Ch1b UGEA3153 CMOS

In this chapter, we will:
UGEA3153 Study and understand the operation and characteristics of

Microelectronic Circuit Analysis the various types of MOSFETs.
Understand and become familiar with the dc analysis and

Sedra A. S., Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition, design techniques of MOSFET circuits.
Oxford University Press
Examine several applications of MOSFET circuits.
Donald A. Neamen Analyze the dc biasing of multistage or multi-transistor

circuits.
Chapter 3
Jacob R Baker
Chapter 6
CMOS
Schematic of n-Channel
Enhancement Mode MOSFET
p-Channel Depletion- Cross-Section of nMOSFET and pMOSFET
Mode MOSFET
Both transistors are used in the fabrication of CMOS circuitry.

Symbols
Neamen Microelectronics Chapter 3-6
5/24/2006 McGraw-Hill
Basic Structure of MOS Capacitor
tox is thickness of oxide.

εox is oxide permittivity.
The physics of the MOS
structure can be explained
with the aid of a simple
parallel-plate capacitor.
Figure above shows how voltages, currents, and terminal
designations for a MOSFET are defined.
When the substrate is connected to ground and the well is
tied to VDD, the simplified model at the bottom is used.
Figures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright Wiley-IEEE, CMOSedu.com
MOS Capacitor Under Bias: MOS Capacitor Under Bias:
Electric Field and Charge Polarity of the applied voltage reversed
Holes are pushed away, a negative space charge is created,

Parallel plate capacitor – p-type semiconductor substrate
because of the fixed acceptor impurity atoms.
Negative gate bias:

Positive gate bias:
Holes attracted to gate
Electrons attracted to gate
MOS Capacitor Under Bias:

Enhancement mode
n-type substrate
Parallel plate capacitor – n-type semiconductor substrate Means that a voltage must be applied to the
gate to create an inversion layer.
For the MOS capacitor with a p-type substrate,
a positive gate voltage must be applied to
create the electron inversion layer;
For the MOS capacitor with an n-type
substrate, a negative gate voltage must be
applied to create the hole inversion layer.
Negative gate bias:
Holes attracted to gate
In Smith & Sedra,
MOSFET Capacitance ε ox
Cox = .
– Case 1: Accumulation tox
Examine the cross-sectional view in the figure In R Jacob Baker,
below.
ε ox
With negative bias voltage, mobile holes from ′ =
Cox .
the substrate are attracted or accumulated tox
under the oxide, or dielectric. We follow Baker’s
book notation here.
Diagram above shows the layout of the poly-poly capacitor.

Note that the capacitor is given by
⎛ Farad ⎞ ε ox (aF µm ) Cox (aF) ε r ε 0 (dielectric constant )

′⎜ ⎟= = =
Cox
⎝ unit area ⎠ tox (µm ) (
A µm 2 )
t (separation of electrodes)
ε0 = 8.854×10–18 F/µm = 8.854 aF/µm.

εr = 3.97 for relative dielectric constant of SiO2. MOSFET Capacitance
To calculate the value of a capacitor, we look at the area
where poly1 and poly2 intersect, A, or
– Case 2: Depletion
′ ⋅A
Cox = Cox Consider less negative voltage, which is not
enough to attract a large number of holes
under the oxide and not positive enough to
attract a large number of electrons.
Depletion capacitance
in series with oxide C.
MOSFET Capacitance – Case 2: Depletion MOSFET Capacitance – Case 2: Depletion
Under these conditions, the surface under the The MOSFET operated in this region is said to
gate is said to be nearly depleted (depleted of be in weak inversion or the subthreshold
free electrons and holes). region because the surface under the oxide is
We see that an additional capacitance exits. not heavily n+.
The new capacitance is the oxide capacitance
in series with the depletion capacitance.
The depletion layer is formed between the
substrate and the induced channel.
Surface under the

oxide.
Depletion capacitance
in series with oxide C.
Figure below shows how the capacitance changes as the

MOSFET Capacitance bias voltage is varied, for an NMOS device.
This is the situation when an NMOS device source, drain,
– Case 3: Strong Inversion and bulk are grounded.
The attracted electrons under the gate oxide short the drain
If the bias voltage is sufficient large (the and source together forming a low-resistance bottom plate
threshold voltage of the NMOS device) so that for the capacitor.
a large number of electrons are attracted Capacitor is made in this fashion.
under the gate, the surface is said to be
inverted, that is, no longer p-type.
+++
–––
Example #1 - Capacitor
Suppose the MOSFET configuration seen in the

figure below is to be used as a capacitor. If
the width and length are both 100 µm,
estimate the capacitance between the gate
and the source/drain terminals. Are there any
restrictions on the voltages we can use across
the capacitor?
Given CMOS technology 1 µm (long channel),
oxide thickness, tox = 200 Å,
Capacitance per unit area, C’ox = 1.75 fF/µm2.
Example #1 – Solution
Since the MOSFET is to be used as a capacitor, we require

operation in the strong inversion region, that is, VGS>>VTHN
(the gate potential at least a threshold voltage plus 5% of
VDD above the source/drain potentials).
The capacitance between the gate and the source/drain is
then Cox=C’ox×W×L, or
Figure above shows MOSFET symbol with capacitances.

⎛ fF ⎞
Cox = ⎜⎜1.75 ⎟(100 µm )(100 µm ) = 17.5 pF
2 ⎟
⎝ µm ⎠
Below this channel, electrons fill the holes in the substrate
giving rise to a depletion region (depleted of free carriers).
The thickness of the depletion region is given from pn
junction theory by
The semiconductor surface is inverted when VGS is greater 2ε si Vs − V fp

than the threshold voltage VTHN. N A = no of acceptor atoms in substrate
Xd =
Under these conditions a channel of electrons is formed qN A Vs = electrostatic potential at oxide
under the gate oxide.
silicon interface (the channel)
Figures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright Wiley-IEEE, CMOSedu.com Figures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright Wiley-IEEE, CMOSedu.com
Pure silicon is often called intrinsic silicon.

As the temperature of the silicon crystal is increased it absorbs
heat. Some of the electrons in the valence band gain enough
energy to jump the bandgap energy of silicon, Eg, as seen in
the figure below.
The number of electrons in the conduction band and thus the
number of holes in the valence band at a given time is a
The electrostatic potential of the p-type substrate is given
random number and is an important parameter.
by
Ei − E fp These carriers are called intrinsic carriers, ni.
kT N A
V fp = − =− ln
q q ni
Note that this is a negative number.
One edge of the depletion region is the MOSFET’s gate
oxide, while the other edge is the p-substrate (holes).
The positive potential on the gate attracts electrons under If Vs = Vfp and then Q’b = 0, the MOSFET is operating in the
the gate oxide. This charge is equal and opposite to the accumulation mode, or the MOSFET is OFF in circuit terms.
charge in the polysilicon gate material. At this point the number of holes at the oxide-
The charge/unit area is given by semiconductor surface is NA, the same concentration as the
bulk.
Qb′ = qN A X d = 2ε si qN A Vs − V fp
As VGS is increased, the surface potential becomes more The threshold voltage of the n-channel MOSFET is
positive. defined as the applied gate voltage needed to
When Vs = 0, the surface under the oxide has become create an inversion charge in which the density is
depleted (the carrier concentration is ni).
equal to the concentration of majority carriers in
When Vs = –Vfp (a positive number), the channel is inverted
(electrons are pulled under the oxide forming a channel),
the semiconductor substrate.
and the electron concentration at the semiconductor-oxide In simple terms, we can think of the threshold
interface is equal to the substrate doping concentration. voltage as the gate voltage required to “turn on”
The value of VGS when Vs = –Vfp is arbitrarily defined as the the transistor.
threshold voltage, VTHN and the negative charge under the
gate oxide is given by
′ = 2qN Aε si − 2V fp
Qbo
with units of Coulombs/m2.
Note that the surface potential changed a total of 2|Vfp|
between the strong inversion and accumulation cases.
In a simplified cross section of a MOSFET, the
Schematic of n-Channel gate, oxide, and p-type substrate regions are the
Enhancement Mode MOSFET same as those of a MOS capacitor.
In addition, now there are two n-regions, called
the source terminal and the drain terminal.
The current flow in a MOSFET is the result of the
flow of charge in the inversion layer, also called
the channel region, adjacent to the oxide-
semiconductor interface.
The channel length L and channel width W are
defined in the figure above.
The channel length is typically less than 1 µm.
The oxide thickness on order of 400 Å or less.
A thick oxide, called the field oxide, is deposited Basic Transistor Operation
outside the area in which the metal interconnect
lines are formed.
the gate material is usually heavily doped
polysilicon.
Before electron After electron

inversion layer is inversion layer is
formed formed
A sufficiently large positive gate voltage is Since the gate terminal is separated from the
required to invert the p-type layer at the channel by an oxide or insulator, there is no
oxide-semiconductor interface to n-type layer gate current.
that connects the n-source to the n-drain. Similarly, since the channel and substrate are
A current can then be generated between the separated by a space-charge region, there is
source and drain terminals. The magnitude of essentially no current through the substrate.
the current is a function of the amount of
charge in the inversion layer, which in turn is
a function of the applied gate voltage.
This transistor is called an enhancement-mode
MOSFET.
Since the carriers in the inversion layer are
electrons, this device is called an n-channel
MOSFET (NMOS).
Basic Transistor Operation IV (Current/Voltage) Characteristics:

Enhancement-Mode nMOSFET
Lets derive the large-signal IV (current/voltage) characteristics
of the MOSFET, namely operation in the triode and the
saturation regions.
The derivation is sometimes referred to as the gradual-channel
approximation.
The electric field variation in the channel between the source
Gate-to-source > threshold
Gate-to-source < threshold and drain (the y-direction) doesn’t vary significantly when
Inversion layer is created. compared to the variation in the direction perpendicular to the
There is no electron inversion Drain-to-substrate pn-junction channel (the x-direction).
layer, drain-to-substrate pn is reverse-biased, so current
junction reverse biased. flows through channel region.
MOSFET Operation in the Triode (ohmic) • Conditions:
Region – When VGS>VTHN, the
surface under the
oxide is inverted, and
– VDS>0, causing a drift
current to flow from
the drain to source.
• Initial analysis,
– Assume VDS is
sufficiently small so
that the threshold
voltage and the
Triode region is a carryover from the days of vacuum- depletion layer width
tube devices whose operation a FET resembles. are approximately
constant.
• Charge stored on C’ox • Charge present in inversion layer from the

– V(y) is the voltage with application of the threshold voltage VTHN
respect to the source – Application of the threshold voltage VTHN is necessary
of the MOSFET, of the for conduction between the drain and the source. As
channel a distance y a result, charge Q’b is present. This charge is given by
away from the source.
– The potential ′ ⋅ VTHN L (2 )
Qb′ = Cox
difference between the
– The total charge available in the inverted channel, for
gate electrode and the
conduction of a current between the drain and the
channel is then
source, is given by the difference in these two
VGS – V(y).
equations (1) & (2), or
– The charge/unit area
in the inversion layer is ′ ⋅ [VGS − V ( y ) − VTHN ]
QI′ ( y ) = Cox L (3)
given by
′ ⋅ [VGS − V ( y )]L (1)
′ = Cox
Qch
Derivation of the iD – vDS characteristic of the NMOS
Transistor Drift Velocity
• Let us now apply a small electric field to the
lattice. Note in the figure that the field-directed
motion is a small perturbation on the random
thermal velocity.
Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE,
CMOS d
• The time interval between collisions averaged • The net carrier velocity in an applied field is
over the entire electron population is τcn, the called the drift velocity, vd.
mean scattering time for electrons, is not • It can be found by equating the impulse (force
altered appreciably by the applied field. x time) applied to an electron during its free
flight between collisions with the momentum
gained by the electron in the same period.
• This equality is valid because steady state is
reached when all momentum gained between
collisions is lost to the lattice in the collisions.
Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE, Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE,
CMOS d CMOS d
• The force on an electron is –qE and the • The equation states that the electron drift
momentum gained is mn*vd. Thus, velocity vd is proportional to the field with a
proportionality factor that depends on the
− qEτ cn = mn*vd mean scattering time and the effective mass of
the nearly free electron.
or • The proportionality factor is an important
qEτ cn property of the electron called the mobility and
vd = − is designated by the symbol µn.
mn*
qτ cn
µn = L ( 3)
mn*
Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE, Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE,
CMOS d CMOS d
• Because vd = –µnE, the mobility describes how • Differential resistance of the channel region
– With a length dy and a width W, it is given by
easily an electron moves in response to an
applied field. 6474 8
eff. sheet Res.
• Entirely analogous arguments apply to holes. 1 dy

dR = ⋅
• The hole mobility µp is defined as µnQI′ ( y ) W
qτ cp – µn is the average electron mobility through the channel with

µp = units of cm2/V·sec.
m*p – The mobility is simply a ratio of the electron (or hole)
velocity cm/sec to the electric field, V/cm.
Modelling DiffusionFigures from CMOS Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Copyright 2008, Wiley-IEEE,
CMOS d
• Differential voltage drop across resistance • Transconductance parameter
– The differential voltage drop across this differential – The transconductance parameter, KP, for a n-channel
resistance is given by MOSFET is given by
ε ox
dV ( y ) = I D ⋅ dR =
ID In Smith’s book, this quantity is
⋅ dy ′ = µn ⋅
KPn = µ n ⋅ Cox
Wµ nQI′ ( y ) denoted as k’n. tox
I D ⋅ dy = Wµ nQI′ ⋅ dV ( y ) – For a p-channel MOSFET is given by
ε ox
– Substituting Eqn.(3) in this equation above, ′ = µp ⋅
KPp = µ p ⋅ Cox
tox
′ (VGS − V ( y ) − VTHN ) ⋅ dV ( y )
I D ⋅ dy = Wµ nCox L (4 ) where µp is the mobility of the holes in a PMOS
transistor.
ε ox A Cox ε ox
Cox = ′ =
Cox =
tox A tox
• Typical values: – This equation is valid when the MOSFET is operating

– KP in the long-channel process (with a minimum in the triode (linear or ohmic) region.
length of 1 µm) used in this course are 120 µA/V2 and – This is the case when the induced channel extends
40 µA/V2 for n- and p-channel transistors, from the source to the drain.
respectively. – Writing
• Expression for drain current flow W
β = KPn ⋅
– Can be obtained by integrating Eqn.(4) from the L
source to the drain, that is, from 0 to L on the left- ⎡ 2
⎤
I D = β ⋅ ⎢(VGS − VTHN )VDS −
VDS
hand side and the right side from 0 to VDS. ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
(VGS − V ( y ) − VTHN ) ⋅ dV ( y )
L VDS
I D ∫ dy = W ⋅ KPn ⋅ ∫
0 0
– For PMOS,
⎡ V ⎤ ⎧ for VGS ≥ VTHN
2
⋅ ⎢(VGS − VTHN )VDS −
W
I D = KPn ⋅ ⎥ L ⎨V ≤ V − V
DS
⎡ 2
⎤ ⎧ for VSG ≥ VTHP
⋅ ⎢(VSG − VTHP )VSD −
W VSD
L ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎩ DS I D = KPp ⋅ ⎥ L⎨
2 ⎦ ⎩VSD ≤ VSG − VTHP
GS THN
L ⎣
L (5)
β KPn W
– Writing Kn = = ⋅ • MOSFET Operation in the Saturation Region
2 2 L (pinched off region)
– For NMOS,
[
I D = K n ⋅ 2(VGS − VTHN )VDS − VDS
2
]
– For PMOS,
[
I D = K p ⋅ 2(VSG − VTHP )VSD − VSD
2
]
– Kn and Kp are defined in Neamen’s textbook.
– β, KPn and KPp are defined in Baker’s textbook. We
use these notation here in this course.
(a) The relative charge density is essentially constant along the (c) As vDS reach the point vGS–vDS(sat)=VTHN across the oxide at
entire channel length. the drain terminal, the induced inversion charge density at the
drain terminal is zero. The incremental channel conductance at
(b) When vDS increases, the voltage drop near the drain terminal the drain is zero, which means the slope of iD versus vDS curves
decreases, which means that the induced inversion charge is zero.
density near the drain also decreases. The incremental
conductance of the channel at the drain then decreases, which (d) For vDS>vDS(sat), the point in the channel at which the
causes the slope of iD versus vDS curve to decrease. inversion charge is zero moves toward the source terminal.
Electrons enter the source, travel through the channel toward
the drain, and then…
(d) …at the point where the charge goes to zero, are injected into
the space-charge region, where they are swept by the E-field to
• MOSFET Operation in the Saturation Region
the drain contact. In the ideal MOSFET, the drain current is
– The voltage V(y) when y = L in Eqn.(3) is simply VDS.
constant for vDS>vDS(sat). This region is referred to as the
In the previous analysis, we said that VDS is always
saturation region. As the applied gate-to-source changes, the iD
less than VGS – VTHN so that at no point along the
versus vDS curve changes.
channel is the inversion charge zero.
– When VDS = VGS – VTHN the inversion charge under – Increase in VDS beyond VDS,sat attract the fixed
the gate at y = L (the drain-channel junction) is zero, channel charge to the drain terminal depleting the
Eqn.(3). charge in the channel directly adjacent to the drain
– This drain-source voltage is called VDS,sat(=VGS–VTHN), (again, pinching off the channel).
and indicates when the channel charge becomes – Further increases in VDS do not cause an increase in
pinched off at the drain-channel interface. the drain current.
– Figure 6.10 shows that the depletion region, with a – When a MOSFET is operated with its channel
thickness of Xdl, between the drain and substrate pinched off, that is, VDS≥VGS – VTHN and VGS≥VTHN, it
increases, causing the channel to pinch off. is operating in the saturation region. Substitution of
– If VDS is increased until the drain-substrate depletion VDS,sat into Eqn.(5) gives
region extends from the drain to the source, the
⎡ 2
⎤
⋅ ⎢(VGS − VTHN )VDS −
device is said to be punched through. W VDS
I D = KPn ⋅ ⎥
– Large currents can flow under these conditions,
causing device failure.
L ⎣ 2 ⎦
= KPn ⋅
W ⎡
⋅ ⎢(VGS − VTHN )(VGS − VTHN ) −
(VGS − VTHN ) ⎤
2
– The maximum voltage, for ⎥
near minimum-size channel L ⎣ 2 ⎦
lengths, that can be applied
β
⋅ ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) = ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) L (6 )
between the drain and KPn W
=
2 2
source of a MOSFET is set
by the “punchthrough” 2 L 2
voltage. → for VDS ≥ VGS − VTHN and VGS ≥ VTHN
– We can define an electrical channel length of the – Since the depletion layer width Xdl increases with
MOSFET as the difference between the drawn increasing VDS, the drain current increases as well.
channel length, neglecting laterial diffusion, and the
depletion layer width, Xdl, between the drain n+ and Lelec (↓ ) = Ldrawn − X dl (↑ )
the channel under the gate oxide by
I D (↑ ) = ⋅ (VGS − VTHN )
KPn W
Lelec = Ldrawn − X dl ⋅
2
2 Lelec (↓ )
– Substituting into Eqn.(6), we obtain a better
representation of the drain current – This effect is called channel length modulation (CLM).
– If Ldrawn is increased the effects of Xdl changing (CLM)
become negligible.
⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) L (7 )
KPn W
ID = ⋅
2
2 Lelec
– Taking the derivative of Eqn.(7) with respect to VDS, – Typical values for λ, called the channel length
∂Lelec ∂ (Ldrawn − X dl )
modulation parameter, range from greater than 0.1
= = −1 V–1 for short-channel devices to 0.01 V–1 for long-
∂X dl ∂X dl channel devices.
– Equation (6) can be rewritten for a device operating in
∂I D ∂I D ∂Lelec
= ⋅ the saturation region, taking into account channel
∂VDS ∂Lelec ∂VDS length modulation as
⋅ 2 ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) ⋅ elec

KPn W 2 dL
=−
⋅ ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) [1 + λ (VDS − VDS , sat )]
KPn W
ID =
2
2 Lelec dVDS
2 L
=− ⋅ 2 ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) ⋅ elec
KPn W 2 dL dX dl for VDS > VDS , sat = VGS − VTHN and VGS > VTHN
2 Lelec dX dl dVDS L (9 )
⎡ 1 dX dl ⎤
= ID ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = ID ⋅λ L (8)
⎣ elec
L dVDS ⎦
– When VDS = VDS,sat or the drain current is at the • Characteristics of a long-channel NMOS device
triode/saturation region border, the drain current is – VGS = 5 V and VTHN = 1 V for an n-channel MOSFET.
sometime specified as
– Calculated VDS,sat = VGS – VTHN = 5 – 1 = 4 V.
– Typical curves for the NMOS in the simulation results:
I D , sat = I D when VDS = VDS , sat = VGS − VTHN
– These equations assume mobility does not vary with

VDS.
– In short-channel MOSFET discussion, mobility does
indeed vary with VDS making characterizing ID
considerably more challenging.
– Notice that the device appears to go into saturation – Q’I(y) decreases as we move away from the source of
earlier than predicted by VDS,sat = VGS – VTHN. the MOSFET, causing Q’I(L) to become zero earlier,
– The bold line in the figure separates the actual triode as seen in Fig. 6.10.
and saturation regions (and also indicates ID,sat).
– From the curve, we see that VDS,sat is 1.4 V, not 4 V
as we calculate using VDS,sat = VGS – VTHN.
– The actual charge distribution in the channel is not
constant but rather a function of VDS.
• Cgs Calculation in the Saturation Region • SPICE Modeling of the MOSFET

– See page 145, CMOS Circuit Design, Layout and – The following SPICE model parameters are related to
Simulation. the calculation of VTHN.
Symbol Name Description Default Typ. Units
VTHN0 VTO Zero-bias threshold 1.0 0.8 Volts
voltage
γ GAMMA Body-effect parameter 0 0.4 V1/2
2|Vfp| PHI Surface to bulk 0.65 0.58 V

potential
NA NSUB Substrate doping 0 1E15 cm–3
Q’ss/q NSS Surface state density 0 1E10 cm–2
TPG Type of gate material 1 1
• TPG specifies the type of gate material: Long-channel MOSFET parameters used in this unit.
– 1 opposite to substrate, The VDD=5 V and the scale factor is 1 µm (1e-6)
– -1 same as substrate, and
– 0 for aluminum gate. Parameter NMOS PMOS Comments
VTHN and VTHP 800 mV 900 mV Typical

• For Long-Channel MOSFET Models, refer to
textbook, pages 146-147. KPn and KPp 120 µA/V2 40 µA/V2 tox = 200 Å
• Table in the next slide shows a summary of the
device characteristics for the long-channel C’ox = εox/tox 1.75 fF/µm2 1.75 fF/µm2 Cox= C’oxWL(scale)2
CMOS process.
λn and λp 0.01 V–1 0.0125 V–1 at L = 2
γn and γp 0.5 V–1/2 0.6 V–1/2 Body factor
Short-Channel MOSFETs
– The long-channel CMOS process is useful for

illustrating the fundamentals of MOSFET
operation.
– However, modern CMOS transistors are
short-channel devices.
• The electric field under the gate oxide can no
longer be treated in a single dimension.
• The average drift velocity, v, of an electron plotted
• In addition, the velocity of the carriers drifting against electric field, E, is shown in the figure above.
between the channel and the drain of the MOSFET When the electric field reaches a critical value, labeled
saturates. See figure on next slide. Ecrit, the velocity saturates at a value vsat, that is, the
velocity ceases to increase with increasing electric field.
• SPICE Models for Short-Channel CMOS
Process
slope – The BSIM4 models for the 50 nm process is used in
this unit with VDD = 1 V.
– The model listing is found on page 154-157.
• For Short-Channel MOSFET Models, refer to
textbook, pages 154-158.
• BSIM4 is a fourth generation MOSFET model
developed at the University of California,
• The ratio of electron drift velocity to applied Berkeley. The acronym stands for Berkeley
electric field is the electron mobility, or Short-channel IGFET (insulated gate FET)
Model. (http://www-device.eecs.berkeley.edu)
v
µn =
E
Short-channel MOSFET parameters used in this unit. Summary

The VDD=1 V and scale factor is 50 nm (50e-9)
Parameter NMOS PMOS Comments • The mathematical relationship that

VTHN and VTHP 280 mV 280 mV Typical describes the DC behavior depends on
tpx 14 Å 14 Å See Table 6.4 which level of model is used.
p.158 of textbook
• For level 1 MOSFET model, the
C’ox = εox/tox 25 fF/µm2 25 fF/µm2 Cox= C’oxWL(scale)2
expression for drain current ID, assuming
λn and λp 0.6 V–1 0.3 V–1 at L = 2 that the drain is at a higher potential than
Ion,n & Ion,p 600 µA/µm 300 µA/µm On current the source, is described by
Ioff,n & Ioff,p 7.1 nA/µm 10 nA/µm See Table 6.4
p.158 of textbook
Summary
ID = Family of iD Versus vDS Curves:
⎧0 where VGS < VTHN Enhancement-Mode nMOSFET
⎪
[
⎨ K n 2(VGS − VTHN )VDS − VDS
2
] VGS ≥ VTHN and VDS ≤ VGS − VTHN
⎪ K (V − V )2 [1 + λ (V − V
⎩ n GS THN DS DS , sat )] VGS > VTHN & VDS ≥ VDS , sat = VDS − VTHN
where the device constant Kn is related to

process parameters and device geometry
according to vDS (sat) is a
β 1 ⎛W ⎞ KPn ⎛ W ⎞ W function of vGS.
Kn = = µ nCox ⎜ ⎟= ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ where β = KPn ⋅
2 2 ⎝L ⎠ 2 ⎝L⎠ L
and the threshold voltage VTHN is given by VDS,sat ≡vDS(sat)

VTN ≡VTHN
VTHN = VTHN 0 + γ ⎛⎜ 2V fp + VSB − 2V fp ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
The parameter Kn is the conduction parameter, which for an n-

channel device is given by
In the saturation region, since the ′

KPn W Wµ nCox
ideal drain current is independent
Kn = ⋅ =
2 L 2L
of the drain-to-source voltage,
the incremental or small-signal where C’ox is the oxide capacitance per unit area. The parameter
resistance is infinite. µn is the mobility of the electrons in the inversion layer. The
channel width W and channel length L were shown as follow.
∆vDS
r0 = =∞
∆iD vGS =const.
The electrical parameter of KPn is the oxide capacitance and Example #2 – Calculate the current in
carrier mobility, which are essentially constants for a given an n-channel MOSFET
fabrication technology.
The geometry, which is the width-to-length W/L ratio, is a variable See page 128 Example 3.1 (Neamen)
in the design of MOSFET that is used to produce specific current- Solution Example #2
voltage characteristics in MOSFET circuits. First, consider the units involved in the equation,
You can rewrite the conduction parameter in the form as follows:
KPn W
Kn = ⋅ , KPn = µ nCox is called the process conduction ⎛ cm 2 ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞
2 L W (cm ) ⋅ un ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ε ox ⎜ ⎟
⎝ V − s ⎠ ⎝ cm ⎠ F
paremeter.
Kn = =
KPn is constant for a given fabrication technology 2 L(cm ) ⋅ tox (cm ) V −s
and W/L is the transistor design variable.
=
(C V ) = A
V −s V2
Example #2 – solution continued Example #2 – solution continued

The value of the conductance parameter is For VGS = 2VTHN,
therefore
I D = K n (VGS − VTHN )
2
Wunε ox W ⋅ KPn β
Kn = = = = (0.249)(1.5 − 0.75)
2
2 Ltox 2L 2
= 0.140 mA
=
(40 ×10 )(650)(3.9)(8.854 ×10 )
−4 −14
2(4 ×10 )(450 ×10 )

−4 −8
Comment:
mA The current capability of a transistor can be
= 0.249 increased by increasing the conduction parameter.
V2 For a given fabrication technology, Kn is adjusted
by varying the transistor width W.
p-Channel Enhancement-Mode
MOSFET
P-channel
enhancement-mode
MOSFET is the
complementary
device of the n-
channel
enhancement-mode
MOSFET.
Figure above shows how voltages, currents, and terminal
designations for a MOSFET are defined.
When the substrate is connected to ground and the well is
tied to VDD, the simplified model at the bottom is used.
Symbols for n-Channel

Enhancement-Mode MOSFET
Note that all voltages and currents are positive using the
naming convention seen in the figure.
The devices are complementary.
Symbols for p-Channel n-Channel Depletion-Mode MOSFET
Enhancement-Mode MOSFET
In addition to the n-channel enhancement-mode device and the p-
channel enhancement-mode device, there is the n-channel
depletion mode MOSFET and p-channel depletion-mode
MOSFET as well.
Family of iD Versus vDS Curves: p-Channel Depletion-

Depletion-Mode nMOSFET Mode MOSFET
Symbols
Symbols
Finite Output Resistance
Non-ideal Current-Voltage
Characteristics For vGS>vDS(sat), the actual
point in the channel at which
Five non-ideal effects in the current-voltage the inversion charge goes to
characteristics of MOS transistors are examined. There zero moves away from the
effects are: drain terminal. The effective
Finite output resistance in the saturation region. channel length decreases,
Body effect. producing the phenomenon
called channel length
Sub-threshold conduction. modulation.
Breakdown effects. An exaggerated view of the
Temperature effects. current-voltage characteristics
is shown in figure on the next
slide.
Channel Length Modulation:Early Voltage Body Effect

The output resistance due to the channel When the two transistors are conducting,
length modulation is defined as there is a nonzero drain-to-source voltage on
−1 M1, which means that the source of M2 is not
⎛ ∂i ⎞ 1 at the same potential as the substrate.
ro = ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟ =
⎝ ∂vDS ⎠ λK n (VGSQ − VTHN )2
vGS =VGSQ
1
ro ≅
λI DQ
Body Effect Body Effect
For the bias condition that the substrate, or The body effect can cause a degradation in
body, is connected to the source as assumed circuit performance because of the changing
previously, the threshold voltage is constant. threshold voltage.
This is not case for M2 in the circuit below. However, we will neglect the body effect in our
circuit analyses, for simplicity.
Zero or reverse-bias voltage exists across the source-
substrate pn junction here
A change in the
source-bias junction
voltage changes the
threshold voltage.
This is called body
effect. The same
situation exists in p-
channel devices.
Subthreshold Conduction Subthreshold Conduction

Consider the ideal current- Drain current of
voltage relationship for the experimental results
n-channel MOSFET biased shown on the plot is not
in the saturation region, zero as assumed.
This current is called the
iD = K n (vGS − VTHN )
2
subthreshold current.
iD = K n (vGS − VTHN )
The effect may not be
significant for single
device, but integrated
√iD is a linear function vGS. circuit with thousands or
A plot of this ideal millions of devices may
relationship is shown on the contribute to significant
right. power dissipation.
Subthreshold Conduction Breakdown Effects
The drain-to-substrate pn junction may break

down if the applied drain voltage is too high and
When a MOSFET in a
avalanche multiplication occurs (same as
circuit is to be turned off,
reversed-biased pn junction breakdown).
the “proper” design of the
circuit must involve Punch-through occurs when the drain voltage is
biasing the device at least large enough for the depletion region around the
a few tenths of a volt drain to extend completely through the channel
below the threshold to the source terminal. This effect also causes
voltage to achieve “true” the drain current to increase rapidly with only a
cutoff. small increase in drain voltage.
Breakdown Effects Breakdown Effects

If the electric field in the oxide becomes large
Another breakdown mechanism is near- enough, breakdown can also occur in the oxide,
avalanche or snapback breakdown. This which can lead to catastrophic failure. In silicon
breakdown process is due to second-order dioxide, the electric field at breakdown is on the
effects within the MOSFET. The source- order of 6×106 V/cm, which to a first
substrate-drain structure is equivalent to that of approximation, is given by εox = VG/tox.
a bipolar transistor. As the device size shrinks,
The input impedance at the gate is very high,
we may begin to see a parasitic bipolar
and a small amount of static charge
transistor action with increases in the drain
accumulating on the gate can cause the
voltage. This parasitic action enhances the
breakdown voltage to be exceeded. To prevent
breakdown effect.
the accumulation of static charge on the gate
capacitance of a MOSFET, a gate protection
device, such as a reverse-biased diode, is
usually included at the input of a MOS IC.
Temperature Effects
VTHN and KPn are functions of temperature. VTHN
decreases with temperature. For a given VGS, MOSFET DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
the drain current increases with temperature.
KPn is direct function of the inversion carrier
mobility, which decreases as the temperature
increases. Jacob R Baker
Since temperature dependence of mobility is Chapter 6
larger than that of the threshold voltage, the net CMOS
effect of increasing temperature is a decrease in
drain current at a given VGS.
This particular result provides a negative
feedback conditions in power MOSFET and
provides stability for a power MOSFET.
Models for Analogue Design Models for Analogue Design
Examine the current-voltage plot below: Examine the current-voltage plot below:
Slope=0, so, R=∞ 1 mA
What is the slope? 1 mA
1V
=1 V
Slope=∞, so, R=0

I = V/R, slope=1/R
The controlled parameter is the device output ¾ The resistance can be calculated by taking the
current, that is why current is on the y-axis, reciprocal of the IV plot slope.
Voltage is on the x-axis in an IV plot. ¾ So, the voltage source in this figure has zero
The voltage across voltage source doesn’t vary resistance.
with changes in current running through it. ¾ The current source has infinite resistance.
The voltage across resistor is linearly related to ¾ The x-axis corresponds to plotting the IV
current flowing (Ohm’s law). characteristics of open circuit (no current with
changes in voltage).
¾ The y-axis corresponds to a short (no change
in the voltage across a wire [a short], with
changing current).
We use a single quadrant of the IV plotting plane.

¾ Slope of resistor is 200 nA/1 V.
Example ¾ Resistor value = reciprocal of slope = 5 MΩ
¾ The combined IV curve is
See Example 9.1 of recommended text.
Clearly, in the triode region (also known as the
linear or ohmic region), the MOSFET behaves like
Example a resistor.
In the saturation region, the MOSFET behaves
like a current source in parallel with a resistor.
See Example 9.2 of recommended text.
The resistive component, whether in the triode or
saturation regions, is often called the MOSFET’s
output resistance.
ID is related to VGS and VDS using For long channel MOSFET, this can be written as
VDS,sat = VGS – VTHN
KPn W
ID =
2
This term is very important when doing analogue
2 L
for VDS > VDS , sat = VGS − VTHN and VGS > VTHN design. It is only valid for long-channel MOSFETs.
The voltage VDS,sat simply indicates, for long- or
L (9 ) short-channel MOSFETs, the VDS at the boundary
between triode and saturation.
VDS,sat is the voltage where the MOSFET moves
from the triode region to the saturation region. When VDS = VDS,sat, the drain current is labeled
ID,sat or
⋅ ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) = n ⋅ ⋅ (VDS , sat )

KPn W KP W
I D , sat =
2 2
2 L 2 L
So, eqn.(9) can be written
I D = I D , sat + I D , sat λ ⋅ (VDS − VDS , sat )

Constant current source
I D = I D , sat + I D , sat λ ⋅ (VDS − VDS , sat )

123
1 ro
Example 9.1 of J Baker’s textbook.

In parallel with a resistance with the value
Plot the IV characteristics for the circuit seen in Fig. 9.2.
1
ro = Figure 9.3a on next slide shows the IV curves for each
λI D , sat component of the circuit where a single quadrant is used
for the IV plotting plane.
Example 9.2 (Baker’s textbook)
Figure 9.4 shows the IV curves for a MOSFET. Comment on

The slope of the resistor is 200 nA/1 V. what the MOSFET looks like in the triode and saturation
The resistance value is the reciprocal of this slope (5 MEG). regions.
The combined IV curve is seen in Fig. 9.3b.
A gate-drain connected MOSFET (Fig. 9.5) is seen often in
analogue design.
Comment: Because drain and gate terminals are shorted together,
In the triode region, the MOSFET behaves like a resistor. VGS=VDS.
In the saturation region, the MOSFET behaves like a current If VGS>VTHN, current is flowing through the device. Then for
source in parallel with a resistor as seen before in Fig. 9.3b. the MOSFET to operate in the saturation region,
The resistive component, whether in the triode or VDS VDS
saturation regions, is often called the MOSFET’s output 67 8 67 8
resistance. VD − VS ≥ VG − VS − VTHN or VD ≥ VG − VTHN
NMOS Common-Source Circuit

PMOS Square-Law Equations
The coupling capacitor CC acts as an open circuit
to dc but it allows the signal voltage to be
Equivalent of Eqn.(9) for PMOS is coupled to the gate of the MOSFET.
⋅ ⋅ (VSG − VTHP ) [1 + λ (VSD − VSD , sat )]

KPp W
ID =
2
2 L
and VSD , sat = VSG − VTHP
L (10 )
¾ Swap the subscripts of the symbols used in
the NMOS equations, the terminal currents
and voltages of the MOSFET are always
positive (both NMOS and PMOS).
NMOS Common-Source Circuit NMOS Common-Source Circuit
The DC equivalent circuit is shown here in (a). The drain-to-source voltage is
The gate-source junction is a capacitor, so dc
gate current is zero.
VDS = VDD − I D RD
R2
VG = VDD
R2 + R2
NMOS Common-Source Circuit

The gate current is zero, so the gate circuit does
not dissipate power. Example #3 – DC circuit analysis
Power is dissipate at the drain-to-source channel
given by See Example 3.3 of Neamen, pp. 141-142.
Drain current in
PT = I DVDS saturation
region is
iD = K n (VGS − VTHN )
2
= (0.1)(2 − 1)
2
= 0.1 mA
Example #3 – DC circuit analysis Exercise #3.3
Drain-to-source voltage is Solve the exercise problem on p. 142 of the
textbook by Neamen.
VDS = VDD − I D RD = 5 − (0.1)(20 ) = 3 V
Power dissipated
PT = I DVDS = (0.1)(3) = 0.3 mW

Comment:
VDS=3 V>VDS(sat)
=VGS-VTHN=2-1=1 V,
the transistor is
indeed biased in
saturation region
and our analysis is
valid.
Example #4 - PMOS
Example #4 - PMOS From circuit (b)
⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
See Neamen p.143 Example 3.4 VG = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(VDD ) = ⎜ ⎟(5) = 2.5 V
⎝ 1
R + R2 ⎠ ⎝ 50 + 50 ⎠
Example #4 - PMOS Example #4 - PMOS
Assume that the PMOS is not biased in the Solving this quadratic equation for ID,
saturation region. So, drain current is
[
I D = (0.2) 2(2.5 − 0.8)(5 − I D (7.5)) − (5 − I D (7.5))
2
]
[
I D = K p 2(VSG + VTHP )VSD − V 2
SD ] = (0.2)[3.4(5 − I (7.5)) − (5 − I D (7.5))2 ]
D
Source-to-drain voltage is
= −1.6 + 9.9 I D − I D2 (11.25)
VSD = VDD − I D RD 0 = 11.25I D2 − 8.9 I D + 1.6
Combining these two equations, 8.9 ± 79.21 − 4 ×11.25 ×1.6
ID =
[
I D = K p 2(VSG + VTHP )(VDD − I D RD ) − (VDD − I D RD )
2
] 2 ×11.25
[ ]
11.585 6.215
=
= (0.2 ) 2(2.5 − 0.8)(5 − I D (7.5)) − (5 − I D (7.5))
2 or
22.5 22.5
= 0.515 mA or 0.2762 mA
Example #4 - PMOS Example #4 - PMOS

Also, the source-to-drain voltage is
As Example #4 illustrated, we may not know
VSD = VDD − I D RD = 5 − 0.515 × 7.5 = 1.14 V initially whether a transistor is biased in the
saturation or non-saturation region. The approach
or involves making an educated guess and then
VSD = VDD − I D RD = 5 − 0.276 × 7.5 = 2.93 V verifying that assumption. If the assumption
proves incorrect, we must then change it and re-
Therefore, for the first result, VSD<VSD(sat), which analyse the circuit.
verifies that the transistor is biased in the non- In linear amplifier containing MOSFET, the
saturation region. transistor are biased in the saturation region.
The second solution yields VSD>VSD(sat). So, it is
not a valid solution since we assumed that the
transistor is biased in the non-saturation region.
Load Line and Modes of Operation: Load Line and Modes of Operation:
NMOS Common-Source Circuit NMOS Common-Source Circuit
The load line is given by ID =
5 VDS
− (mA )
20 20
VDS = VDD − I D RD = 5 − I D (20 )
or
ID =
VDD VDS
− =
5 VDS
− (mA )
RD RD 20 20
Problem-Solving Technique: Example #6 – Constant current

NMOSFET DC Analysis source
1. Assume the transistor is in saturation. See Neamen Design Example 3.9
a. VGS > VTN, ID > 0, & VDS ≥ VDS(sat)
2. Analyze circuit using saturation I-V relations.
3. Evaluate resulting bias condition of transistor.
a. If VGS < VTN, transistor is likely in cutoff
b. If VDS < VDS(sat), transistor is likely in
nonsaturation region
4. If initial assumption is proven incorrect, make
new assumption and repeat Steps 2 and 3.
Example #6 – Constant current source Example #6 – Constant current source
Step 1 – Assume the transistor is in saturation. Step 3 – Evaluate the resulting bias conditions of
VGS > VTN, ID > 0, & VDS ≥ VDS(sat) the transistor.
¾ If the assumed parameter values in step 1
In dc analysis, vi = 0, there is no gate current through are valid, then the initial assumption is
RG. correct.
¾ If VGS<VTHN, then the transistor is probably
Step 2 – Analyze the circuit using the saturation cutoff, and if VDS<VDS(sat), the transistor is
current-voltage relations. likely biased in the non-saturation region.
⋅ (VGS − VTHN )
KPn W
ID =
2
The voltage at the source terminal is
2 L VS=–VGS=–2.24 V.
⎛ 80 ⎞
250 = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (3)(VGS − 0.8) ⇒ VGS = 2.24 V
2
⎝ 2⎠
Example #6 – Constant current source Example #6 – Constant current source

The drain current can also be written as Step 4 – If the initial assumption is proved
5 − VD incorrect, then a new assumption must be
ID = made and the circuit reanalyzed. Step 3 must
RD then be repeated.
For VD=2.5 V, we have
5 − 2. 5
RD = = 10 kΩ
0.25
The drain-to-source voltage is
VDS = VD − VS = 2.5 − (− 2.24 ) = 4.74 V

Since VDS=4.74 V > VDS(sat) =VGS–VTHN =2.24–0.8
=1.44 V, the transistor is biased in the saturation
region, as initially assumed.
Enhancement Load Device
Enhancement Load Device
An enhancement-mode MOSFET can
be used as a nonlinear resistor.
A transistor with this connection is
called an enhancement load device.
Since the transistor is an
enhancement device, VTHN>0.
Also, vDS=vGS>vDS(sat)=vGS–VTHN,
which means that the transistor is
Kn = 1mA/V2 always biased in the saturation
region.
VTHN = 1V
Enhancement Load Device Example #7 enhancement load device
The general iD versus vDS See Neamen Example 3.10 p.156.

characteristics can then be written as In saturation mode,
iD = KPn (vGS − VTHN ) = KPn (vDS − VTHN ) I D = KPn (VGS − VTHN ) L (1)
2 2 2
Dc drain-to-source voltage is
VDS = VGS = 5 − I D RS L (2)

Combining (1) and (2),
VGS = 5 − KPn RS (VGS − TTHN )

2
KPn = 1mA/V2
VTHN = 1V
Example #7 enhancement load device Example #7 enhancement load device
Substituting parameter values, Since we are assuming the transistor

is conducting, the gate-to-source
VGS = 5 − (0.05)(10 )(VGS − 0.8)
2
voltage must be greater than the
threshold voltage. We therefore have
Which can be written as the following solution:
0.5VGS2 + 0.2VGS − 4.68 = 0 VGS = VDS = 2.87 V and I D = 0.213 mA
The two possible solutions are Comment: This particular circuit is
obviously not an amplifier. However,
VGS = −3.27 V and VGS = +2.87 V the transistor connected in this
configuration is extremely useful as
an effective load resistor.
Example #4.1 Smith/Sedra Microelectronics Example #4.1 Smith/Sedra Microelectronics- solution
Consider a process technology with minimum a) Calculation of Cox and KPn.

3.9 )(8.854 × 10 −12 )
device dimension of 1µ, tox=8 nm, µn=450
cm2/V·s and VTHN=0.8 V. Cox =
ε ox
=
ε rε 0
=
(
a) Find Cox and KPn. tox tox 8 × 10 −9
b) For a MOSFET with W/L=8 µm/ 0.8 µm, = 4.32 × 10 −3 F m 2 = 4.32 fF µm 2
calculate the values of VGS and VDS,sat needed
to operate the transistor in the saturation ( )
KPn = µ nCox = 450 × 108 µm 2 V ⋅ s × 4.32 × 10 −15 F µm 2 ( )
region with a dc cufrrent ID=100 µA. = 194 × 10 −6 (F V ⋅ s ) = 194 µA V 2( )
c) For the device in b), find the value of VGS
required to cause the device to operate as a b) For operation in saturation region,
1kΩ resistor for very small vDS.
KPn ⋅ W
iD = (VGS − VTHN )2
2L
Example #4.1 Smith/Sedra Microelectronics- solution Example #4.1 Smith/Sedra Microelectronics- solution
b) For operation in saturation region, c) rDS can be found as

KPn ⋅ W
iD = (VGS − VTHN )2 vDS 1
2L rDS ≅ =
KPn ⋅ W
194 × 8
iD (VGS − VTHN )
(VGS − 0.7 )2
small v DS
100 = L
2 × 0.8
1
VGS − 0.7 = 0.32 V 1000 =
194 × 10 ×10 × (VGS − 0.7 )
−6
VGS = 1.02 V, VDS,sat = VGS − VTHN = 0.32 V

VGS − 0.7 = 0.52 V
c) For the triode region, VGS = 1.22 V
KPn ⋅ W
iD ≅ (VGS − VTHN )VDS
L
Small Signal Models

Notation according to IEEE recommendation is used as
illustrated in the figure below.
Small-signal models are used to calculate AC gains.
It is impossible for the AC signal to generate a voltage
across the DC source.
The voltage across the DC source is fixed with zero AC

component so that the DC voltage source is an AC short.
We adjust DC gate-source voltage, VGS, to DC drain current
ID.
At this bias point, we apply small AC signal where
|vgs|<<VGS and |id|<<ID.
These are conditions for small-signal operation.
Summary of performing a small-signal analysis
1. Calculating the bias point of the circuit using the DC

equations.
2. Using the DC values from (1) to calculate the small-signal
parameters. Small-signal AC parameters are always a
function of the DC operating point.
3. Replacing the active elements (e.g., MOSFETs) with their
small-signal models. At the same time, the DC sources are
removed, that is, short out all DC voltages sources and
open up all DC current sources.
As a result, the change in drain current id with gate voltage
vgs is essentially linear.
An AC analysis doesn’t include any DC voltages or currents.
If AC signal amplitudes get comparable to the DC operating
(or bias) points, we get high nonlinearity, which makes
feedback necessary for any highly linear amplifier. (Recall
your study on feedback theory in Analogue Electronics.)
Transconductance Transconductance (cont’d)
An extremely important parameter in analogue design is a If we remember

device’s transconductance, gm. The gm of a device is an AC
small-signal parameter that relates the AC gate voltage to W
β n = KPn ⋅ and v gs << VGS
the AC drain current, that is, L
id = gm·vgs
Then we can write
gm is simply the slope of the line at the intersection of the ⎛ 64 748 ⎞

VDS ,sat
⎜ ⎟
DC operating values VGS and ID. g m ≅ β n ⋅ ⎜VGS − VTHN ⎟ = 2 β n I D
From Fig. 9.16, to find the slope (gm) of the iD-vGS curve at ⎜ ⎟
the fixed bias points VGS and ID, we take the derivative of ⎝ ⎠
this equation with respect to the x-axis variable (vGS) gm goes up as the root of the drain current and linearly
with VDS,sat.
I D = constant
⎡ δi ⎤
= KPn ⋅ ⋅ (v gs + VGS − VTHN )
W
gm = ⎢ D ⎥
⎣ δvGS ⎦VGS =constant L
Example 9.5 Long-channel MOSFET parameters used in this unit. The VDD=5 V
Problem statement: and the scale factor is 1 µm (1e-6)
¾ Calculate the DC and AC voltages and currents for the
circuit seen in Fig. 9.17. Use the long-channel MOSFET
parameters from Ch. 6, (shown on next slide). Parameter NMOS PMOS Comments
VTHN and VTHP 800 mV 900 mV Typical
KPn and KPp 120 µA/V2 40 µA/V2 tox = 200 Å
C’ox = εox/tox 1.75 fF/µm2 1.75 fF/µm2 Cox= C’oxWL(scale)2
λn and λp 0.01 V–1 0.0125 V–1 at L = 2
γn and γp 0.5 V–1/2 0.6 V–1/2 Body factor
STEP #1 STEP #1 (cont’d)

1. Calculating the bias point of the circuit using the DC Rearranging algebraically,
equations.
2
The gates of M1 and M2 are 2.5 V. This is necessary to ⎛ 64 748 ⎞
VDS ,sat
keep them turned on. ⎜ ⎟ 2I D L

⎜⎜ VGS − V THN ⎟⎟ = ⋅
Sources of M1 and M2 are physically tied together, KPn W
VGS1=VGS2 and ID1=ID2=20 µA. ⎝ ⎠
The square-law equation gives 647
V
48
DS ,sat
2I D L
VGS − VTHN = ⋅
KPn W
ID = KPn W
2
2 L
2I D L
Neglecting channel-length modulation results in VGS = ⋅ + VTHN
KPn W
2
⎛ VDS ,sat ⎞
KPn W ⎜ 64748 ⎟ Assuming both M1 and M2 are operating in the
ID = ⋅ ⋅ VGS − VTHN ⎟
2 L ⎜⎜ ⎟ saturation region (we’ll verify this in a moment), we get
⎝ ⎠
STEP #1 (cont’d) STEP #1 (cont’d)
¾ To see if M1 is in saturation, we use
40 2 ?
VGS1 = VGS 2 = ⋅ + 0.8 = 1.058 V → VDS , sat ≈ 250 mV VD1 ≥ VG1 − VTHN
120 20
¾ The drain current of M3 is 20 µA. The source-to-gate → 3.842 ≥ (2.5 − 0.8 = 1.7 ) V (yes, M1 is in saturation )
voltage for M3 is ¾ Next we look at M4. M4’s source-to-gate voltage is 5 V.
¾ For PMOS to operate in saturation region,
2 ⋅ 20 2
VGS 3 = ⋅ + 0.9 = 1.158 V → VSD , sat ≈ 250 mV
40 30 VS −VD S −VG
} V}
¾ The drain potential of M1 and M3 is VSD ≥ VSG − VTHP → VD ≤ VG + VTHP
VD1 = VD 3 = VDD − VSG 3 = 3.842 V 5−VD
} } 5− 0
64SD7
V
48
3 ,sat VSD ≥ VSG − 0.9 → VD ≤ 0 + 0.9 = 0.9 V
VSG 3 − VTHP = (5 − 3.842) − 0.9 = 1.158 − 0.9 = 0.258 V
¾ So for M4 to be in saturation, VD ≤ 0.9 V. Gate of M2 is
¾ We know that M3 is in saturation. 2.5 V and VGS2=1.058 V, then its source is 1.442 V,
which makes it impossible for M4 to be saturated.
?
STEP #1 (cont’d)
VD1 ≥ VG1 − VTHN
¾ To estimate the drain-to-source voltage of M4, we use
→ 3.842 ≥ (2.5 − 0.8 = 1.7 ) V (yes, M1 is in saturation )
⎛ 2
⎞
⋅ ⎜⎜ (VSG − VTHP )VSD −
W VSD
I D = KPP ⎟⎟
L ⎝ 2 ⎠
¾ ID=20 µA and its gate-source voltage is 5 V
30 ⎛ 2
⎞
20 = 40 ⋅ ⎜⎜ (5 − 0.9)VSD −
VSD
⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
2
VSD − 246VSD + 2 = 0
VSD = 8.13 mV
¾ The drains of M4 and M2 are then 4.992 V or essentially

at VDD. Clearly M2 is operating in the saturation region.
STEP #1 (cont’d) STEP #1 (cont’d)
¾ M4 can be thought of as a resistor with a value of LTSpice
Simulation
1 1
Rch ≈ = Spice directive
W
⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) ⎛ µA ⎞ 30
KPn ⎜ 40 ⎟ ⋅ (5 − 0.9) .op
L ⎝ V ⎠ 2
= 407 Ω
¾ Alternatively, the resistance can be estimated from
VSD 8.13 mV
= = 407 Ω
ID 20 µA
¾ Here is an operating point analysis of this circuit using

SPICE simulation.
STEP #1 (cont’d) STEP #2 – Calculate the small-signal parameters.

LTSpice ¾ The transconductance of M1 and M2 is
Simulation
Spice directive W 10
.op
g m1 = g m 2 = 2 ⋅ KPn ⋅ I D = 2 ⋅120µ ⋅ ⋅ 20µ ≈ 150 µA V
L 2
¾ The transocnductance of M3 is
W 30
g m 3 = 2 ⋅ KPp ⋅ I D = 2 ⋅ 40µ ⋅ ⋅ 20µ ≈ 150 µA V
L 2
¾ M4 is operating in the triode region and so we think of
it as a resistor (407 Ω).
STEP #3 – Replace the active elements (e.g., MOSFETs) ¾ Notice how we can replace M3 with a resistor of 1/gm3.
with their small-signal models. The DC sources are
removed. That is, short out all DC voltage sources and
¾ This is because the AC voltage across M3 is vsg3 =vsd3 and
open up all DC current sources). the AC current through it is id or
¾ Fig. 9.18 shows the simplified AC schematic of Fig. 9.17. 1 vsd vsg
= =
g m id id
¾ A gate-drain connected MOSFET with a current flowing

through it is always in saturation, and can be thought of as
a small-signal resistance of 1/gm (remember this).
¾ There is a significant difference between hand calculation
and simulation results about the potential calculated for the
sources of M1/M2. We didn’t include the body effect in
our calculations.
APPENDIX – Fermi Energy Level

¾ To describe carrier concentration in a
semiconductor, Fermi energy level is often
used. The Fermi energy level is useful when
determining the contact potentials in materials.
E.g., the potential applied across a diode before
it turns on. It is set by the p-type and n-type
material contact potential difference. Also, the
threshold voltage is determined, in part, by
contact potentials.
¾ The Fermi energy level simply indicates the
Figure above shows that for intrinsic silicon the (intrinsic) Fermi
energy level where the probability of
level, Ei is close to the middle of the bandgap. In p-type silicon, the
occupation by a free electron is 50%. Fermi level, Ef, moves towards the valence band, since the number
of free electrons, n, is reduced with the abundance of holes.
The energy difference between the Ei and Ef is given by, for a
p-type semiconductor by
N
Ei − E fp = kT ⋅ ln A
ni
And for an n-type semiconductor by
N
E fn − Ei = kT ⋅ ln D
ni
The band diagram of a pn junction (a diode) is seen in the
figure below.
The location of the Fermi energy level in n-type silicon moves

towards Ec with the abundance of electrons in the conduction
band.
Note how the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the

diode. A variation in Ef would indicate a non-equilibrium
situation (the diode has an external voltage applied across it).
To get current to flow in a diode, we must apply an external
potential that approaches the diode’s contact potential (its
built-in potential, Vbi).
By applying a potential to forward bias the diode, the
conduction energy level in each side of the diode move closer
to the same level.
The voltage applied to the diode when the conduction energy
levels are exactly at the same level is given by
E fn − E fp kT N N
Vbi = = ⋅ ln A 2 D
q q ni

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In this chapter, we will:

UGEA3153  Study and understand the operation and characteristics of

 Understand and become familiar with the dc analysis and

Donald A. Neamen  Analyze the dc biasing of multistage or multi-transistor

Both transistors are used in the fabrication of CMOS circuitry.

Basic Structure of MOS Capacitor

 tox is thickness of oxide.

Holes are pushed away, a negative space charge is created,

Negative gate bias:

MOS Capacitor Under Bias:

 Diagram above shows the layout of the poly-poly capacitor.

⎛ Farad ⎞ ε ox (aF µm ) Cox (aF) ε r ε 0 (dielectric constant )

 ε0 = 8.854×10–18 F/µm = 8.854 aF/µm.

Surface under the

 Figure below shows how the capacitance changes as the

 Suppose the MOSFET configuration seen in the

 Since the MOSFET is to be used as a capacitor, we require

 Figure above shows MOSFET symbol with capacitances.

 The semiconductor surface is inverted when VGS is greater 2ε si Vs − V fp

 Pure silicon is often called intrinsic silicon.

Before electron After electron

Basic Transistor Operation IV (Current/Voltage) Characteristics:

• Charge stored on C’ox • Charge present in inversion layer from the

• Entirely analogous arguments apply to holes. 1 dy

qτ cp – µn is the average electron mobility through the channel with

• Typical values: – This equation is valid when the MOSFET is operating

⋅ 2 ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) ⋅ elec

– These equations assume mobility does not vary with

• Cgs Calculation in the Saturation Region • SPICE Modeling of the MOSFET

2|Vfp| PHI Surface to bulk 0.65 0.58 V

VTHN and VTHP 800 mV 900 mV Typical

γn and γp 0.5 V–1/2 0.6 V–1/2 Body factor

– The long-channel CMOS process is useful for

Short-channel MOSFET parameters used in this unit. Summary

Parameter NMOS PMOS Comments • The mathematical relationship that

where the device constant Kn is related to

and the threshold voltage VTHN is given by VDS,sat ≡vDS(sat)

The parameter Kn is the conduction parameter, which for an n-

In the saturation region, since the ′

Example #2 – solution continued Example #2 – solution continued

2(4 ×10 )(450 ×10 )

Symbols for n-Channel

Family of iD Versus vDS Curves: p-Channel Depletion-

Channel Length Modulation:Early Voltage Body Effect

Subthreshold Conduction Subthreshold Conduction

 The drain-to-substrate pn junction may break

Breakdown Effects Breakdown Effects

Models for Analogue Design Models for Analogue Design

Slope=0, so, R=∞ 1 mA

What is the slope? 1 mA

Slope=∞, so, R=0

 We use a single quadrant of the IV plotting plane.

⋅ ⋅ (VGS − VTHN ) = n ⋅ ⋅ (VDS , sat )

I D = I D , sat + I D , sat λ ⋅ (VDS − VDS , sat )

I D = I D , sat + I D , sat λ ⋅ (VDS − VDS , sat )

 Example 9.1 of J Baker’s textbook.

 Example 9.2 (Baker’s textbook)

 Figure 9.4 shows the IV curves for a MOSFET. Comment on

NMOS Common-Source Circuit

⋅ ⋅ (VSG − VTHP ) [1 + λ (VSD − VSD , sat )]

NMOS Common-Source Circuit

PT = I DVDS = (0.1)(3) = 0.3 mW

UGEA3153 Study and understand the operation and characteristics of

Understand and become familiar with the dc analysis and

Donald A. Neamen Analyze the dc biasing of multistage or multi-transistor

tox is thickness of oxide.

Diagram above shows the layout of the poly-poly capacitor.

ε0 = 8.854×10–18 F/µm = 8.854 aF/µm.

Figure below shows how the capacitance changes as the

Suppose the MOSFET configuration seen in the

Since the MOSFET is to be used as a capacitor, we require

Figure above shows MOSFET symbol with capacitances.

The semiconductor surface is inverted when VGS is greater 2ε si Vs − V fp

Pure silicon is often called intrinsic silicon.

The drain-to-substrate pn junction may break

We use a single quadrant of the IV plotting plane.

Example 9.1 of J Baker’s textbook.

Example 9.2 (Baker’s textbook)

Figure 9.4 shows the IV curves for a MOSFET. Comment on

The general iD versus vDS See Neamen Example 3.10 p.156.

Substituting parameter values, Since we are assuming the transistor

Consider a process technology with minimum a) Calculation of Cox and KPn.

Small Signal Models

The voltage across the DC source is fixed with zero AC

Transconductance Transconductance (cont’d)

An extremely important parameter in analogue design is a If we remember

STEP #1 STEP #1 (cont’d)

STEP #1 (cont’d) STEP #2 – Calculate the small-signal parameters.

The location of the Fermi energy level in n-type silicon moves

Note how the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the