wave crest, T is the wave period and D is the diameter of the cylinder.

Discussion of the Keulegan-Carpenter number:

• When N KC is small, we either have that u 0T is small or D is large. The first

possibility implies that the flow past the cylinder is “slow” and there would not be
many eddy currents created before the flow term changes direction. The second
possibility implies that we do not have too many eddy currents generated. For both
cases, the mass term will dominate. Remember the requirement D / L < 1 / 5 in case of
constant acceleration past the cylinder. If D > 0.2 ⋅ L there will be so many reflections
from the wave hitting the cylinder so that these must be taken into consideration.
• When N KC is large, we have rapid flow (large u 0 ) or small cylinders. The current past
the cylinder has almost constant velocity, except for the many eddy currents behind
the cylinder. Now, the drag term will dominate.
• In the case of deep water, we make use of the relation derived in the chapter about
linear wave theory and get

2π
⋅ ξ 0 ⋅ e kz ⋅ T
u 0T ξ 0 ⋅ ω ⋅ e kz ⋅ T 2π ⋅ ξ 0 ⋅ e kz π ⋅ H kz
N KC = = = T = = ⋅e
D D D D D

At still water level we get that

π ⋅H
N KC =
D

But which values for N KC are considered to be small and large? As a thumb rule, we have that

• The drag term will dominate for D / H < 0.1 ⇒ H / D > 10 ⇒ π ⋅ H / D = N KC > 30
• The mass term will dominate for 0.5 < D / H < 1.0 ⇒ 2 ⋅ π > π ⋅ H / D = N KC > π
• In between, both drag and mass terms must be taken into account.
• If D / H > 1.0 ⇒ π ⋅ H / D = N KC < π , parts of the wave will be reflected. We say that
we have potential flow when reflection is important.

3.3.2 Discussion of the Morison’s equation

• The Morison’s equation is empirical, meaning that it is derived from experiments.

Two constants are included:

o C D - drag coefficient
o C M = C I - mass coefficient

These are found from experiments, see recommendations in Norsok N-003 (Action
and Action Effects). The word “Action” is an extended term which includes loads,
deformations etc.
 • We can extend the formula to other types of geometries:

πD 2 1
f ( z, t ) = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ u& + ⋅ ρ ⋅ CD ⋅ {
D ⋅ u⋅ | u |
4
{ 2 Ap
∀

Here, ∀ is the cross section of the structure, whereas A p is the projected area of the
structure. The current flow is very different depending on the different geometries of
the structure. We have different drag and mass coefficients, C M and C D , for different
structures.

Figure 8: Different geometries

• We have been looking at regular waves that do not break. In deep water regular waves
H
break when ≥ 0.14 , and we get a slamming load.
L
• In order to use Morison’s equation, we must have that the acceleration does not
change much over the diameter of the cylinder, i.e. D / L < 0.2 . Also, the amplitude a
of the motion of the cylinder should not be too big, i.e. a / D < 0.2 .

As a summary, Morison’s formula is applicable when we have

• Non-breaking wave; H / L < 0.14

• D / L < 0 .2
• a / D < 0 .2

3.3.3 Drag load versus mass load

We will here consider two interesting cases depending on the size of the cylinder. For both
cases, the diameter is small enough to assume constant acceleration and no considerable
reflections, i.e. D / L < 0.2 . Also, we will here assume deep water and look at the situation at
the still surface, where z = 0. Hence, we have that N KC = π ⋅ H / D .

• Case 1: D / L < 0.2 and 0.5 < D / H < 1.0

According to the discussion above, the mass term will dominate. We than have that

0
πD 2
F (t ) max = ∫ ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ u& dz
−d
4
 Recall from the chapter about linear wave theory that the horizontal acceleration u& is
largest at the still surface. This is why we integrate up to z = 0.

• Case 2: D / L < 0.2 and D / H < 0.1

According to the discussion above, the drag term will dominate. We then have that

ξ0
ρ
F (t ) max = ∫ 2 ⋅C
−d
D ⋅ D ⋅ u⋅ | u | dz

The horizontal velocity u is largest under the wave crest, which is why we integrate up
to z = ξ 0 .

3.3.4 The torque with respect to the seabed

When Morison’s formula is applicable, the total force acting on the cylinder is

ξ ξ
FH = ∫f
−d
M ( z , t )dz + ∫f
−d
D ( z , t )dz

The forces acting on the cylinder will cause a torque with respect to the bottom:

∫[f ( z, t ) + f D ( z, t )]⋅ [d + z ] dz ≈ d ⋅ FH
2
MH = M
−d
3

A good approximation that does not require integration is to let the lever arm be
approximately 2d / 3 .

Figure 9: Schematic drawing

3.3.5 Example – The effect of current on drag force

Let us consider the drag forces in the case where we have both wave and current:

1
f D ( z, t ) = ⋅ ρ ⋅ C D ⋅ D ⋅ (u + u s )⋅ | u + u s |
2
Here, u is the particle velocity under a wave and u s is the current velocity. A good question to
ask here is if C D has the same value for both cases. Usually, we assume so. Typical values at
still surface level are u = 4 m/s and u s = 1 m/s. For these values we compare the drag force in
the case of both wave and current with the case of just wave:

1
f D , wave &current ⋅ ρ ⋅ D ⋅ C D ,wave &current ⋅ (4 + 1)⋅ | 4 + 1 |
2 25
= ≈ ≈ 1.56
f D , wave 1 16
⋅ ρ ⋅ D ⋅ C D , wave ⋅ (4)⋅ | 4 |
2

We see that the drag force increases with 56% due to the current.

3.3.6 Some words about current

Current is very dependent on local conditions, and must therefore be measured locally. The
current is influenced by

• Tidal effects
• Temperature differences in the water
• The Gulf Stream
• Coriolis effects
• Salinity effects
• Currents due to winds
• Storm effects (accumulation of water during a storm, water flows back after the storm)

Even if there are no wave effects in deeper water, there may be current effects. Marine
operations are influenced by current, and current measurements are needed. Also, the drag
force is influenced by the current. When large currents occur at the same time as large waves,
structures must withstand this. PSA (The petroleum safety Authority) has made a standard
that all sea structures should fulfill,

100 year wave + 100 year wind + 10 year current

Here, a 100 year wave means that it is 1% probability of exceedance per year. In general, we
have that

• 100 year wave ~ H max = 28m , T = 15s

• 100 year wind ~ 33m/s
• 100 year current ~ 1.5m/s at surface
• 10 year current ~ 1.2m/s at surface

Previously NPD (Norwegian Petroleum Directorate) had the role of both following the
resource and the safety related matters on the shelf.

The current is assumed to be constant at the surface, and is then decreasing the further down
we go. A typical current profile is illustrated in Figure 10.
 Figure 10: Typical current profile

Example: Storm scenario

This example will summarize many concepts derived in both this chapter and the previous
chapters regarding hydrodynamics and linear wave theory. Figure 11 shows a cylinder in a
wave. We have the following scenario:

• Wave amplitude ξ 0 = 8 m
• Wave height 2ξ 0 = H = 16 m
• Water depth d = 200 m
• Wave length L = 300 m
• Cylinder diameter D = 10 m
• C M = 2.0 and C D = 1.0
• Significant wave height H S is the average height (through the crest) of the one-third
highest waves valid for the indicated time period, normally 12 hours
• Experiments have shown that H max ≈ 1.86 ⋅ H S in a three hours storm

Figure 11: Cylinder exposed to a wave

a) Is this deep water?

d 200 2 1
= = > , so yes, the water is considered deep.
L 300 3 2
b) What is the wave period?
g
In deep water, the dispersion relation between wave length and period is L = ⋅T 2 ,
2π
2π 2π
so that T 2 = ⋅L = ⋅ 300 ≈ 192 ⇒ T = 13.9 s
g 9.81

c) Can we use Morison’s equation?

D 10
• = = 0.033 << 0.2 , so ok
L 300
a a
• = < 0.2 , we are assuming that the cylinder is reinforced so that the
D 10
amplitude is < 2 m

H 16
• = = 0.053 << 0.14 , so the wave does not break
L 300

Hence, we can safely use Morison’s equation.

d) Is the drag term or the mass term dominating?

= 0.625 ∈ [0.5 , 1.0] , so that the mass term will dominate

D 10
=
H 16

∂u ∂ ∂ϕ ∂
u& = = ( ) = (ξ 0 ⋅ ω ⋅ e kz ⋅ sin(ωt − kx)) = ξ 0 ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ e kz ⋅ cos(ωt − kx)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂t 1444 424444 3
deep water
approximation

e) What is the maximum shear force from the mass term?

0
πD 2
FM ,max = ∫ ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ ξ 0 ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ e kz dz
4 14243
− 200 max acceleration
when the wave cross
the still surface

πD 2 0
= ⋅ ρ ⋅ CM ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ ξ0 ∫e
kz
dz
4 − 200

πD 2
0
1 
= ⋅ ρ ⋅ C M ⋅ ω ⋅ ξ 0 ⋅  e kz 
2

4  k  −200
3.14 ⋅ 10 2
2π  1 1 
= ⋅ 1025
{ ⋅ 2{ ⋅ 9.81 ⋅ ⋅ 8{ ⋅  − e − 200 k 
4 ρ CM 1 424 L ξ 0  2π / L 2π / L
3 
ω 2 = gk
for deep water

3.14 ⋅ 10 2 2π  1 
≈ ⋅ 1025 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 ⋅ ⋅8⋅ 
4 300  2π / L 
= 12.6 ⋅ 10 6 N = 12.6 MN
 In order to get a sense of how big the force is, we look at the corresponding weight:
12.6 ⋅ 10 6 N ≈ 12.6 ⋅ 10 5 kg = 1260 t

3.4 Wave Loads on Large Constructions

We have been discussing forces acting on constructions (cylinders) with small enough
diameters, D / L < 0.2 , so that the acceleration could be approximated to a constant. If the
cylinders are bigger, we must consider reflections and other effects behind the structure. A
common theory by McCamy & Fuchs looks at the forces acting on larger cylinders in an ideal
fluid, where the velocity potential function ϕ exists. We now have that

ϕ = ϕi + ϕ d (5)
Where the potential of an incoming wave is ϕ i , and ϕ d is the potential of the reflected wave.
When we know the potential, we can find the pressure:

∂ϕ
P = P0 − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ z − ρ ⋅ (6)
∂t

The total force when we know the pressure will be:

2π
F= ∫ P ⋅ cos θ dθ
0
(7)

Hence, if we can find ϕ , we will find the force. The following conditions must be satisfied:

• ∇ 2ϕ = 0 in the fluid
∂ϕ
• = 0 , i.e. no flow through the cylinder with radius R
∂r r =R
∂ϕ
• = 0 , i.e. no flow through the seabed
∂z z =−d

∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ
• +g⋅ = 0 for z = 0, a linearized surface condition
∂t 2
∂z

The only new here is that we must find ϕ d and the corresponding forces on the cylinder, and
that we have a condition for the cylinder surface. As before we have velocity potential

ξ 0 ⋅ g cosh k ( z + d )
ϕi = ⋅ ⋅ cos(ωt − kx)
ω cosh(kd )

and the dispersion relation

ω 2 = g ⋅ k ⋅ tanh(kd )
Since the conditions at the bottom and at the surface are the same, ϕ d will have the same z-
dependence as ϕ i . Hence,

ϕ d = cosh k ( z + d ) ⋅ψ (r ,θ , t ) (8)

Here, ψ is given in cylinder coordinates. Further, since ∇ 2ϕ i = 0 , we must have

that ∇ 2ϕ d = 0 . By separating the variables we get that

ψ (r ,θ , t ) = R(r ) ⋅ θ (θ ) ⋅ T (t ) (9)

The potential will then be

ϕ d = cosh k ( z + d ) ⋅ R(r ) ⋅ θ (θ ) ⋅ T (t ) (10)

The critical directions for ϕ d will be r, θ and z. Using cylinder coordinates, the Laplace
equation will look like:

∇ 2ϕ d = 0
1 ∂ ∂ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ d ∂ϕ d
⇒ ⋅ (r ⋅ d ) + 2 ⋅ + 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ 2 ∂z
∂ ϕ
2
1 ∂ϕ 1 ∂ ϕ d ∂ϕ d
2
⇒ ( 2d + ⋅ d ) + 2 ⋅ + 2 =0
∂r r ∂r r ∂θ 2 ∂z

⇒
d 2 R 1 dR
cosh k ( z + d )( + ⋅ ) ⋅θ ⋅ T +
dr 2 r dr
1 d 2θ r2
cosh k ( z + d ) ⋅ R ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ T + ⋅
r dθ R ⋅ θ ⋅ T ⋅ cosh k ( z + d )
k cosh k ( z + d ) ⋅ R ⋅ θ ⋅ T = 0
2

d 2 R 1 dR r 2 d 2θ 1
⇒( + ⋅ )⋅ + ⋅ + k2 ⋅r2 = 0
dr 2
r dr R dθ θ2

d 2R dR d 2θ 1
⇒ r2 ⋅ + r ⋅ + R ⋅ ⋅ + R⋅k2 ⋅r2 = 0
dr 2 dr dθ 2 θ
d 2R dR
⇒ r2 ⋅ 2 + r ⋅ + R ⋅ (− m 2 ) + R ⋅ k 2 ⋅ r 2 = 0
dr dr

d 2R dR
⇒ r2 ⋅ 2
+r⋅ + (k 2 ⋅ r 2 − m 2 ) ⋅ R = 0
dr dr
This is how the diffracted potential varies with radius away from the cylinder. We have used
that
∂ 2θ
∂θ 2 = − m ⋅ B cos mθ = − m 2
2
θ (θ ) = B cos mθ ⇒
θ B cos mθ

where m is an integer. The radius function R has a solution in terms of Bessel functions.

After finding the solutions for R(r ) , θ (θ ) and T (t ) , we know the potential ϕ d and therefore
also the total potential ϕ . When we know the potential, we can easily find the pressure:

∂ϕ
P = P0 − ρ ⋅ g ⋅ z − ρ ⋅
∂t

The force per unit length f acting on the cylinder is given as:
2π
f = ∫ P ⋅ cosθ dθ
0

Integrating over z will give the total force acting on the cylinder. It can be shown that the
force per unit length can be written as:

π ⋅ D2
f = CM ⋅ ρ ⋅ ⋅ u&
4 x =0

This is the same formula as the one for mass force, but here the expression for C M is a
difficult mathematical term depending on the ratio D / L . Previously, for smaller
cylinders, C M was taken to be 2. Further, the acceleration is taken at the centre of the cylinder,
as if there was no cylinder at all.

Figure 12: The relation between C M and D/L

Further reading

• Norsok N-003
https://partners.statoil.com/sites/dd5e6384-4679-46b0-bafb-
f9f16b0af5c0/Document%20library/N-003.pdf

Internet links

• Gulf Stream
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Stream
(Link verified August 19th February 2007)

• Coriolis effect
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect
(Link verified August 19th February 2007)
• Salinity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity
(Link verified August 19th February 2007)

• NPD
http://www.npd.no/English/Frontpage.htm
(Link verified August 19th February 2007)

• PSA
http://www.ptil.no/English/Frontpage.htm
(Link verified August 19th February 2007)