The Effects of a Graphing-Approach Intermediate Algebra Curriculum on Students'

Understanding of Function
Author(s): Jeannie C. Hollar and Karen Norwood
Source: Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Mar., 1999), pp. 220-
226
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
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Brief Report

The Effects of a Graphing-Approach

Intermediate Algebra Curriculum on
Students' Understanding of Function
JeannieC. Hollar,Lenoir-RhyneCollege
KarenNorwood,North CarolinaState University

In this study, we extendedO'Callaghan'scomputer-intensivealgebrastudyby using his com-

ponentcompetenciesandthe process-objectframeworkto investigatethe effects of a graphing-
approachcurriculumemploying the TI-82 graphingcalculator.We found that studentsin the
graphing-approach classes demonstratedsignificantlybetterunderstandingof functionson all
4 subcomponentsof O'Callaghan'sFunctionTest, includingthe reificationcomponent,than
classes.Additionally,no significantdifferenceswerefound
did studentsin the traditional-approach
betweenthe graphing-approach andtraditionalclasses eitheron a final examinationof traditional
algebraskills or on an assessmentof mathematicsattitude.
Key Words:Algebra;Conceptualknowledge;Curriculum;Functions;Graphingcalculators

The functionconcept is consideredby many to be one of the most centralcon-

cepts in all mathematics,yet it is one for which studentsrarelydevelop adequate
understanding.Numerous studies (Harvey, Waits, & Demana, 1995; Mayes,
1995; Ruthven, 1990) have been conducted to examine the effects of graphing
technologies and graphing curriculaon function understanding.These studies
were generally focused on studentachievement and generally showed that stu-
dents using graphingtechnology performedas well on tests of traditionalalge-
braas did studentswithoutsuch technology and, at the same time, improvedper-
formanceon visual and graphingtasks. Kieran(1993) called for a differenttype
of researchin which we
do morethansimplyshowthattechnologycanhelpourstudentsto learnsuchmate-
rial.We haveto thinkaboutcommitting ourselvesto verydetailedstudiesof human
cognitionin thisdomain.Theprocess/object theoreticalframework can,at the very
least,helpto tie suchfindingstogether.(p. 223)
By process/objectframeworkKieranwas referringto the ontological duality of
functions;that is, a function can be thoughtof in two ways: operationally(as a
process) and structurally(as an object).

completedatNorthCarolinaStateUniversity
Thisarticleis basedon thefirstauthor'sdissertation
underthe directionof the second author.
Jeannie C. Hollar and KarenNorwood 221

One researcherwho did incorporatea process-objectdualityframeworkinto his

work was O'Callaghan(1998). O'Callaghanstudiedthe effects of the Computer-
IntensiveAlgebra(CIA) (Fey, 1992) curriculumon college algebrastudents'under-
standingof the functionconceptby comparingstudentsusingthe CIA with students
who experienceda traditionalcurriculum.He developeda functiontest, diagnostic
in nature,to assess students'understandingof functions.Each questionon the test
was designed to assess one of the following aspects of conceptualknowledge of
functionswithoutthe use of the graphingcalculator:(a) modelinga real-worldsit-
uationusing a function,(b) interpretinga functionin termsof a realisticsituation,
(c) translatingamong differentrepresentationsof functions,and (d) reifyingfunc-
tions.Reificationrefersto the transitionfrom the operationalto the structuralphase
of conceptdevelopment.O'Callaghan(1998) foundthatthe CIA studentsachieved
a betteroverallunderstandingof functionsthantraditionalstudentsand were better
at modeling,interpreting,andtranslating,buthe foundno differencesfor reification,
the most difficult of the four aspects of function knowledge. In addition,
O'Callaghanadministeredthe Revised MathematicsAttitudeScale (Aiken, 1972;
Dutton,1962) andfoundthatstudentsin the CIA curriculumsignificantlyimproved
theirattitudestowardmathematicsover the semester.
Our main purpose in this study was to extend O'Callaghan's CIA study by
using his frameworkto investigatea differentcurriculum,specifically a graphing-
approachcurriculumemployingthe TI-82 graphingcalculator.We wanted to see
if his results on the four components of his function test and on the Revised
MathematicsAttitudeScale would hold within a differentcurriculumincorporat-
ing graphingcalculators. Of particularinterest was the reification component.
Kieran(1992) reportedthatalthoughstudentsrarelyacquireany real sense of the
structuralaspects of algebra,graphingsoftwaremight help to develop structural
conceptions.We wantedto determinewhetherthe graphingcurriculumalong with
the graphingcalculatorfacilitatedreificationof the functionconcept. In addition,
we wanted to examine studentperformanceon a test of traditionalalgebraskills
to determinethe influence of the graphingcurriculum.

METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participantsin the study were college students enrolled in intermediate
algebra. The sample was taken from studentsenrolled in the intermediatealge-
bra course at a large state university with approximately 28,000 students.
Studentsenrolled in intermediatealgebrawere those studentsscoring lowest on
the university's mathematicsplacementexamination.A total of 90 studentspar-
ticipatedin the study:46 in the treatmentgroup and 44 in the control group.
Treatments
The college text Intermediate Algebra: A Graphing Approach (Hubbard &
Robinson, 1995) was used in conjunctionwith TI-82s in the treatmentclasses. A
222 Effectsof a Graphing-ApproachCurriculum

balance of graphingcalculatorand traditionalalgebrawork is found in the text,

which includes exploration and discovery examples to help guide students to
look for patternsand make discoveries. Use of the TI-82 enabled students to
explore, estimate, and discover graphically and to approachproblems from a
multirepresentationalperspective.The studentshad access to the calculatorsboth
in class and for homework exercises and tests but not for the O'Callaghan
FunctionTest or the traditionalfinal examination.
The textbook used in the control classes, Intermediate Algebra: Concepts and
Applications,fourthedition (Bittinger,Keedy, & Ellenbogen, 1994), covered the
same topics as the experimentaltext but emphasizedmemorizingisolated facts
and proceduresand becoming proficient with paper and pencil calculations. It
focused on simplifying and transformingexpressionsand solving equations.The
control group had no known graphingcalculatoraccess.

Instrumentation
The function test developed and used by O'Callaghan (1995, 1998) was
administeredto all studentsin this study both as the pretestat the beginning of
the semesterand as a posttest at the end of the semester.The test is designed to
be administeredwithoutaccess to graphingcalculators.It is diagnosticin nature
in that each question is designed to assess one of the following aspects of con-
ceptual knowledge of functions: (a) modeling a real-worldsituation, (b) inter-
pretinga functionin termsof a realistic situation,(c) translatingamong different
representationsof functions,or (d) reifying functions.
The instrumentchosen to evaluate students'traditionalalgebraskills was the
departmentalfinal examination,a 50-questiontest of conventionalalgebraskills.
It was administeredto all four classes duringthe final week of the semester,and
studentswere allowed 3 hoursto complete it.
To measure students' attitudes toward mathematics, we administered the
Revised MathematicsAttitude Scale (Aiken, 1972; Dutton, 1962) both before
and aftertreatment,as did O'Callaghan.This instrumenthas been used in numer-
ous studies and is consideredto be one of the measuresof choice regardingatti-
tudes towardmathematics.

Research Design
The performanceof studentswho had used the TI-82 in a graphing-approach
curriculumwas comparedwith the performanceof studentswho had been in a
traditionalalgebracurriculum,using the instrumentsdescribedabove. Four sec-
tions of a semester-long intermediatealgebra course were used in a balanced
design with two instructorseach teaching one experimental and one control
class. One of each of two simultaneousmorningsections and two simultaneous
afternoonsections were randomlyselected to use the experimentalcurriculum.
Studentsregisteredfor classes by telephone via a computerizedschedulingpro-
gram. Class populationswere expected to be similar.Studentsin the experimen-
Jeannie C. Hollar and KarenNorwood 223

tal sections were given the opportunityto switch to the control section being
taughtat the same time, but none elected to do so.
The researchersobservedeach of the experimentaland controlclasses on a ran-
dom basis throughoutthe semester, focusing mainly on teachers' behavior and
lesson developmentand on students'behaviorand calculatoruse. For each treat-
ment, the instructorsplanned together and followed the same plans of study,
adheringto the course syllabus.Frominterviewsand observationsthe researchers
concludedthatthe instructorswere not biased in favor of eitherapproach.
Descriptivestatisticsand analysis of variance(ANOVA) procedureswere per-
formedon boththe O'Callaghanfunctionpretestresultsandthe demographicvari-
ables to determineany initialdifferencesamongthe fourclasses in the study.Class
profiles of typical characteristicsprovideddata about students'genders(as mea-
suredby the percentagethatwere males), averageages, mathematicalbackgrounds
(numberof previousalgebracourses), abilityin mathematics(MathSAT scores),
predictedgrade-pointaveragein mathematics(PGM) calculatedby departmental
formula,and verbalability (VerbalSAT scores). Analysis of these characteristics
indicatedthat the studentsin the four classes were differentonly with respectto
gendercomposition.Therewere morefemale studentsoverallandmoremalesthan
females in the experimentalgroup.Analysis of the functionpretestscores indicat-
ed no significantdifferencesamong the four classes on priorknowledge of func-
tions, which thereforewas not used as a covariantin the final analysis.

RESULTS

O'Callaghan Function Test

Students'understandingof the function concept was analyzedinitially using a
MANOVA on the four componentscores and the total score on the functiontest,
and this analysis was supplementedby univariateresults on the individualcom-
ponents. Table 1 shows the means and standarddeviationsby treatmentfor each
componentand for the total score.

Table 1
Function Posttest Mean Scores
Experimental Control
Component Maximumscore M SD M SD
Modeling 7 4.32 1.65 3.33 1.64
Interpreting 11 7.46 1.92 5.90 2.21
Translating 9 5.05 2.26 3.64 2.21
Reifying 10 4.20 1.89 2.74 0.29
Total 37 21.02 5.87 15.62 4.70

The experimentalclasses had higher means for each of the four components
as well as for the total score on the functiontest. The MANOVA, F(4, 69) = 4.68,
revealed an overall significant treatmenteffect at the a = .01 level, indicating
224 Effectsof a Graphing-ApproachCurriculum

that the experimentalclasses had a significantlybetter overall understandingof

functionsthanthe controlclasses had. Univariateresultsof ANOVAs on the four
componentsrevealed significant differences at the a = .05 level in favor of the
graphing-approachgroup for modeling, interpreting,and translating,and at the
a = .01 level for reifying.

Departmental Final Examination

Although the experimentalgroup overall had a slightly higher mean score on

this examination(used to measurethe students'traditionalalgebraskills), no sig-
nificant differencewas found between the scores of treatmentand control class-
es. Similarly,althoughone instructor'sstudentshad a slightly highermean score
thanthe otherinstructor'sstudents,no significantdifferenceswere foundfor main
effects of instructoror genderor for any interactionsamong the three variables.

Attitude Survey
The attitudesurvey posttest, conductedafterstudentshad completedthe alge-
bra course except for the departmentalfinal exam, showed that studentsin the
experimentalclass had slightly more positive attitudesthantheir counterpartsin
the control class had about mathematicsand their mathematicalabilities. There
was, however, no significant difference between the experimentaland control
classes, between instructors,or between the genders.

CONCLUSIONSAND DISCUSSION
Function Test
Because of the availabilityof graphingcalculators,the graphing-approach cur-
riculum can include examples and problems for modeling real-worldsituations
with functionsthat would be eithertoo time-consumingor impracticalwithout a
graphingcalculator.The graphingcalculatoraffords the user both the ability to
create equations,tables, and graphsquickly and the facility to move among the
representationsrapidly. Thus, it can be concluded that the graphing-approach
studentswho used the TI-82 were more comfortablethanthe traditionalstudents
when working with real-worlddata and situations.The experimentalgroup had
become accustomedover the semesterto examiningfunctionsfrom differentper-
spectives and accordinglyperformedsignificantlybetterthan the traditionalstu-
dents on interpretingand translatingquestions.The resultson the first threecom-
ponents are in agreementwith O'Callaghan'sfindings with the CIA curriculum.
On the reification component, however, we found a significant difference
between the graphing-approach group and the control group, whereas
O'Callaghanfound no difference.The reificationcomponentscores, which were
the lowest of any for the four componentsfor both the traditionaland experimen-
tal groups in both studies, indicate the difficulty of the reification process, a
Jeannie C. Hollar and Karen Norwood 225

process that involves a much greaterdegree of abstractionthan the other three

aspects of function knowledge. Reification is not a process that can be taught.
Instead,it is the shift involved in making the transitionfrom an operationalto a
structuralunderstandingof a concept. In O'Callaghan'sstudy of the CIA curricu-
lum, studentshad access to graphingtechnology only in a lab setting.The graph-
ing-approachstudentsin the presentstudy had access to the graphing-calculator
duringevery class meeting as well as for homeworkand so had more opportuni-
ties to explore functions and to examine abstractapplications.This differencein
access to graphingtechnologymay accountfor the differencesin reificationfound
for the two groupsin this study but not found in the O'Callaghanstudy.
No significant differences in traditionalalgebraic skills were found between
the experimentaland control groups. It can thereforebe inferredthat the experi-
mental students who used graphing calculatorsfor the semester were not hin-
dered in their computationalability. The graphing-calculatortreatmentwas not
expected to give the studentsany advantageover the traditionalstudentsbecause
the final examination focused mainly on paper-and-pencilcalculations and
manipulationssuch as simplifying and transformingsymbolic expressions and
solving equations. These results are somewhat congruent with the findings in
O'Callaghan's(1998) study. Although O'Callaghanfound a lower level of pro-
ficiency in symbolic manipulationwith the CIA studentsthan with his tradition-
al students,he found no significant differences after adjustingfor the CIA stu-
dents' initial lower mathematicalcompetence.
We found that studentsin the graphing-approach curriculumas a groupdid not
differ from traditional students in their attitudes toward mathematics, but
O'Callaghan(1998) found that studentsusing the CIA curriculumsignificantly
improved their mathematicalattitudesover the course of the semester. As yet,
there is no consensus on the effect of technology use on attitude.

Recommendations for Further Research

It has been arguedthat"of all the areaswhere furtherresearchcould profitably
be carriedout, the one that seems to stand out as being clearly in need of atten-
tion is that of finding ways to develop structuralconceptions in students"
(Kieran, 1992, p. 413). A continuedresearchfocus is needed to help find ways
to facilitate the transitionfrom operationalto structuralconceptions in students.
Researchon the reificationof functions and other concepts should be expanded.
Studies are needed to advance the knowledge of how structuraland procedural
conceptions interact when students are doing algebra within a technological
environment.It is importantto study how technology positively and negatively
affects the developmentof both structuraland proceduralconceptions.
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Authors
Jeannie Hollar, Assistant Professor,Departmentof Mathematics,Lenoir-RhyneCollege, P.O. Box
7208, Hickory,NC 28601; hollarj@lrc.edu
Karen Norwood, Associate Professor, College of Education and Psychology, Department of
Mathematics,Science, and Technology Education,NorthCarolinaState University, 326 Poe Hall,
Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801; karen@poe.coe.ncsu.edu