Practical Articles and Presentations For Electrical Engineers - Trial Version

Practical Articles and
Presentations for
Electrical Engineers
R. K. Sinha
www.power-publishers.com
1
Copyright: R. K. Sinha
Published by: Power Publishers,

www.Power-Publishers.com
9/1 Motijheel Avenue,
Kolkata 700074
Printed from: Ray Dot Com,

College Street, Kolkata 700073, India
Cover Design: Pinaki Ghosh
Editor: Sanchaita Roy
First Published: April 2011
ISBN number: 978-93-81205-20-4
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Printed on recycled paper. No trees were cut for the production of this book.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publisher and author. The views expressed in this book are
those of the author. The publisher is not in any way responsible for the views
expressed in this book. All legal actions are subject to the jurisdictions of
courts of Kolkata, India.
2
Dedication
This collection of my Articles and Presentations is

dedicated to my respected parents who have been a
source of constant inspiration, to my loving wife
Poonam who has always encouraged and supported
me in all my endeavours and my loving children
Suraj and Rachna who are my life !
R K Sinha
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Foreword
I am a practicing electrical engineer by profession. During

my more than 25 years of working in the industry I have
had the opportunity of handling various assignments in
Maintenance Management, Contract Management, Basic
Work Scope, Design and Detailed Engineering reviews,
Installation, Testing and Commissioning activities of
Projects, Procurement of Electrical Equipments and
Spares etc.
I have worked in the Oil & Gas sector where hazards are
too many and also in the harsh marine environment of
offshore Oil Fields. These helped a lot in improving my
safety consciousness in selection of correct electrical
equipments according to the area classification and their
proper operation and maintenance.
The experience of projects provided me the opportunity of
getting familiar with various national and international
codes and standards. The offshore oil field equipments
and systems are technologically advanced and the best in
the world. Proper Operation and Maintenance of the same
is a challenge in itself and it has been a journey of
continuous learning for me.
I have always believed in Knowledge Sharing by whatever
means possible such as Discussions, Presentations,
Articles etc.
During my working life in the industry I have time and
again searched for relevant practical books on various
aspects of Electrical Engineering but have mostly drawn
blanks as far as Indian Publications are concerned. Most
of the Indian books are academic in nature and suited as
text books for students of electrical engineering. The
imported books are too costly for most of us.
In keeping with the spirit of knowledge sharing , I have
made an effort to bring out this collection of Practical
Articles and Presentations for Electrical Engineers. I hope
the effort will be embraced and welcomed by the
practicing electrical engineering fraternity of India.
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INDEX OF ARTICLES
Sl. No. Title
1 Area Classification & selection of
Electrical equipments 08
2 Circuit Breakers 17
3 Earthing 24
4 Earth Leakage Currents & ELCBs 33
5 Electric Shock 39
6 Electrical Engineering Softwares 52
7 Fault Levels 60
8 Fuses 66
9 Maintenance Management 73
10 Electrical Motors 79
11 Offshore Electrical System 90
12 Partial Discharge Analysis 96
13 Power Factor Improvement 100
14 Relay Coordination 106
15 Solar Photo - Voltaic 112
16 Static Electricity 117
17 Safety against Arc Flash 124
18 Safe Usage of Multimeters 130
19 Variable Frequency Drives 134
INDEX OF SLIDES
Sl. No. Title
1 Induction Motors 138
2 Area Classification 150
3 Cables 168
4 Concepts of Earthing 178
5 ELCB 184
6 Electric Shock 191
7 Generator Protections 204
8 Harmonics 212
9 Lighting 219
10 Motor Protections 233
11 Partial Discharge Analysis 248
12 Power Factor Improvement 250
13 Relay Coordination 258
14 Static Electricity 264
15 Arc Flash 280
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PART 1
ARTICLES
7
AREA CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
In most of the industrial plants such as Chemical plants,

Refineries,Crude Oil & Gas processing plants, hazardous areas
exist due to the presence of flammable gases . While designing
such plants the first step is to finalise the layout of facilities and
equipments. Area Classification drawings are then developed
based on the layouts. The purpose of the area classification
drawings is to clearly identify the hazardous and safe areas in
the plant . For safe operations all electrical equipments must be
selected keeping in view their area of application in the plant.It
goes without saying that electrical equipments designed for
hazardous areas are much costlier than the ordinary ones and
hence the plant facility layout has a considerable bearing on the
capital expenditure.
SOME DEFINITIONS
We know that for a fire to take place three things are essential :
1. Presence of fuel such as flammable gas
2. Presence of oxygen
3. Presence of heat ie. sufficient ignition energy to ignite
the flammable mixture
While discussing hazardous areas ,it is useful to have the

following relevant definitions in mind :
8
• Ignition Temperature : The lowest temperature at which
ignition occurs in a mixture of explosive gas and air.
• Flash Point : The temperature at which the liquid gives
so much vapour,that this vapour,when mixed with
air,forms an ignitable mixture.
• Explosive Limits : The extreme values for the
concentration of a flammable gas or air under
atmospheric conditions,which can be ignited by an
electric arc or spark.
STANDARDS
Most countries have developed their own standards and codes
for Area Classification but internationally two main standards
are being followed.These are :
• The North American standards produced by the API
and NFPA.
• The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
standards.
• API 500 is used in the United States whereas IEC 79 is
popular in Europe.
Area classification basically covers two aspects :

1. The probability of flammable atmosphere in the
area
2. The type of gases / chemical vapours involved
The North American API RP 500 defines the above two aspects
as Divisions and Gas Groups whereas in IEC 79 they are
termed as Zones and Gas Groups.
NORTH AMERICAN METHOD
CLASS : Is used to provide a general definition of the physical

characteristics of the hazardous material with which we are
dealing. The three classes are :
CLASS 1 : Gases, Vapours and Liquids that can be present in
explosive or ignitable mixtures. Examples : Gasoline , Natural
Gas.
CLASS 2 : Combustible dust that can be present in amounts
that could produce potentially explosive mixtures or dust of an
electrically conductive nature.
Examples : Flour or cornstarch. As a compact mass these may
only burn or smolder but when finely distributed in air , the
mixture becomes explosive.
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Metallic dust such as aluminium or magnesium have several
dsangerous properties.
(i) They are electrically conductive.
(ii) They can burn very violently even when not finely
distributed in air.
(iii) When finely distributed in air they can be violently
explosive.
CLASS 3 : Fibers or flyings that are easily ignitable but are not
apt to be suspended in air in such amounts to produce ignitable
mixtures.
Example : Rayon, Nylon, Cotton, Sawdust etc.
DIVISIONS
DIVISION 1A Hazardous concentrations exist continuously
or intermittently under normal operating
conditions.
DIVISION 1B Hazardous concentrations may exist
frequently due to leakage.
DIVISION 1C The breakage or faulty operations of
equipment or process which might release
hazardous concentrations of flammable gases
and might also cause simultaneous failure of
electrical equipments.
DIVISION 2A Hazardous volatile liquids,vapous or gases
are normally confined within enclosed
containers or closed systems from which they
can escape only in the case of accidental
rupture or breakdown.
DIVISION 2B Hazardous concentration are normally
prevented by positive ventilation but might
become hazardous through failure of the
ventilation system.
DIVISION 2C Hazardous concentrations of the gases or
vapours might occasionally be communicated
because of their proximity to Division 1 areas.
GAS GROUPS
GROUP A Atmospheres containing acetylene.
GROUP B Atmospheres containing hydrogen
GROUP C Atmospheres containing ethyl ether
vapours,ethylene or equivalent gases
GROUP D Atmospheres containing
gasoline,naptha,propane,acetone,natural gas or
equivalent
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EUROPEAN METHOD
ZONES
ZONE 0 An area in which hazardous
atmosphere is continuously
present.In oil industry such a
condition exists in confined
spaces, such as the vapour
space of closed process
vessels,storage tanks etc.
ZONE 1 An area where explosive gas
and air mixture is continuously
present for a long period or is
likely to occur in normal
operation.
ZONE 2 An area in which explosive gas
and air mixture is likely to
occur only under abnormal
operating conditions. For
example : Gas Turbine
enclosures.
NON-HAZARDOUS AREA Areas not falling under Zone
0,1 or 2 are considered as safe
areas. Oil and gas pipelines
laid in the open outside
hazardous areas and that do
not have any flange
joints,which cannot become
loose, are considered safe
area.
GAS GROUPS
GROUP 1 Covers gases produced in coal
mines (mainly fire damp
methane).
GROUP 2A Atmospheres containing
acetone, ethane, hexane, ethyl
acetate, ammonia, benzene,
butane, diesel, propane etc.
GROUP 2B Atmospheres containing
ethylene, town gas, ethyl ether
etc.
GROUP 2C Atmospheres containing
hydrogen, acetylene, ethyl
nitrate, carbon disulphide.
11
In addition to the zones ( defining probability of occurrence of
flammable mixture) and Gas Groups ( defining type of
flammable gas) , the European Standard also has a
Temperature Classification .
• The external surfaces of explosion proof equipment
must not exceed the temperature whereby they may
be liable to become source of ignition for the
surrounding atmosphere.
• According to ignition temperature gases and vapours
are divided into six temperature classes as follows :
T1 450 deg C
T2 300 deg C
T3 200 deg C
T4 135 deg C
T5 100 deg C
T6 85 deg C
The ignition temperature of natural gas is approximately
480 deg Celsius.
TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS

Electrical equipments are designed and manufactured with the
following types of protections :
Type ‘d’ (Flameproof) The enclosure will withstand
an internal explosion of the
flammable gas,which may
enter it,without suffering
damage and without
communicating the internal
flammation to the external
flammable atmosphere through
any joints or structural opening
in the enclosure.
Type ‘e’ (Increased safety) A method of protection by
which additional measures are
applied to provide increased
safety against the possibility of
excessive temperatures and of
the occurrence of arcs or
sparks during the service life of
the apparatus.
Type ‘i’ (Intrinsically safe) A protection technique based
upon the restriction of electrical
energy within apparatus and
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the interconnecting
wiring,exposed to a potentially
explosive atmosphere, to a
level below that which can
cause ignition by either
sparking or heating
effects.Devices whose
electrical parameters do not
exceed any of the values 1.2
V,100mA,20 J or 25 mW.
Type ‘p’ (Pressurized) A method of protection using
the pressure of a protective
gas to prevent the ingress of
an external flammable
atmosphere to a space which
may contain a source of
ignition.
Type ‘n’ (Non-sparking) A type of protection applied to
an electrical apparatus such
that,in normal operation,it is
not capable of igniting a
surrounding explosive
atmosphere , and a fault
capable of causing ignition is
not likely to occur.
Type ‘o’ (Oil Immersed) A method of protection where
the enclosure is made safe by
oil-immersion in the sense that
flammable gases or vapours
above the oil or outside the
enclosure will not be ignited.
Type ‘q’ (Sand filled) A method of protection where
the enclosure of electrical
apparatus is filled with a
powdery material such that, if
an arc occurs, it will not be
able to ignite the external
flammable atmosphere.
Type ‘s’ (Special) Special methods of protection
which may be a combination of
above methods
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SELECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Zone 0 Only Type ‘ia’ (Intrinsically safe)
and some special type ‘s’
allowed.
Zone 1 Apparatus suitable for Zone 0
and Intrinsically Safe
‘ib’,Flameproof (‘d’),Oil Immersed
(‘o’),Pressurised (‘p’), Sand Filled
(‘q’).
Zone 2 Apparatus for Zone 0 & 1 plus
Increased Safety (‘e’),Non-
sparking (‘n’) allowed.
INGRESS PROTECTION
To complete the subject it is also worthwhile to touch upon the
topic of Ingress Protection for enclosures of electrical
equipments and switchgear. Ingress protection defines the level
of protection of the enclosure against the ingress of solids and
liquids. It is denoted as IP followed by two digits eg. IP 55. Here
the first digit specifies protection against ingress of solids
whereas the second digit specifies protection against ingress of
liquids.The following tables provides the details :
SOLIDS
0 No protection
1 Protected against solid objects
upto 50 mm (eg. Hands)
upto 12.5 mm (eg. Fingers)
upto 2.5 mm (eg. Tools)
over 1 mm (eg. Wires)
5 Protected against dust (No
harmful deposits)
6 Totally protected against dust.
14
LIQUIDS
0 No protection
1 Protected against vertically
falling drops of water
2 Protected against water spray
upto 15 deg from the vertical
upto 60 deg from the vertical
from all directions
5 Protected against water jets
from all directions
6 Protected against strong water
jets from all directions
7 Protected against immersion
upto 1 Mtr depth.
8 Protected against lengthy
immersion under pressure.
SOME IMPORTANT AGENCIES

API AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE
NFPA NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION
IEC INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL
COMMISSION
UL UNDERWRITERS LABORATORY
CENELEC EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR
ELECTROTECHNICAL STANDARDIZATION
BASEEFA BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF SAFETY ON
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
FLAMEPROOF APPARATUS
DGMS DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF MINES SAFETY
CMRS CENTRAL MINING RESEARCH STATION
SOME IMPORTANT STANDARDS

API Recommended practice for Classification of Locations
RP for Electrical Installations at Petroleum facilities
500 Classified as Class 1,Division 1 and Division 2.
API Recommended practice for Classification of Locations
RP for Electrical Installations at Petroleum facilities
505 Classified as Class 1,Zone 0,Zone 1 and Zone 2.
API Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of
15
RP 14 Electrical Systems for Offshore Petroleum Facilities.
F
IEC Classification of Hazardous Areas
79-10
IS Indian Standard for Classification of Hazardous Areas
5572
It is imperative that all of us engaged in the pursuit of oil and

gas clearly understand the disastrous implications of an
electrical equipment wrongly selected or improperly maintained.
Even if we select world class equipment/apparatus ,it will not
reduce the risks if not well maintained. So the onus is on the
electrical maintenance engineers ( a thankless and much
hassled community) to beware of each missing bolt from a
flameproof equipment or a worn gasket in a field junction box.
And my dear brethren (read electrical maintenance engineers)
do we not know that 90% of the fires in the industry are thrust in
our laps as caused by electrical short-circuits. After all, any fire
burns out cables and wires also ,doesn’t it ? Very difficult to
establish the cause and the effect later. So why give the world a
chance ? Let us resolve to mitigate the risks with our
knowledge, skills and commitment.
16
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is a switching and current-interrupting device in

a switchgear.The circuit breaker serves two basic purposes :
1. Switching during normal operating conditions.
2. Switching during abnormal conditions such as short
circuits and interrupting the fault currents.
The first function mentioned above is quite simple as it involves
interrupting normal currents.However,the second function is
tough as the fault currents are very high and they should be
interrupted within a few cycles to save the connected circuit
components and equipments from the disastrous effects of the
thermal and dynamic stresses.
As a fault occurs in a power system,the current increases
manifold due to the low fault impedance.During the fault,the
current and the voltage undergo a continuous change and the
phenomena observed are called ‘transient phenomena’.the
word ‘transient’ refers to a ‘temporary state’ which lasts for a
short duration of time.The fault current varies with time. During
the first three cycles,the fault current is very high but decreases
very rapidly.This zone is known as the ‘Sub-transient
State’.after the first few cycles the decrease in current is less
rapid.This region of slow decreases in the short-circuit current is
17
called the “Transient State’.The transient state lasts for a few
cycles.After the transient state,’Steady State’ is reached.During
the steady state the RMS value of the short-circuit current
remains almost constant.
THE CIRCUIT BREAKERS OPERATE DURING THE
TRANSIENT STATE.
THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS

The protective relays are connected in the secondary circuits of
current transformers and/or potential transformers.The relays
sense abnormal conditions and generate a trip command for
the circuit breaker.The circuit breaker opens its contacts.As the
contacts separate an arc is drawn between them.The arc is
extinguished by suitable medium and technique.The stresses
occurring on the circuit breaker while interrupting the arc,can be
analysed by studying the following transient phenomena :
• Transient variation of the short-circuit currents
• Transient variation of the voltage after final arc
interruption (transient recovery voltage)
• The arc extinguishing phenomenon
After final arc extinction, a high voltage wave appears across
the circuit-breaker contacts tending to re-establish the arc.This
transient voltage wave is called Transient Recovery Voltage
(TRV).The TRV comprises a high frequency transient
component superimposed on a power frequency recovery
voltage.
These phenomena have a profound influence on the behaviour
of the circuit-breakers.
In circuit-breakers the mode of arc extinction is either ‘high

resistance interruption, or ‘ zero-point interruption’.
High Resistance Interruption : In this technique the resistance
of the arc is increased by lengthening and cooling it to such an
extent that the system voltage is no longer able to maintain the
arc and the arc gets extinguished.This method is used in air-
break circuit breakers and DC circuit breakers.
Zero Point Interruption : In this technique the arc gets
extinguished at the natural current zero of the AC wave and is
prevented from restriking again by rapid buildup of dielectric
strength of the contact space.This principle is applied in almost
all AC circuit-breakers.
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CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
Circuit-Breakers are generally classified as follows according to
the medium of arc extinction :
1. MCB/MCCB/Air-break circuit breakers.
2. Air blast circuit breakers.
3. Oil circuit breakers.
4. Minimum oil circuit breakers.
5. SF6 circuit breakers.
6. Vacuum circuit breakers.
MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCBs)

As is clear from the name,these are tiny circuit-breakers
generally used in low voltage lighting and control circuits where
the fault currents are of the order of a few kiloamperes(KA)
only.
MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCCBs)

These are used in medium voltage circuits and are available in
current ratings upto 800 Amps.They provide integrated overload
and short-circuit protectionsand are mainly used in 415 V motor
circuits and lighting mains.These are maintenance–free units
and have the following advantages over switch-fuse units :
• No time is lost in fuse replacement.
• Less chances of motor single-phasing.
AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT BREAKERS (ACBs)

Air-break circuit-breakers utilize air at atmospheric pressure for
arc extinction.These are generally used indoors in medium
voltage DC and AC circuits.These circuit breakers employ the
high resistance arc extinction process.The arc is rapidly
lengthened by means of arc runners and arc chutes and the
resistance of the arc is increased by cooling,lengthening and
splitting the arc.The arc resistance increases to such an extent
that the supply voltage is no longer able to sustain the arc and
it extinguishes.These circuit breakers are equipped with
thermal,magnetic and shunt trips and are now available upto 12
KV,500MVA ratings.
AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS (ABCBs)

In Air Blast Circuit Breakers high pressure air is forced on the
arc through a nozzle at the instant of contact separation.The
ionized medium between the contacts is blown away by the air
19
blast.After the arc extinction the chamber is filled with high
pressure air which prevents the arc from restriking.
These circuit breakers were developed during
1930’s.Nowadays they are becoming obsolete and being
replaced by Vacuum and SF6 breakers.
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS (OCBs)

The oil circuit breaker was developed around 1885.In these
dielectric oil is used for insulation and arc extinction.Contact
separation takes place in steel tanks filled with oil.These
breakers have become obsolete because of the following
demerits :
• Large quantity of oil is required in the tank to provide
insulation between the live parts and the earthed steel
tank.
• These are bulky and difficult to maintain.
• The entire oil needs checking and replacement due to
deterioration.
MINIMUM OILCIRCUIT BREAKERS (MOCBs)

In minimum oil circuit breakers the contact separation takes
place inside oil filled interrupters made of insulating material
such as porcelain or ceramic.MOCBs were developed for a
voltages from 3.6 KV to 145 KV.
The heat of the arc causes decomposition of the dielectric
oil,the products of decomposition being hydrogen gas and other
gases like acetylene.
DISADVANTAGES OF OIL
1. The decomposed products of dielectric oil are
inflammable and explosive.If the oil circuit breaker is
unable to break the fault current,the pressure in the
tank may rise above safe limit and explosion may
occur.This does not happen in other types of breakers.
2. The oil absorbs moisture easily.Its dielectric strength
reduces by carbonization which occurs during
arcing.The oil needs replacement after certain breaker
operations.It needs regular maintenance.
3. Oil is not a suitable medium for breakers which have to
operate frequently because the oil deteriorates.
SULPHUR HEXAFLOURIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT-BREAKERS

SF6 is an inert,heavy gas having excellent dielectric and arc
extinguishing properties.The dielectric strength of SF6
20
increases with pressure and is more than that of dielectric oil at
a pressure of 3 Kg/cm2.SF6 circuit breakers .These breakers
were developed around 1970 and are available for rated
voltages from 3.6 KV to 760 KV.
AT 15Kg/cm2 SF6 gas starts liquefying at 10 deg
Celcius.Hence this gas is not suitable for pressures above 15
Kg/cm2.
Physical properties of SF6 Gas
• Colourless
• Odourless
• Non-toxic
• Non-inflammable
• State – Gas at normal temperature and pressure.
• Density – Heavy gas, density 5 times that of air at 20
deg C and atmospheric pressure.
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS (VCBs)

Vacuum circuit breakers were developed during 1960’s and are
being used extensively upto 36 KV.Here the contacts separate
in vacuum which has good dielectric strength.A vacuum level of
10-6 to 10-10 bar is used.
ADVANTAGES OF SF6 CB OVER VACUUM CB

• Probability of leakage is less in SF6 because of lower
pressure difference from atmosphere.
• Even after leakage SF6 being heavier than air
maintains a pressure of 1 bar and is still safe.However,
a VCB is not even fit for breaking normal currents after
a leakage.
• For inductive and capacitive loads VCBs give rise to
large switching overvoltages and hence surge arrestors
are required in conjunction.This is not required in case
of SF6.
TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF A CIRCUIT BREAKER

A circuit breaker ratings consist of the following particulars :
• Type of medium for arc extinction.
• Rated voltage.
• Rated breaking current.
• Type of operating mechanism.
• Total break time eg. 2 cycles,3 cycles etc.
Breaking Capacity :A circuit breaker must be capable to break

the fault current on occurrence of a fault.This is known as its
21
Breaking Capacity.If the current is symmetrical it is referred as
symmetrical breaking capacity, whereas if the current is
asymmetrical it is termed as asymmetrical breaking capacity.
Symmetrical breaking current is the RMS value of the AC
component of the short circuit current at the instant of contact
separation.The asymmetrical breaking current is the RMS value
of total current comprising the AC as well as DC components at
the instant of contact separation.
Making Capacity : A circuit breaker must be capable of being
closed on to a fault.It must be able to withstand the extremely
high electromagnetic forces under these conditions.The making
current of a circuit breaker is the peak value of the maximum
current wave (including the DC component) in the first cycle of
the current after the circuit is closed by the circuit breaker.The
rated making capacity of a circuit breaker is approximately 2.55
times the symmetrical breaking capacity.
TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

In AC circuit breakers ,the current interruption takes place at the
natural zero of the current wave.Before the contacts separate
the voltage between them is zero.After the contact separation
the voltage across contact increases.In fact this voltage is the
voltage drop across the arc during the arcing period.The
voltage across the arc is in phase with the current since the arc
is resistive.Finally when the arc is extinguished a high
frequency voltage transient appears across the contacts which
is superimposed on the power frequency system voltage.This
high frequency transient voltage tries to restrike the arc and is
known as the Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV).The TRV
causes high dielectric stress between the circuit breaker
contacts.If the dielectric strength of the medium between the
contacts does not build up faster than the rate of rise of TRV
,breakdown takes place causing re-establishment of the
arc.Hence for the circuit breaker to interrupt the fault currents
successfully it is extremely important to build up the dielectric
strength of the medium between the contacts.This is an
important feature of any circuit breaker design.
22
HRC FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS : A COMPARISION
1. HRC fuses possess high rupturing capacity
compared to the circuit breakers in the medium
voltage range.Fuses with breaking capacity of
100 KA are available.Breakers with
corresponding capacity will be too bulky.
2. HRC fuses are cheaper than the circuit
breakers.
3. HRC fuses take less space and are simpler to
install and maintain.
4. In case of severe faults,HRC fuses open a
circuit in less than half cycle,ie. before the
current peak is reached.As against this,circuit
breakers take 2-3 cycles.
5. There is no deterioration in case of HRC fuses
while circuit breakers are prone to become
sluggish in operation with lapse of time.The
worn latches,contacts etc. can cause mal-
operation of circuit-breakers.
6. It takes some time to replace fuses whereas a
circuit breaker can be switched on quickly to
resume operations.
7. Fuses need replacement after every fault
clearing.
Hence,we see that circuit breakers are protectors of the

electrical system.However, circuit breakers must be selected
properly for the intended application to provide maximum safety
and protection.
23
CONCEPTS OF EARTHING
INTRODUCTION
Earthing is an integral part of any electrical

installation.Earlier,very little was known about the requirements
of earthing.Even now,when a wealth of information is available
about the necessities and methodology of earthing systems,it
still remains a complex and confusing subject.It is so
common,yet so little understood.This article is an attempt to
brush up the subject of earthing in the minds of electrical
engineers and inspire them to dig further in the subject.
SOME FUNDAMENTALS
Earth : From electrical engineering point of view Earth is

defined as the conductive mass of the earth,whose electric
potential at any point is conventionally taken as zero.Being
electrically neutral and at zero potential,the earth provides a
common reference for voltage measurements.
Earthing : An electric connection to the general mass of

earth,whose dimensions are very large in comparision to the
electrical system being considered.
The terms ‘Ground’ and ‘Grounding’ are synonymous with
‘Earth’ and ‘Earthing’ and are more prevalent in some countries
like North America.
Equipotential Bonding : Electrical connection putting various

exposed conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at a
substantially equal potential.
Exposed Conductive Part : A conductive part of an equipment

which can be touched and which is not a live part but which
may become live under fault conditions.
Extraneous Conductive Part : A conductive part liable to

transmit a potential including earth potential and not forming
part of the electrical installation.
NEED FOR EARTHING
Earthing is of utmost importance for safety of

plant,equipment,property and human as well as animal life.In
24
the absence of a well designed effective earthing system,earth
fault conditions may lead to tremendous loss of property and
lives.The main objectives of earthing are as follows :
• To ensure safety of life and property from hazards of
electric shock and electric fires.
• To ensure that system voltages on healthy lines remain
within reasonable limits under fault conditions thereby
prevending insulation breakdowns.
• To provide a low impedance path to facilitate the
satisfactory operation of protective devices under fault
conditions.
• To minimize arcing burn downs as in an earthed system
arcing fault would produce a current in ground path
thereby providing an easy means of detecting and
tripping against phase to earth arcing fault breakdowns.
• To provide an equipotential platform on which electronic
equipments can operate.
• To provide an alternative path for induced current and
minimize the electrical noise in cables.
EARTHING CATEGORIES
There are two types of earthing.
1. SYSTEM EARTHING : This is primarily
concerned with the protection pf electrical
equipmen by stabilizing voltages with respect to
ground.
2. EQUIPMENT EARTHING : This is primarily
concerned with the protection of personnel from
electric shock by maintaining the potential of
non-current carrying equipment at or near
ground potential.
SYSTEM EARTHING
This is basically achieved by earthing the neutral of the supply
system.Ungrounded neutral supply systems are not in use
mainly for the following disadvantages :
1. Under a single line to earth fault the voltage to earth of
the two healthy phases rises from phase value to line
value ie. Root 3 times.
2. The capacitive current in the two healthy phases
increases to root 3 times the normal value.
3. The capacitive current in the faulty phase is 3 times its
normal value.
25
4. The capacitive fault current gives rise to arcing ground
condition.Under such condition the phase voltage may
rise to 5 to 6 times its normal value causing insulation
breakdown.
5. It is difficult to detect and isolate a single phase to earth
fault.
Modern supply systems operate with their neutral points

grounded.The advantages are :
1. There is no voltage rise in the healthy phases during
phase to earth fault.
2. There are no unbalanced voltages with respect to earth.
3. Persistent arcing grounds are eliminated.
4. Earth fault currents can be utilized to operate protective
relays to disconnect the fault.
METHODS OF NEUTRAL EARTHING

1. Solid or Effective Grounding : The use of solid
grounding is limited only to systems where the normal
circuit impedance is sufficient to prevent very high value
of fault current.This is necessary to avoid excessive
damage at the fault location.Experience shows that the
combined impedance of the equipment,circuit and earth
return path in systems, operating at voltages below 2.2
KV and above 33 KV, is sufficiently high so as to limit
the value of fault current to a safe value.
2. Resistance Grounding : Neutral earthing is done
through a resistor to limit the earth fault current.Neutral
earthing resistors are normally designed to carry their
rated current for a short period ,usually 30
seconds.Resistance grounding is normally employed on
systems operating at voltages between 2.2 KV and 33
KV, when the total power source capacity exceeds
5000 KVA,as the current characteristics of such
systems usually give rise to excessive currents under
ground fault conditions.
3. Reactance Grounding : Another method of neutral
grounding wherein the fault current can be limited is
through reactance grounding.The reactance connected
between neutral and earth provides a lagging current
which neutralizes the capacitive current.Reactance
grounding is preffered for circuits where high charging
currents are involved such as transmission
lines,underground cables etc.
26
4. Arc Suppresson Coil Grounding : Sometimes neutral
earthing is done with an arc suppression coil.It is
provided with tappings and the reactance of the coil can
be tuned depending upon the length of the transmission
line and the capacitance to be neutralized.
EQUIPMENT EARTHING
Under fault conditions the non-current carrying metal parts of an
electrical installation such as
frames,enclosures,supports,fencing etc. may attain high
potential with respect to ground so that any person or stray
animal touching these or approaching these will be subjected to
potential difference which may result in the flow of a current
through the body of the person or the animal of such a value as
may prove fatal.
Safe value of current in amp(rms) which a human body can
tolerate is
I = 0.165/root t for t < 3 secs
And I = 9 mA for t > 3 secs where ‘t’ is time duration in
seconds of the flow of current.
To avoid this the non-current carrying metal parts of the
electrical system are connected to the general mass of earth by
means of an earthing system comprising of earth conductors to
conduct the fault currents safely to the ground.The object of
earthing is to ensure safety by discharging the electrical energy
to the earth.The conductors may be in the form of a grid (also
called mat) or multiple electrodes in the form of
rods,plates,pipes etc.
Here,it is important to understand the concept of STEP and
TOUCH voltage.
Touch Voltage : It is the potential difference between a

grounded metallic structure and a point on the earth’s surface
,separated by a distance equal to the normal maximum
horizontal reach,approximately one metre.
Step Voltage :It is the potential difference between two points

on the earth’s surface ,separated by a distance of one pace,that
will be assumed to be one metre in the direction of maximum
potential gradient.
27
Consider that damage to a terminal bushing on a transformer
(see fig.) has resulted in the faulting of the respective phase to
the transformer body which is earthed by a pipe electrode
driven into the earth.The earth fault current will flow from the
phase conductor to the transformer body and through the earth
electrode to earth.Around the electrode the current will flow
outward in all directions.
As the current flows through a constantly increasing volume of
earth ,its density drops as the distance from the electrode
increases.The highest potential is at the electrode which is the
same as that of the transformer tank.As the distance from the
electrode increases,the less is the difference in earth surface
potential between two points per unit length.
Now if a person happens to touch the transformer tank,the
potendial difference between his hands and feet will be
E(Touch) = V1-V2
Where E(Touch) is termed as the Touch Potential . It is the
voltage that exists between the hand and both feet of the
person.
28
On the left side of the figure a person is shown walking towards
the transformer tank.At any time,the earth surface potential
between his feet will amount to
E(Step) = V3-V4
Where E(Step) is termed as the Step Potential and is the
voltage between the two feet of a person.
It can be seen that
E(Step) = (Rk + 2Rf) Ik volts
And E(Touch) = (Rk + Rf/2) Ik volts
Where Rk is the resistance of the body,
Rf is the grounding resistance of one foot in ohms,taken
for all practical purposes to be equal to 3 times the resistivity of
the soil near the surface of ground in ohm-meter,
And Ik is the current in amps(rms) flowing through the body.
When a grounding system is installed,the objective is to obtain
as low values of E(Step) and E(Touch) as possible in order to
ensure full safety for human beings and stray animals.
CODES AND STANDARDS

The following are some of the important codes and standards
which describe the earthing requirements and methods:
• Indian Electricity Rules
• National Electrical Code (India)
• IS:3043 (Code of Practice for Earthing)
• API RP 14F (Design and Installation of Electrical
Systems for Fixed and Floating Offshore Petroleum
Facilities)
• IEEE Std. 142 (Recommended Practice for Grounding
of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems)
WHAT THE CODES SAY

Following are some excerpts from relevant codes :
INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES
For Low and Medium Voltages :
• Rule 61(1) states that neutral conductor of a 3phase,4
wire system shall be earthed by not less than two
separate and distinct corrections with a minimum of two
different earth electrodes or such large number as may
be necessary to bring the earth resistance to a
satisfactory value.The earth electrodes so
provided,may be interconnected to reduce earth
resistance.
• Rule 61(2) states that the frame of every
generator,motor and the metallic parts (not intended as
29
conductors) of all transformers and any other apparatus
used for regulating or controlling energy and all medium
voltage energy consuming apparatus shall be earthed
by two separate and distinct connections with earth.
• Rule 61(4) states that all earthing systems shall –
a) consist of equipotential bonding conductors capable of
carrying the prospective earth fault current and a
group of pipe/rod/plate electrodes for dissipating the
current to the general mass of earth without exceeding
the allowable temperature limits in order to maintain
all non-current carrying metal works reasonably at
earth potential and to avoid dangerous contact
potentials being developed on such metal works.
b) Limit earth resistance sufficiently low to permit
adequate fault current for the operation of protective
devices in time and to reduce neutral shifting.
c) Be mechanically strong,withstand corrosion and retain
electrical continuity during the life of the installation.
For HV/EHV Systems

Rule 67(1) states that all non-current carrying metal parts
associated with HV/EHV installation shall be effectively earthed
to grounding system or mat in order to :
a) limit the touch and step potential to tolerable values.
b) limit the ground potential rise to tolerable values so as
to prevent danger due to transfer of potential through
ground,earth wires,pipe lines etc.
c) maintain the resistance of the earth connection to such
a value as to make operation of the protective device
effective.
d) Rule 67(1A) states that the neutral point of every generator
and transformer shall be earthed by connecting it to the
earthing system as defined in Rule 61(4) by not less than two
separate and distinct connections.The neutral point of a
generator may be connected to the earthing system through an
impedance to limit the fault current to the earth.
Additional Precautions to be Adopted in Mines and Oil-Fields
• Rule 116(1) states that in the interest of
safety,appropriate switchgear with necessary protective
equipment shall be suitably placed for automatically
disconnecting supply to any part of the system where a
fault including an earth fault occurs.
• Rule 117(5) states that no switch,fuse or circuit-breaker
shall be inserted in any earth conductor.
30
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE (INDIA)
• Clause 2.0.2 states that the object of an earthing
system is to provide, as nearly as possible, a surface
under and around a station which shall be at a uniform
potential and as nearly zero or absolute earth potential
as possible.The purpose of this is to ensure that all
parts of apparatus,other than live parts,shall be at earth
potential,as well as to ensure that operators shall be at
earth potential at all times.Also by providing such an
earth surface of uniform potential under and
surrounding the station,as nearly as possible,there can
exist no diffrence of potential big enough to shock or
injure an operator when fault conditions occur.
• Clause 2.0.3 states that earthing associated with
current-carrying conductor is normally essential to the
security of the system and is generally known as
system earthing,while earthing of non-current carrying
metal work is essential to the safety of life and property
and is generally known as equipment earthing.
• Clause 2.0.9 states that each earth system shall be so
devised that the testing of individual earth electrode is
possible.It is recommended that the value of any earth
system resistance shall not be more than 5
ohms,unless otherwise specified.
• Clause 2.0.10 states that a drawing shall be prepared
for each installation showing the main earth connection
and earth electrodes.
• Clause 2.0.11 states that no addition to the current-
carrying system shall be made which will increase the
maximum available earth fault current or its duration
until it has been ascertained that the existing
arrangement of earth electrodes,earth bus-bar etc. is
capable of carrying the new value of earth fault current.
• Clause 2.0.11 states that no cut-out,link or switch other
than a linked switch arranged to operate simultaneously
on the earthed or earthed neutral conductor and the live
conductors shall be inserted on any supply system.
• Clause 2.1.1.2 states that the earth system resistance
should be such that when a fault occurs against which
the earthing system is designed to give protection,the
protective gear will operate to isolate the faulty portion
of the plant and render it harmless.
API RP 14 F
31
Clause 6.10.3 states the following :
Grounding of electrical equipment on fixed and floating offshore
petroleum facilities in a positive manner is of particular
importance because personnel standing on steel decks or in
contact with steel framing present a low impedance path to
ground ,effectively grounded.In addition,the dampness and salt
deposition contribute to the breakdown of insulation and the
possibility of leakage on the surface of insulators and similar
devices.It is recommended that all metal equipment,such as
skids,vessels etc. be grounded to the steel
structure.Exposed,noncurrent-carrying metal parts of fixed
equipment that may become energized because of any
condition shall be grounded.The physical contact obtained
when equipment is bolted to a steel structure is not necessarily
an adequate effective ground because of paint and possible
corrosion.
To provide the desired safety ,equipment grounding should
accomplish the following :
a) Grounding shall limit the voltage (normally to 42
V maximum) that may be present between the
equipment in question and any other grounded
object with which personnel may be in contact
at the same time.
b) For solidly grounded systems ,grounding should
present a low impedance path for short circuit current to
return to the source of power,thus opening a fuse or tripping a
circuit breaker.This requires that the equipment ground be
bonded to the system ground.
32
EARTH LEAKAGE CURRENTS AND ELCBs
Poor insulation in electric devices and equipments is the cause

of earth leakage currents.Earth leakage currents are a major
source of two very common electrical hazards :
• Risk of fire
• Risk of electrocution
In addition to the above, continuous undetected earth
leakage currents also result in waste of electricity.
Protective devices like fuses/MCBs seldom offer protection
against earth leakage currents.More often the magnitude of
these are much below the operating level of the fuse or
MCB thus rendering them ineffective.
The only effective protection against earth leakage currents is

provided by Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers(ELCBs) which are
also known as Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCBs). An
MCB + ELCB combination provides complete protection against
not just shocks and electrocution,but also fires due to
overloads,short-circuit and earth leakage.It also saves valuable
energy.
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON HUMAN BODY
The effect of electric current passing through a human body

depends upon the current strength,the time for which the
current passes through the body as well as the organs involved
in the path of current.
33
Current Effect
1 ~ 10 mA Mild sensation
10 ~ 20 mA Human body remains stuck to the conductor
20 ~ 30 mA Muscle contraction
70 ~ 100 mA The heart begins to vibrate
500 mA Death – Cardiac Arrest / Nervous breakdown
Safe value of current in amperes(rms) which a human body can

tolerate is given by :
I = 0.165/ sq. root of t for t < 3 secs
And I = 9 mA for t > 3 secs
Where ‘t’ is the time duration in seconds of the flow of current.
The current values generally considered as safe limit are :
30 mA for time < 1 sec.
300 mA for time < 50 ms.
500 mA for time < 30 ms.
The above facts and figures clearly bring out the
importance of ELCBs.
Table 1: Human resistance to electrical current

Body Area Resistance (ohms)
Dry skin 100,000 to 600,000
Wet skin 1,000
Internal body (hand to foot) 400 to 600
Ear to ear ~100
34
The approximate effects of electric current on the human
body:
AC DC
Effect
Current Current
10 1 milliamp Threshold of sensation
milliamps
>60 >10 Strong involuntary muscle contractions.
milliamps milliamps
You may not able to release a live wire.
You may be thrown across the room by
the contraction!
>500 100 Cardiac Arrest!!!!
milliamps milliamps
The amount of current through the human body for a given

voltage depends on the resistance of the body. The interior
of the human body is a good conductor due to the
abundance of ions in the body fluids. The main barrier to
current flow is the skin. The resistance of the skin
decreases significantly when it is wet.
A new rule 61A, introduced in July 1985 in the Indian

Electricity Rules,makes the use of Earth Leakage
Protective Devices mandatory for all medium voltage
installations and all low voltage (240 V) installations above
5 KW.
35
FIVE GOOD REASONS FOR USING ELCBs
1. PROTECTION AGAINST INDIRECT CONTACT : Due

to internal fault or insulation failure metal enclosures of
electric appliances can become live and cause electric
shock to unwary persons touching them.ELCB trips
instantaneously and thus exclude possible risk from
dangerous indirect contact.
2. PROTECTION AGAINST DIRECT CONTACT :
Accidental contact with live parts of electric appliances
cause earth leakage currents to flow through the human
body resulting in shock that may be fatal.ELCB trips
immediately under these circumstances and saves
human life.
3. PROTECTION AGAINST ELECTRIC FIRES : Earth
leakage current of 500 mA and above cause electric
sparks which can spread into major fires.Such leakages
are quickly detected by ELCBs which isolate the faulty
circuit.
36
4. ENERGY SAVINGS : Non-productive earth leakage
current is measured by the energymeter as part of the
total energy consumption.The ELCB detects these
leakages and trips,helping us to rectify the fault and
thus save energy.
5. PROTECTION OF EARTHING AGAINST
CORROSION : Earth leakage currents of higher
magnitude cause corrosion through electrolysis.The
ELCB ensures that the earthing remains intact.
ELCBs are generally available in the sensitivity range of 30

mA/100 mA /300 mA.
ELCBs of 30 mA sensitivity offer adequate protection against
even direct touch with medium voltage and are meant for
personal safety,whereas ELCBs of 300 mA sensitivity are
suitable for the prevention of fire hazards and are crucial for
protection of property.
30 mA RCCB
The current passing through human body is likely to be
between 80 ~ 240 mA in case of direct contact at 230 V.The
protective device should operate within 50 ms at 240 mA and
240 ms at 80 mA to be within zone-2 (safe) of the IEC
curves.Both these conditions are fulfilled by the 30 mA RCCB
and therefore it provides a very high degree of protection
against electrocution.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND COMMON FEATURES OF

ELCBs
ELCBs are current operated devices which operate on the

principle of measurement of differential(residual) current using a
current balance transformer and tripping a switching device
through an electromagnetic tripping relay.
Some outstanding features of ELCBs are as below :
1. Being current operated device,ELCB is totally
independent of the mains voltage for tripping and can
operate at nominal voltage less than 10 volts.
2. The mechanism is trip-free ensuring that the ELCB
cannot be reclosed/reset if the earth leakage/fault
persists.
3. They have a very long operational life of over 20,000
operations.
37
4. A test button is provided to check the correct operation
of the unit.
5. ELCBs are capable of withstanding starting inrush
currents of motors upto 4 to 8 times the rated current.
6. The ELCBs have excellent short circuit withstand
capability ensuring that there is no damage to the
device itself,till the back-up protection fuse or another
overcurrent device clears the fault.
CONCLUSION : Thus we see that the money invested in

ELCBs in industry as well as our home goes a long way in
saving our lives and property.The electrical consultants and
common users shall ,therefore, adopt this wonderful device to
safeguard against the hazard of electric shock and fire.
38
ELECTRIC SHOCK : PREVENTION AND
TREATMENT
In today’s world , it is difficult to imagine life without electricity.

Whichever way we glance we will find gadgets, appliances and
machines working on electricity. At home starting from the
simple bulbs, tubelights and fans, we enjoy the convenience of
electric press, mixers, refrigerators, TV, washing machines,
geysers, water purifiers, microwave ovens and many other
appliances. And the industrial world is full of electrical machines
ranging from hand lamps, portable drill machines, portable
grinders, welding machines, alternators and so on and so forth.
So each one of us, in whichever profession we are, is handling
electricity everyday. And thus each one of us is susceptible to
an electric shock.
In understanding the phenomenon of electric shock, let us
begin from the basics. We know that in an electric circuit there
are three basic entities viz. Voltage ( V in Volts), Current ( I in
Amperes) and Resistance (R in Ohms). According to the
fundamental Ohm’s law of electricity :
Current (I) = Voltage (V) / Resistance (R)
The voltage is responsible for current flow in a circuit and the
magnitude of current will depend on the resistance. If a human
being accidentally comes in contact with a live conductor or a
body at higher potential , current flows through the body and the
39
person is said to have experienced an electric shock. The
magnitude of current depends on the voltage and body
resistance. And one thing we shall clearly understand that it
is the current which kills and not the voltage. Of course,
higher the voltage , higher will be the current for the same body
resistance.
The following three things are crucial in case of an electric
shock :
1. Magnitude of current
2. Path of current
3. Duration of exposure
Magnitude of Current :
Electric current has the following three harmful effects on the
body :
1. It harms or interferes with proper functioning of the
nervous system and heart
2. It subjects the body to intense heat resulting in burns
3. It causes the muscles to contract.
50 / 60 Hz AC Current Effect
1 mA ~ 2 mA Threshold of sensation
5 mA ~ 10 mA Mild sensation
10 ~ 15 mA Pain
15 ~ 50 mA Muscle paralysis (can’t let go)
50 ~ 100 mA Ventricular Fibrillation
> 100 mA Stop heart or breathing
However, the above figures are approximate only and vary
from person to person depending on physical conditions.
Currents greater than 100 milliamperes can
• Completely stop the heart
• Inhibit breathing in two ways
1. by causing the chest muscles to contract
thereby preventing the lungs from expanding.
2. by blocking the nerve center of the brain that
controls the breathing function.
Path of Current :
When a human body comes in contact with a current carrying
conductor or an object which is at greater potential than earth
due to insulation failure etc. , a current flows through the human
body from the part touching the object/wire (normally one hand)
to ground (normally through the feet) .The path of the current is
very important. And we all know that current always takes the
40
path of least resistance. Let us consider the following two
common cases :
Case 1 : One hand comes in contact with the shock giving
object and the other hand is in contact with the ground then
current will pass from one hand to other through the heart The
shock may prove to be fatal due to heart seizure. To minimize
the risk of current flow through the heart the ‘hand-in-the pocket’
technique is popular with skilled electrical personnel.While
working on electrical systems they keep one hand in pocket or
behind their back thus avoiding the two hands completing a
current circuit through the heart.
Case 2 : Victim standing on ground.The right hand comes in
contact with a shock giving object.Current follows a path from
the right hand to right feet without touching the heart. The
shock may not be fatal in this case.
Duration of Exposure to Current : This also has a very
important bearing on fatality due to electric shock. Safe value of
current in amperes(rms) which a human body can tolerate is
given by the Dalziel’s Formula:
I = 0.165/ sq. root of t for t < 3 secs
And I = 9 mA for t > 3 secs
Where ‘t’ is the time duration in seconds of the flow of current.
Effect of AC Current (mains frequency 50 / 60 Hz) is depicted in
the following graph in IEC 479 and IS 8437.
41
Body Resistance : The resistance offered by the body is
mainly the resistance of the skin. The interior of the human
body is a good conductor due to the abundance of ions in the
body fluids. The body resistance is not constant but varies
under different skin conditions.The two extreme conditions are
depicted below :
Condition Resistance
Dry skin 1,00,000 Ohms
Wet skin 500 Ohms
In U.S.A. the domestic supply voltage is 110 Volts, 60 Hz and in

India it is 230 Volts , 50 Hz.
Now let us examine the current for 110 V under the different
skin conditions :
42
Dry Skin Case : Current = 110 * 1000 / 100000 milliamperes
(mA)
= 1.1 mA
Wet Skin Case : Current = 110 * 1000 / 500 mA = 220 mA
Similarly we can calculate current magnitudes for Indian

domestic supply voltage of 230 Volts under different skin
conditions :
Dry Skin Case : Current = 2.3 mA
Wet Skin Case : Current = 460 mA
With this we can clearly understand that even voltages as low

as 50 Volts may prove to be fatal under certain conditions such
as the current path is through the heart and the skin is wet.Also
if the victim is not immediately released, the skin resistance
goes down due to burns.
So we can realize that the same voltage may only give a mild
shock if the skin is dry but may prove to be lethal after a swim,
in a bathtub or if we are sweating after a game of tennis or
some hard work in the sun.
EFFECT OF CURRENT ON HEART

If the path of current flowing through a human body is through
the heart , it may prove to be fatal in most of the cases. Mains
frequency AC ie 50/60 Hz is the most dangerous as it interferes
more with the heart’s electrical pacemaker, leading to
ventricular fibrillation and subsequent cardiac arrest. To
examine this we have to briefly understand the working of
human heart.
Our heart is divided into four chambers with separation walls. It

has doors (valves) which let the blood flow in and out.
The two upper chambers in our heart are called the atria. The
atria are the receiving chambers of our heart. When blood flows
into our heart from the body or lungs, it always flows into either
the right or left atrium—never anywhere else.
The two lower chambers in our heart are called ventricles. The
ventricles are the pumping chambers of our heart. When blood
leaves our heart, it is always pumped out from the ventricles—
never from anywhere else. The ventricles are very strong
because they have to pump hard enough to push blood through
your lungs and entire body.
43
The heart produces its own electricity.The electrical system in
the heart consists of a natural pacemaker which generates 60
to 100 electrical pulses per minute which makes out heart
beat.The heart also has a bundle of specialized cells between
the upper chambers (Atria) and the lower chambers (Ventricles)
that conduct the heart’s electrical signals.The electrical system
in the heart makes our ventricles contract and relax in a
rhythmic pattern which results in pumping of blood to the lungs
and other body parts.The heart’s electrical activities can be
monitored and recorded with the help of Electro-Cardio-Gram
(ECG).
A problem in the heart’s electrical system can disrupt its natural

rhythm. Any kind of abnormal rhythm or heartbeat is dangerous
as the heart is not able to deliver enough blood to the body
organs. It is normal for our heartbeat to speed up or slow down
during the day as our activity level changes, but it is not normal
for the heart to beat out of rhythm. An electric current greater
than 50 mA at 50/60 Hz through the heart muscles results in a
condition known as Ventricular Fibrillation. Under this condition
the ventricular muscles quiver instead of contracting and
44
relaxing and the heart is not able to pump blood to the body
organs. This leads to death due to sudden cardiac arrest.
The current range of 100- to 200-mA. is particularly dangerous
because it is almost certain to result in lethal ventricular
fibrillation. Victims of high-voltage shock usually respond better
to artificial respiration than do victims of low-voltage shock,
probably because the higher current clamps the heart and
hence prevents fibrillation.
AC VERSUS DC CURRENT
Another very important question is : Which is more dangerous
AC or DC ?
Alternating current (AC) is four to five times more dangerous
than direct current (DC). For one thing, AC causes more severe
muscular contractions. For another, AC can lower skin
resistance and thereby increase the shock-current. The skin
resistance goes down rapidly with continued contact because
sweating is stimulated and the skin oils and even the skin itself
are burned away. Consequently, it is extremely important to free
the victim from contact with the current as quickly as possible
before the current increases to the fibrillation-inducing level.
Also, the frequency of the AC influences the effects on the
human body. Unfortunately, the standard electrical power
frequency of 50/60 Hertz is in the most harmful range. At this
frequency, as little as 30 volts can kill. On the other hand,
people have withstood 40,000 volts at a frequency of a million
Hertz or so without fatal effects.
“Let Go” Current : Electric shock causes contraction of the
muscles and many times the victim is unable to free
himself/herself from the current source.The maximum current
that can cause the flexors of the arm to contract but that allows
a person to release his hand is termed as the ‘let-go’ current.
For DC, the let-go current is about 75 mA for an average heathy
person. For AC current, the let-go current is about 15 mA,
depending upon muscle mass.
RELEVANT STANDARDS
Indian Standard IS 8437 : PART 1 & 2 (1993) AND IEC
Publication No. IEC 479 – 1 (1984) : Effects of current passing
through human body.
PREVENTION
It is said that “ Prevention is better than cure”.The following
preventive measures shall be adopted by all of us to safeguard
against the lurking danger of electric shocks :
45
At Home and Office:
• Educate children and other family members about

electrical safety. Make them aware of the dangers so
that they always treat electricity with respect.
• Know the location of the main switch so that power can
be switched off immediately in case of need.
• Never operate switches with wet hands.
• Install a mains Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
An ELCB with 30 mA sensitivity protects even in the
case of direct contact with 230 V AC.
• Earthing is the best safeguard.Even in case of
insulation failure of some appliance like a toaster, it will
not allow the body to aquire a higher potential. Always
use a three pin plug (having an earthing connection) for
home appliances.
• Install miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) instead of
fuses. These are convenient and trip off in case of
circuit fault. In case of old house wirings having fuses ,
very few people use the correct type and rating of fuses
thereby nullifying the protection.
• Always use good quality wires and plug-sockets .Never
compromise on these. The cheaper ones may be an
invitation to death.
• Get condition of wiring checked every five years or so.
Replace if necessary.
• Do not go on adding loads on the same old wiring. Plan
your gadgets and get the wiring suitably done to meet
the new requirements.
• Do not overload the sockets by using multi-plugs at will.
The overheating will spoil the insulation.
46
• Install sockets with automatic protection covers to
minimize the risk to children.
• Always hire a qualified and competent electrician for
electrical works at home. A novice may install a switch
in neutral instead of phase connection which may be
very dangerous.
• Buy only gadgets and appliances of standard reputed
brands. That cheap hair dryer may prove to be very
costly someday.
• Invest in making electricity your friend at home. It is
like investing in a life insurance scheme.
In Industrial Plants / Factories / At Construction Sites :

It goes without saying that electricity is the heart of industry.
Normally any well designed and properly commissioned
industrial plant / factory has a safe electrical set-up. The safety
requirements are Permit-to-Work system, Lock-out / Tag-out
system , proper earthings, skilled and competent operation and
maintenance staff etc. However, the main danger is during
expansion / modification works or at new construction sites. The
following machinery is commonly deployed during constructon
jobs :
• Welding machines
• Power saws
• Portable drilling machines
• Portable grinding machines
• Hand lamps for temporary lighting
• Temporary switchboards
As the use is temporary in nature, often the electrical safety
norms are not adhered to in the use of the above mentioned
machinery. Many a times electrical shock incidents do happen
and sometimes combined with the wet conditions at
construction sites they prove to be fatal. Also there are many
reported cases of secondary injuries such as fall from a height
due to electric shock. Hence the importance of adhering to
electrical safety during construction jobs must be enjoined upon
all concerned.The following areas are important in this regard :
• Proper earthing to all switchboards and power
distribution boards.
• Proper earthing of welding machines
• Use of good quality cables .
• Using 3 pin plugs and 3-core cables for all portable
machines and lighting.
47
• Use of only good quality machines.
• Skilled and competent electricians
• Use of hand gloves.
TREATMENT
In spite of our best efforts , electrical shock incidents do
occur.Hence we must know how to respond to such
situations.If we learn some basic first aid procedures for
electric shock., we may be able to save the life of a person
in case of electric shock.
Electric shocks can result in:
• Slight shocking sensations

• Muscle spasms
• Seizures
• Interrupted breathing
• Irregular heart beats
• Third degree burns (at the spots where the electricity
enters and exits the body)
• Unconsciousness
• If a person does suffer a severe shock, it is important to

free the victim from the current as quickly as can be
done safely. Switch off the current source immediately.
Do not touch the person until the electric power is
turned off. You cannot help by becoming a second
victim.You may use a dry insulating object such as
wooden stick to free the victim.
• Call for ambulance/medical help immediately.

• Check for heartbeat and breathing. Feel for a pulse
along the neck, under the earlobe, on the chest or on
the wrist. Watch the rise and fall of the chest to see if
the person is breathing. If there is no heartbeat and no
breathing, do CPR. The ABCs of Cardio-pulmonary-
resuscitation (CPR) are Airway, Breathing and
Circulation.
• Airway : Place victim on back on a hard surface.
48
a. Tilt head back.
b. Lift chin.
c. Clear out mouth.
• Breathing : If victim is not breathing, begin artificial

respiration.
a. Pinch nostrils.
b. Give two full breaths.
c. Watch for chest rise and fall.
d. Give one breath every 5 seconds.
49
• Circulation : Check victim’s pulse. If pulse is absent,
begin CPR immediately.
a. Depress breast bone by 1 to 2 inches.

b. Give 15 compressions at the rate of 80 per minute,
with two full breaths every time 15 compressions
are completed.
c. Continue till pulse is established or medical help
arrives.
• If the person is breathing and pulse is established, put

him in the recovery position.
50
Adjust the top leg so that both the hip and knee are bent
at right angles. Gently tilt the head back to keep the airway
open. Keep the person warm until medical help is obtained. If
breathing or circulation stops at any time, roll the person back
on to his or her back and begin CPR.
• In some advanced countries ambulances are

equipped with an external defibrillator. It is a
device which sends controlled electric current
through the heart to reverse the process of
ventricular fibrillation.The heart’s natural
pacemaker then takes over and restores
heartbeat.
It is truly said that “ Electricity is a good friend but it

can be a very dangerous enemy”. The onus is on us to
befriend it and reap its benefits
through enhanced awareness and adherence to safe
appliances and safe practices.
ALWAYS TREAT ELECTRICITY WITH RESPECT.
SUMMARY
Electric current damages the body in three different ways: (1) it harms
or interferes with functioning of the nervous system and heart; (2) it
subjects the body to intense heat; and (3) it causes the muscles to
contract. Electrical shock can be lethal. The hazards must be
understood and general safety rules must be followed.
• It’s the current that kills. Voltage is not a reliable indication

of danger because the body's resistance varies so widely it is
impossible to predict how much current will result from a
given voltage.
51
AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING SOFTWARES
The various aspects of electrical engineering design involve a
lot of complex calculations.Earlier these calculations were done
manually.The process was quite time consuming and the
results were approximate. However, today computer based
design solutions have made inroads in every discipline of
engineering. A number of softwares are now available
encompassing all areas of electrical design.These softwares
make the life of electrical designers and consultants
comfortable,enhance productivity and provide more accurate
results.In India,however, the use of electrical softwares is in a
nascent stage and a very large percentage of working electrical
engineers lack awareness about the same.This subject also
remains largely uncovered by electrical journals and computer
magazines. This article is an attempt to introduce the electrical
engineers to several useful electrical softwares.
Electrical system design mainly consists of the following:

• Layouts
• Single line diagrams
• Cost estimations
• Short circuit analysis
• Transient stability analysis
• Harmonics analysis
• Protection relay coordination
• Cable selections
• Lighting calculations and layouts
• Selection of motors
• Transformer sizing
• Battery bank sizing
• Ground grid design
•
Following is a glimpse of some useful electrical
engineering software :
1. ETAP (www.etap.com) : This is a comprehensive

electrical engineering software for the design,
simulation, and analysis of generation,
transmission, distribution, and industrial power
systems.
52
ETAP has been designed and developed by engineers for engineers to
handle the diverse discipline of power systems in one integrated
package with multiple interface views such as AC & DC networks,
cable raceways, ground grid, GIS, panels, protective device
coordination & selectivity, and AC & DC control system diagrams.
ETAP is a fully integrated analysis tool used by thousands of

engineers in diverse companies around the world to design, maintain,
and operate electric power systems.
ETAP utilizes real-time data to perform power system studies and

playback. Operators and managers use ETAP to monitor, control, and
optimize power systems.
2. SynerGEE Electric : Offers a complete design

package.
53
SynerGEE® Electric is a simulation software package
used to model and analyze electric distribution systems. It

is brought to you by Advantica, the global leader in
engineering simulation technology.
SynerGEE provides a full suite of powerful analysis tools,

including:
• Radial and network load-flow

• Radial and network fault calculations
• Load and phase balancing
• Contingency studies
• Capacitor placement recommendations
• Harmonic analysis
• Predictive reliability calculations
3. SKM (www.skm.com) :
Power*Tools for Windows (v. 5.0)
Power*Tools is an integrated set of programs written

for engineers who design and analyze commercial, light
54
and heavy industrial, institutional, utility, and petro-
chemical sites and facilities. A simple graphical
interface and a powerful object oriented database
insures that Power*Tools for Windows will efficiently
assist you in the design, analysis, and implementation
of your power system.
In addition to Power*Tools for Windows, SKM Systems

Analysis offers PTW-LT, a version of the Power*Tools
software that is designed for engineers who work on
smaller electrical systems.
Power*Tools for Windows Study Modules
PTW-LT - A light version of Power*Tools designed for

smaller applications.
Arc Flash -- Incident energy and arc flash boundary for

each bus in a system.
A_FAULT -- ANSI fault analysis.
CAPTOR -- Computer Aided Plotting for Time

Overcurrent Reporting.
CABLE 3-D -- Cable Pulling Tension Calculation.
DAPPER -- Distribution Analysis for Power Planning

Evaluation and Reporting.
DC System Analysis -- Includes battery sizing, DC load

flow, DC short circuit (ANSI & IEC)
Equipment Evaluation -- Protective equipment ratings.
GroundMat -- Electrical Grounding Analysis
HI_WAVE -- Harmonic Investigation, Wave Analysis,

and Voltage Evaluation.
55
IEC_FAULT -- IEC fault analysis.
IEC_61363 -- IEC short circuit study module models

current that flows under abnormal conditions.
PTW - I*SIM -- Industrial Simulation and Transient

Stability.
Reliability -- System design reliability.
TMS -- Transient Motor Starting.
Unbalanced Studies -- Simulate systems with single-

phase, two-phase and unbalanced three-phase load
conditions
4. Amtech (www.amtech-power.com) :
AMTECH is a leading software developer producing quality
software specifically for the electrical industry.
Supplying solutions for Low Voltage Design, Test and

Inspection, and High Voltage analysis, AMTECH has become
the clear choice for thousands of users world-wide.
5. CYMFAULT (www.cyme.com) : Offers fault analysis

solutions and other modules as below :
• CYMSTAB : For transient stability analysis
• CYMLINE : For single line diagrams
• CYMHARMO : For harmonic analysis
• CYMGRD : For substation grounding
• CYMCAB : For cable ampacity calculations
6. CAPE (Computer Aided Protection Engineering) : Is a

world class productivity tool ,developed by Electrocon,
consisting of various modules.
The programs of the Computer-Aided Protection Engineering
(CAPE) series were designed to serve you the protection
engineer with the most powerful, easy-to-use software tools we
could devise. CAPE is a world-class productivity tool developed
by Electrocon under the initial sponsorship of ten major U.S.
electric utilities. CAPE consists of a series of core and optional
56
modules for analysis and reporting, linked by a general-purpose
database.
Modules
• Database Editor • Line Constants
• Short Circuit • Order Production
• One-Line Diagram • Short Circuit Reduction
• Coordination Graphics • Power Flow
• Relay Setting • Breaker Duty Analysis
• System Simulator • Settings Transfer
• Relay Checking Utilities
7. Smartdraw (www.smartdraw.com) : It is an excellent

software for making electrical diagrams in a jiffy.
SmartDraw is the easy drawing software that helps you create
perfect electrical circuit diagrams and schematics in minutes.
57
SmartDraw has an extensive collection of electrical symbols
and templates to help you create professional diagrams for:
Electronic Circuits
Automotive Wiring
Circuit Schematics
Electrical Wiring
Digital Circuits
Parallel Circuits
and Much More
8. LightCalc (www.lightcalc.com)
Summary of features:
• Determines the overall reflectance in the room.
58
• Finds the proper footcandle level for general, task, and
art lighting.
• Adjust the footcandle level for dark to light rooms and
client age.
• Determines the proper spacing needed.
• Uses both Inverse Square Law and Lumen methods.
• Suggests a grid layout for general lighting.
• Art Lighting - See the light right on artwork!
9. AGI32 (www.lsa.com.au) : A comprehensive lighting design

software package with advanced features.
10. ALADAN : It is a lighting design software package from GE

Lighting system.
GE Lighting Systems' ALADAN® software package can be run
on a MS DOS or Windows based personal computer. This easy
to use set of programs provides a quick assist to anyone laying
out a lighting job. Simply by entering the parameters of the job,
invoking photometric data and selecting a GE Lighting Systems
product, anyone can produce a bill of materials, lighting layout,
detailed light level array, and other valuable information for
producing a top-quality lighting result. Applications include
roadway, indoor facilities, area lighting, sports lighting, etc.
59
11. Light Table (www.powerangle.com) : Software for
Protective Relay Coordination and Fault Analysis from Power
Angle Software.
HVAC Software : Carmel Software offers a complete range of

HVAC (Heat,Ventilation and Air Conditioning) design software.
Demo version of many of these software can be downloaded for

free to get a feel and assess their utility. The electrical
engineers involved in design and consultancy can evaluate the
software and then buy it if found useful.
Besides, the design softwares other packages are also

available for Computerized Maintenance Management
,Inventory Management etc.A comprehensive maintenance
management software covers all activities in the maintenance
spectrum such as :
• Planning and scheduling
• Equipment history
• Spare parts management
• Reporting
Going for software based electrical system design and

maintenance activities can be of great help in better and
faster design solutions, enhanced productivity and
improved quality. All of us (the electrical engineers of
India) shall ,therefore, endeavour to introduce the right
software in our sphere of working.
60
FAULT LEVELS IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Faults in electrical power systems occur due to insulation

failures. Type of fault may be one of the following :
1. Single phase to ground
2. Phase to phase
3. Two-phases to ground
4. Three-phase fault
All these faults cause heavy currents to flow in the system

known as short-circuit or fault currents.These short-circuit
currents are much higher than the normal currents flowing
in a healthy power system.
Single phase – to – ground faults are the most common
whereas the three-phase short-circuit are the most severe
faults.
These short-circuit currents give rise to tremendous thermal
and electromagnetic stresses which are highly destructive
in nature.Hence,for every power system design it is
essential to carry out proper fault studies and select all
components viz. bus-bars,circuit-breakers,current-
transformers etc. to have a fault withstand capacity higher
than the maximum fault currents in the system for a certain
duration (normally 1 sec) till the fault is cleared by a
combination of protective relays and circuit-breakers.
61
SOURCES OF FAULT CURRENTS
The generators connected to the power system are the

main sources of fault currents.Under short-circuit
conditions, a drop in frequency and voltage are common
and under these conditions synchronous machines feed
back into the system. Also, large induction motors, having
considerable flywheel energy , act as generators in the
event of reduced frequency. So large induction motors shall
also be included in the short-circuit studies.The KVA can be
assumed to be equal to the HP rating of the motor for the
purpose of fault calculations.
LIMITATIONS TO FAULT CURRENT
The short-circuit current s which flow in a power system are

only limited by the circuit impedance upto the point of
fault.The circuit impedances include the generator and
transformer reactances.
FAULT CALCULATIONS
For the purpose of fault calculations, a detailed single line

diagram of the power system is drawn followed by an
impedance diagram. From these fault levels are calculated
for various fault locations and switchgear is selected
accordingly. With the modern power systems growing more
and more complex, today fault studies are invariably carried
out by specialized computer software. However, details of
the same are outside the scope of this article.
A TYPICAL CASE STUDY
At one of the offshore Oil and Gas processing plants, the

power generation system comprised 3 installed gas turbine
– generator sets each rated 18 MVA. The main voltage
levels were 11 KV and 415 V (achieved by means of step-
down transformers ) for catering to all connected load. The
electrical arrangement was as depicted below :
62
As shown in the figure, according to the short-circuit studies
carried out during plant design , the 11 KV bus-bars and the
circuit-breakers were rated for a fault current of 36.1 KA for
1 sec.
After about 20 years of operation, a new plant was planned
to cater to the future oil and gas production profile.This new
plant is to be an extension of the existing plant there
electrical systems were to be integrated. These systems
were to be designed so as to be capable of operating either
in synchronized or in island mode via an interconnector
arrangement as shown in the following diagram :
However, the electrical design engineers were facing a

typical problem. The fault studies of the integrated system
revealed that the 11 KV busbars and circuit breakers of the
existing plant (having a fault current rating of 36.1 KA )
would become highly underrared for the new fault ratings in
the range of 50 ~ 55 KA for the combined power system.
The electrical design engineers had two options.
63
Option 1 : Replace the entire 11 KV switchboard of the
existing plant with a new one suitable for higher fault rating.
Option 2 : Install fault-current limiters in appropriate
locations.
Option 1 was rejected as , besides high cost involved , it

would require total plant shutdown for a considerable time
resulting in huge production losses.
Hence, the design team concentrated on the second option
and the following integrated electrical scheme was finalized
:
Here, fault currents within the CB (circuit-breaker) ratings

will be cleared by the respective CBs but for higher fault
currents ,the fault limiters will isolate the power circuits
immediately to bring down the fault level within the rated
capacity of switchgear. The fault limiters distinguish
between major and minor short-circuits by detecting the
instantaneous current level and the rate of current rise. It
trips only when both set responses are reached.
FAULT CURRENT LIMITERS

Leading electrical switchgear manufacturing companies like
ABB , have pioneered the concept of short-circuit current
limiters and are offering them upto 36 KV,140 KA systems.
They limit the short-circuit current within the very first
current rise ( in less than 1 millisecond ) and never allow
the short-circuit current to reach its peak value.The effect is
depicted in the following diagram :
64
These fault current limiters can be refurbished and re-used
after clearing a major short-circuit.
Hence, we see that fault-current limiters can provide low

cost and very effective design solutions to electrical power
system expansions.
Liking this book? Want to order the

complete 288 page hard copy version of
the book? You can do so by visiting
Power Publishers
(purchase link http://www.power-
publishers.com/index.php?page=shop.product_detail
s&category_id=14&flypage=flypage.tpl&product_id=5
0&vmcchk=1&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=212 )
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Practical Articles and

Published by: Power Publishers,

Printed from: Ray Dot Com,

Cover Design: Pinaki Ghosh

Editor: Sanchaita Roy

First Published: April 2011

ISBN number: 978-93-81205-20-4

Available from: www.Power-Publishers.com

This collection of my Articles and Presentations is

I am a practicing electrical engineer by profession. During

In most of the industrial plants such as Chemical plants,

While discussing hazardous areas ,it is useful to have the

Area classification basically covers two aspects :

NORTH AMERICAN METHOD

CLASS : Is used to provide a general definition of the physical

TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS

SOME IMPORTANT AGENCIES

SOME IMPORTANT STANDARDS

It is imperative that all of us engaged in the pursuit of oil and

A circuit breaker is a switching and current-interrupting device in

THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS

In circuit-breakers the mode of arc extinction is either ‘high

MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCBs)

MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCCBs)

AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT BREAKERS (ACBs)

AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS (ABCBs)

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS (OCBs)

MINIMUM OILCIRCUIT BREAKERS (MOCBs)

SULPHUR HEXAFLOURIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT-BREAKERS

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS (VCBs)

ADVANTAGES OF SF6 CB OVER VACUUM CB

TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF A CIRCUIT BREAKER

Breaking Capacity :A circuit breaker must be capable to break

TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

Hence,we see that circuit breakers are protectors of the

Earthing is an integral part of any electrical

Earth : From electrical engineering point of view Earth is

Earthing : An electric connection to the general mass of

Equipotential Bonding : Electrical connection putting various

Exposed Conductive Part : A conductive part of an equipment

Extraneous Conductive Part : A conductive part liable to

NEED FOR EARTHING

Earthing is of utmost importance for safety of

Modern supply systems operate with their neutral points

METHODS OF NEUTRAL EARTHING

Touch Voltage : It is the potential difference between a

Step Voltage :It is the potential difference between two points

CODES AND STANDARDS

WHAT THE CODES SAY

For HV/EHV Systems

Poor insulation in electric devices and equipments is the cause

The only effective protection against earth leakage currents is

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON HUMAN BODY

The effect of electric current passing through a human body

Safe value of current in amperes(rms) which a human body can

Table 1: Human resistance to electrical current

The amount of current through the human body for a given

A new rule 61A, introduced in July 1985 in the Indian

1. PROTECTION AGAINST INDIRECT CONTACT : Due

ELCBs are generally available in the sensitivity range of 30

OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND COMMON FEATURES OF

ELCBs are current operated devices which operate on the

CONCLUSION : Thus we see that the money invested in