5.
The symbol for this is Q, used for both positive charges
Chapter 16.1: Static Electricity
Chapter 16.1: Introduction
Learning Outcomes
(a) state that there are positive and negative charges and
that charge is measured in coulombs
(b) state that unlike charges attract and like charges repel
1. Electrostatics is the study of non – moving electrical
charges, also known as static electricity.
2. Negative charges are known as electrons and positive
charges are known as protons.
3. IMPORTANT: Protons do not move.
4. An object is neutral when it has an equal number of
positive charge and negative charge.
• An object will have a net positive charge when
there are more protons through loss of electrons.
• An object will have a net negative charge when
there are more electrons than protons through
gain of electrons.
Chapter 16.2: Laws of Electrostatics
1. Like Charges repel: 2 electrons will repel each
other if they come close to each other.
2. Unlike Charges attract: An electron will be
attracted to a proton (Note: Protons do not move!)
3. Note: A neutral charge will not attract or repel
anything.
Chapter 16.3: Electric Charge
1. Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of
some subatomic particles, which determines their
electromagnetic interaction.
2. The SI unit for measuring electric charge is the
coulomb (C).
3. As it is difficult to count the number of electrons as the
number is too large, a coulomb is used for a big group
of electrons (6.25 x 1018) electrons.
4. As each electron has a negative charge of
− 1.602×10− 19, when each electron with this amount of
charge is added up, 6.25 x 1018 electrons are needed to
form a coulomb of charge.
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
and negative charges.
Obj113
6. Formula for charge: where I = electric current, Q =
charge, t = Time.
Chapter 16.4: Electric Field
Learning Outcomes:
(c) describe an electric field as a region in which an
electric charge experiences a force
(d) draw the electric field of an isolated point charge and
recall that the direction of the field lines gives the direction
of the force acting on a positive test charge
(e) draw the electric field pattern between 2 isolated point
charges
1. In physics, the space surrounding an electric charge
has a property called an electric field. This electric
field exerts a force on other electrically charged
objects.
 An electric field is a region where an electric
charge represents an electric force.
2. Electric Fields exert forces on a positively charged
particle, or in layman terms: Proton
3. Electric fields do not touch each other due to repulsion
of positive charges.
4. The direction of the field is defined as the direction of
the force on a small positive charge.
5. When a positively – charged object and a negatively
charged object is placed near each other, a positive
charge (proton) will travel from a positive charge as it
repels it towards a negative charge as it attracts it.
6. The closer the field lines, the stronger the field. (The
closer the proton is to the positive charge, the stronger
the force exerted).
Chapter 16.5: Insulators VS Conductors
1. Materials that do not allow electrons to flow freely
inside them are called electrical insulators. It has
electrons that are in fixed positions.
• Therefore, the addition or removal of electrons in
any part of the insulator does not result in the
 electrons in the order part of the insulator to 1. Place 2 conductors side by side.
move. 2. Bring a negatively charged rod
near Sphere A. This will cause
• Thus, the charge is localized or confined to the the electrons in the metal
region (charge occurs where you rub it) spheres to be repelled to the far
end of Sphere B, creating an
induced positive charge on A
2. A positively charged insulator can be discharged by and induced negative charge
passing it quickly over a flame. on B.
3. Leaving the rod intact, separate
• In electrical conductors, the valence electrons are the 2 spheres.
loosely bound and are delocalized. 4. Remove the rod. The charges
now spread throughout the
• When electrons are gained or lost, other electrons
entire sphere.
will flow in automatically so that the electron will
redistribute equally in the conductors.
Charging 1 conductor by Induction
1. Place a negatively –
3. All conductors can be discharged by earthing. charged rod near the sphere.
This causes a positive
charge to be induced on the
left side and a negative
charge to be induced on the
right side of the sphere.
2. Leaving the rod intact, earth
the conductor. Electrons will
flow away/towards the
Chapter 16.6: Methods of Charging finger, making the overall
charge of the rod and the
sphere neutral.
(f) show understanding that electrostatic charging by 3. Remove the finger first
rubbing involves a transfer of electrons before removing the rod. The
(g) describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by remaining charges will
induction redistribute themselves
evenly.
1. Method 1: Charging by Friction
Note, in both cases,
• By rubbing 2 materials together the materials will 1. Protons do not move at all. Only the electrons can
get different charges. move.
2. For the first case, there are still some protons left in
• The table below show some combinations the Sphere B.
materials will produce specific charges. 3. Always remove the finger before removing the rod for
the second case, if not once the rod removes the sphere
Positive Negative will be earthed again.
Glass wool rubbed with Glass Silk 4. The type of charges present in the rod used will
silk determine the type of charge in the conductor. A
Ebonite rod rubbed Fur Ebonite positively charged rod will create a negatively charged
with fur insulator.
Perspex rod rubbed Perspex Wool
with wool Chapter 16.7: Neutralizing charged
Rubber balloon rubbed Rubber Hair
with hair insulators and conductors
Polythene rod rubbed Wood Polythene
with wool 1. When an object is charged, it can be discharged, which
is the removal of excess charges.
2. Discharging a charged insulator: Heating a charged
glass rod over a Bunsen flame can neutralize it as the
2. Method 2: Charging by Induction intense heat causes the air surrounding the glass rod to
be ionized which will neutralize the excess charges.
Charging 2 conductors by induction
3. Discharging a charged conductor: A charged conductor
can be discharged through earthing, which is providing
a path for the excess electrons to flow away/into the
conductor, causing the conductor to lose its charge and
become neutral.
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
4. If something connected to a charged object earthed it, it
is represented by the symbol:
Thinking Questions:
1. In case 2, what determines whether the electrons move
in or out of the sphere?
Ans: The charged rod. For instance, if the charged rod
is positively charged, electrons flow in so as to
neutralise the overall charge in both the rod and the
sphere.
2. Does it matter whether you touch anywhere on the
sphere?
Ans: Nope. It depends on external influence.
Chapter 16.8: Electroscope
• An electroscope is used to test for charge and the sign
of a charge (positive/negative)
• When it is uncharged it can be used to see if the
material is charged or uncharged.
• If a charged rod is brought near to a positively –
charged electroscope, electrons are induced to the top
of the rod and thus the gold leaves become positively
charged which will diverge.
• If the electroscope is charged then a like charge will
cause the gold leaves to diverge.
• Note: Repulsion (making 2 like charges repel) is the
only test for the sign of a charge.
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
Chapter 16.8: Hazards/Applications of
Electrostatistics
Learning Outcomes:
(h) describe examples where electrostatic charging may
be a potential hazard
(i) describe an example of the use of electrostatic charging
e.g. photocopier and laser printer
IMPORTANT: When describing in terms of electro statistics,
remember to state the keyword “induced”.
1. Lightning: Lightning is due to the discharge of a large
quantity of electric charge built up in the
thunderstorms. The thunderclouds are charged by
friction between the water molecules. When the charge
becomes large enough, it ionizes the air which allows a
huge quantity of electric charge to be discharged to the
nearest object on the ground.
2. Laser Printer: Uses static electricity to produce
printouts.
3. Electrostatic Precipitator: Dust and air particles given
a negative charge which is then attracted by positively
charged plates.
4. Spray Painting:
• The car is neutral at first.
• As the spray leaves the nozzle, the particles become
positively charged, which will induce a negative
charge on the part of the car facing the nozzle.
• The particles contain like charges which will repel
will then spread out and
• Get attracted to the car body when sprayed as unlike
charges attract.
5. Crop Sprayers: As the droplets of pesticides leave the
nozzle, they have the same charge and thus repel each
other, which allow it to spread out more evenly and
attract the plant leaf.
6. Van der Graaff Generator: Used to produce a potential
difference of up to 14 million volts.
Chapter 17: Current Electricity
Chapter 17.1: Electric Current 1. Definition: The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an
electrical energy source is defined as the work done by
the source in driving a unit charge round a complete
1. Electric current is defined as the continuous movement circuit. In layman terms, it is the total amount of
of charges (current). energy supplied to a circuit.

2. It is also the rate of change and has a SI unit of Ampere

Obj116
Obj115

(A).
2. Equation: whereis the e.m.f. of the power supply, W is
the amount of electrical energy converted from non –
electrical forms (work done) and Q is the amount of
Obj114
charge.

3. Equation: where 3. SI unit: Joules/Coulomb (J/C) or Volt (V)

I = current (A), Q (charges) (C), T (time). This equation
determines the amount of charges passing any given 4. It depends on the arrangements of dry cells.
point in 1 second. a. If the arrangement is in series, the combined e.m.f.
is increased as electric charges gain electrical
energy from each cell when they pass through
4. Difference between conventional current and electron them.
flow: b. If the arrangement is in parallel, the energy
required to move electric charge through the load
Conventional Current Positive  Negative (bulb) will be contributed equally by each cell,
Electron Flow Negative  Positive thus each cell only need to provide ½ the energy
to move the charges through the circuit.
5. The voltmeter is used to measure the e.m.f. of a dry cell.

Chapter 17.3: Potential Difference

1. Potential Difference (p.d.) between 2 points in an

electric circuit is defined as the amount of energy
5. An electric circuit can be represented by a simple
converted to other forms of energy when 1 coulomb of
circuit diagram (Refer to Appendix 1 for the table on
positive charge passes between the 2 points.
Circuit symbols)

6. An electric circuit is a complete/closed path where Obj117

charge can flow from one terminal of an electric source

to the other terminal. It consists of 4 main components: 2. Equation: where
V = Potential Difference
a. A source of electromotive force (battery) W = Electrical Energy converted to other forms
Q = Amount of charge
b. A load where charges can do a useful job (light SI unit: Volt (V)
bulb, resistors)

c. Conductors to connect the components (copper

Chapter 17.4: Resistance
wire)

d. Switches to open/close the circuit 1. Resistance is the measure of how difficult is it for an
electric current to pass through a material.

7. An open circuit is one where there is a break in the 2. It is the ratio of the potential difference (V) across an
circuit to stop the current from flowing. electric component (resistor) to the current passing
through it.

8. A short circuit is one where there is a wire which acts

as a bypass for the current flowing through the lamp.
Obj118

Chapter 17.2: Electromotive Force 3. Equation: where

V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
 Obj119 Obj124

R = Resistance () 2. In symbols, .

4. Factors affecting resistance of a material:
a.Temperature (The higher the temperature, the
higher the resistance)
b.Length (The longer, the more resistance)
c. Cross – Sectional Area (The thinner, the more
resistance)
d.Resistivity of the conductor (material)
3. Ohm’s Law also means that the resistance of metallic
conductors remains constant under steady physical
conditions. These conductors obey Ohm’s law and thus
are ohmic conductors.
4. For ohmic conductors, if a graph is plot of current I
against potential diff. V, it is a straight line.

5. Non – ohmic conductors, where the ratio V/I is not

constant include filament lamp, thermistor and
Obj121
Obj120

semiconductor diode.
5. Resistivity is how resistant the conductor is. It can be
calculated from the formula where Chapter 18: DC Circuits
p = Resistivity, l = length, A = area, R = resistance.
SI unit is m.
Chapter 18.1: Types of Circuits

6. Materials with high resistivity have their advantages. Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
a.E.g. Nichrome wire is used as the heating coil in Definition A series circuit A parallel circuit has
has only 1 path more than 1 path for
electric kettles as the high resistivity allows it to
through which current to flow.
produce lots of thermal energy when a current
electric charge
flows through.
can flow.
b.Tungsten is used in light bulbs as it can convert
Current Same throughout Components with smaller
electrical energy to light due to its high
the circuit as resistance get more
resistivity.
there is only 1 current.
path for the Sum of individual
current to flow. currents in each branch
= Main current flowing
Chapter 17.5: Resistors in and out of the
branches.
Voltage Sum of Potential Potential difference is the
1. A resistor is a conductor in a circuit that has a known Difference across same across each
value of resistance. They are mainly used to control each component component in a parallel
the size of a circuit. = Potential circuit.
2. 2 types of resistors include: difference across
a.Fixed resistors (have fixed values of resistance) whole circuit.
b.Rheostats (Variable resistors) (resistance can be Resistance Combined Combined resistance is
varied). Resistance is the lesser than the smallest
3. The arrangement of resistors affects the resistance. sum of the total individual resistance.
resistances.
Obj126
Obj122

Obj125

a.Series:

Switch No current flow Current stops in open

Obj123
Open branch and continues to
flow in other branches.
b.Parallel:

Chapter 18.2: Action/Use of Circuit

Chapter 17.6: Ohm’s Law Components

1. Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a

metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided that the
physical conditions (e.g. temperature) are constant.

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
 Physics Chapter 19: Practical
Electricity
Chapter 19.1: Uses of Electricity

1. Electric heating: Electric thermal energy is used to boil

water, cook food and keep ourselves warm.
a. Heating elements used in kettles/irons are usually
1. Variable Potential Divider (Potentiometer): made of nichrome wire due to its high resistivity
a. A potential divider is a circuit with resistors and ability to withstand high temperatures.
arranged in series. It is used to divide the total b. Thermal energy is generated when an electric
voltage into parts. current passes through the heating current
b. The total voltage (e.m.f.) from the battery is shared (nichrome wire) which heats up the surroundings
between the 2 resistors (e.g. water).
c. The larger resistor takes the larger proportion of
the voltage. 2. Electric Lighting: Electric light energy is used to light
d. If the resistance increases, more energy is required. up our world; it is one of the most useful inventions.
e. A variable resistor can be used to vary the amount a. Filament Lamps: Filament is usually made of
of resistance the current has to pass through. tungsten coil due to its high resistivity and melting
point; it is also very thin (gives it a higher
Variable Resistor Current Potential diff. between 2 resistance).
points before/after When electric current flows through it, it gets
resistor extremely hot and generate light. However, most of
Set to 0 Maximum Zero the electrical energy is converted to thermal
Set to maximum Minimum Maximum energy.
reading b. Fluorescent Lamps: More efficient as they use less
can be used to • Vary current when connected to 2 energy than filament lamps. However, it must be
points handled carefully as the mercury vapour in it is
• Vary current and voltage when toxic.
connected to 3 points (voltmeter
included) 3. Electric Motors: They are used in household
appliances like fans, washing machines, hair dryers
and electric drills. They convert electrical energy into
2. Transducers rotational kinetic energy.
a. Transducers are electrical or electronic devices
that transform energy from 1 form to another Learning Outcomes:
b. Transducers that convert non – electrical energy  (a) describe the use of the heating effect of electricity in
Electrical energy are input transducers. E.g. appliances such as electric kettles, ovens
Microphones, thermistors, LDRs. and heaters
c. Transducers that convert electrical energy  other
forms of energy are called output transducers. Chapter 19.2: Measuring Electrical Energy
E.g. Loudspeakers, lamps, LED,
voltmeters/ammeters. 1. Electric Power, P, is defined as the rate of work done or
energy converted per second.
3. Input Transducers: Thermistor
a. A thermistor is a device that has a resistance which
changes with temperature. Obj127

b. Generally, the resistanceof a thermistor decreases Formula: , SI unit: Watt (W) / Joules/sec.
with increasing temperature. In can be used in
circuits for temperature control/measurement. 2. Voltage, V, is defined as the potential difference
between 2 points in the electric circuit.
4. Input Transducers: Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
a. It is a device that has a resistance which varies
with the amount of light shining on it. Obj128

b. As the amount of light shining on it increases, the

Formula: , SI unit: Volts
resistance of the LDR decreases.
c. Thus when placed in the dark it has a very high
resistance.
d. It can be used to measure light intensity. Obj129

3. The energy released when 1 coulomb of electric charge

passes through a potential difference of 1 volt is given
by. It can also be rearranged:
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
 1. Electricity can be dangerous due to 3 reasons:
a. Damaged insulation;
b. Overheating of cables, and
c. Damp conditions.

2. Damaged Insulation: Electrical wires are usually

insulated with rubber which might become worn with
time and use.
a. This might cause the electrical insulation to crack
and break, exposing the conducting wires inside.
b. The exposed live wire can cause severe electric
shock to the user if touched  Lead to severe
injury or even death.

Obj130 Obj131
3. Overheating of cables: It occurs when an unusually
large current flows through the conducting wires; might
occur when a fan motor overheats and melts, fusing the
live and neutral wires.
Obj132 Obj133
a. It can also occur when too much current flows
through a thin wire, causing more resistance which
create more thermal energy  Fire
b. When too many electrical devices are connected to
1 wall socket, the current that flows through may
Obj134 Obj135

be excessive and can cause overheating of the

cables.

4. Damp conditions: Many electrical accidents occur in

4. Power is the rate at which electrical energy is released. damp conditions as wet skin can reduce the electrical
The equation can also be rearranged to give: resistance of the human body.

Learning Outcomes:
Obj136 Obj137
(d) state the hazards of using electricity in the following
situations:
(i) damaged insulation
(ii) overheating of cables
Useful to comparing the power (iii) damp conditions
Obj138 dissipated by resistors in series as the
current is the same.
Chapter 19.4: Safe use of Electricity at Home
Useful to comparing the power
1. Safety features installed in our homes include:
dissipated by resistors in parallel as
a. Circuit breakers
Obj139

the p.d. is the same.

b. Fuses,
c. Correct placement of switches,
d. 3 pin plugs,
5. Energy consumption is calculated based on the e. Earth wire, and
number of kilowatt-hours. f. Double insulation of certain appliances.
a. 1 kWh is the amount of electrical energy used by
the 1kW device in 1 hour. 2. Circuit breakers are safety devices that can switch off
b. Take note of the units, power must be in kW and the electrical supply in a circuit when there is an
time must be in hours. overflow of current.
c. The cost of each kWh depends on the price of a. 2 commonly used circuit breakers are the Miniature
oil/natural gas. Circuit Breaker (MCB) and the Earth Leakage
Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
Learning Outcomes: b. The MCB prevents excessive flow through the
(b) recall and apply the relationships P = VI and E = VIt to
circuit by tripping or breaking it. It can be reset by
new situations or to solve related
problems switching it on again.
(c) calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where c. The ELCB monitors the amount of current flowing
the energy unit is the kWh from the live wire. The current in the neutral wire
should = current in live wire. If there is current
leakage to the earth wire, it is detected and thus the
Chapter 19.3: Dangers of Electricity ELCB trips. One common cause is poor insulation

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
 in old electrical appliances.
3. A fuse is a safety device included in an electrical circuit
to prevent excessive current flow.
a. It consists of a thin piece of wire which becomes
hot and melts when the current flowing through it
is greater than its rated value.
b. A thicker wire requires a greater current to melt it.
c. Fuses should have a current rating slightly higher
than the current an electric appliance use under
normal conditions.
d. It should be connected to the live wire so that the
appliance will not become charged after melting
due to overflow of current.
4. Switches are placed in a circuit to break or complete an
electric circuit.
a. It must be connected to the live wire and not the
neutral wire so that switching off disconnects the
high voltage from the appliance.
5. Plugs and sockets are used to connect a portable
appliance to the mains supply.
a. The cartridge fuse in the plug protects the
appliance when there is an electric fault.
b. If excessive current flows through the appliance,
the fuse blows and breaks the circuit.
6. Earthing: The Earth wire is a low – resistance wire
which is usually connected to the metal casing of the
appliance.
a. If there is a fault (live wire not properly connected
and touches metal casing), the user could get an
electric shock. Earthing thus prevent this from
happening.
b. The earth wire will divert the large current from the
metal casing to the ground.
7. Double insulation is a safety feature in an electric
appliance that can substitute the earth wire.
a. It is commonly found for appliances which use a 2
pin plug (no earth wire)
b. The electric cable is insulated from the internal
components from the appliance, and
c. The internal components are also insulated from
the external casing.
d. Appliances with this feature usually have non –
metallic casings like plastics.
Learning Outcomes:
(e) explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers in
electrical circuits and of fuse ratings
(f) explain the need for earthing metal cases and for
double insulation
(g) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth
(h) describe the wiring in a mains plug
(i) explain why switches, fuses, and circuit breakers are
wired into the live conductor
Physics Chapter 20: Magnetism
Chapter 20.1: Magnets and Materials
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
1. Lodestone, a type of rock will point in the North –
South direction when allowed to float freely /
suspended. It can be used in a compass as well.
2. Magnetic materials, or ferromagnetic materials, are
materials like cobalt, nickel or steel that is attracted by
a magnet (magnetite – iron oxide)
a. Other materials not attracted by a magnet are non
– magnetic materials. E.g. Plastic, wood
3. A material that retains its magnetism for a long time is
known as a permanent magnet.
a. They are usually made of steel (alloy of iron and
carbon) or other alloys.
b. Another type is the ceramic magnet made from
ferrites (iron oxide compounds).
4. Theory of Magnetism: In magnetic materials, millions
of neighbouring atoms align themselves in groups each
pointing in a certain direction.
a. Each of these groups is called a domain, which is a
mini magnet.
b. When the magnetic material is magnetized, the
domains are aligned in the same direction.
c. Magnetism is caused by the orbiting electrons
around each atom, thus every atom have its
magnetic field.
5. Magnetic Properties:
a. Magnetic Poles: Every magnet have a North and
South Pole. These are the strongest parts of the
magnet. They are found very near to the ends of the
magnet.
b. North and South Poles: If a magnet is allowed to
hang freely, it will come to rest in the North – South
direction. The end pointing to the Northern end of
the Earth is the North – Seeking pole.
c. Laws of Magnetism: Like poles repel, unlike poles
attract. A magnet can be identified through a
repulsion test.
d. The tiny poles at the end of the magnet are not
parallel to one another due to the repulsion of like
poles.
e. Alignment of Dipoles: For a piece of magnet, the
more aligned its dipoles are, the stronger it is.
Chapter 20.2: Magnetic Induction
6. Induced Magnetism occurs when a non – magnetized
magnetic material is brought near to a magnet. The
magnetic material will become a weak magnet.
a. The pole which is induced is the opposite pole of
the magnet inducing it.
b. It is the main reason why non – magnetized objects
are attracted to magnets as the dipoles are aligned
when the magnet induces it.
Chapter 20.3: Magnetization and
Demagnetization
7. Magnetic Saturation: Occurs when a magnet reaches
its maximum strength. The domains are all aligned and
thus the magnet is magnetically saturated and cannot
be made any stronger.
8. Demagnetization of Magnets: Demagnetisation is the
process of removing magnetism from a magnet by
messing up the directions of the domains.
9. Storage of Magnets using Soft Iron Keepers: If magnets
are stored side by side, the magnets will become weaker
as the “free” poles near the ends of the magnet will
repel each other, altering the domains. Thus bar
magnets are stored in pairs using soft iron keepers to
allow the poles of the atomic magnets to remain in
closed loops.
10. There are 2 ways of making magnets.
a. Stroking Method: An unmagnetised steel bar is
stroked several times with the same pole from one
end to another in the same direction.
i. The stroking magnet is lifted high above the
steel bar between successive strokes.
ii. The north pole will attract the southern part of
the domains and vice versa, thus the poles at
the end of the bar is opposite to the stroking
pole used.
iii. Using 2 magnets will cause the magnetic field
to be stronger, thus it is easier to align the
domains, making the stroking method more
effective.
iv. Disadvantage: Slow process and magnet
produced is not very strong.
b. Electrical Method using Direct Current (Solenoid):
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
i. The steel object is placed inside a solenoid,
which is a cylindrical coil of insulated copper
wires with lots of turns
ii. When a direct current is passed through it, the
unmagnetised steel bar will become magnetized
after a while as a strong magnetic field
magnetizes the steel bar.
iii. The poles of the magnet can be determined
using the Right hand grip rule.
11. There are 3 ways to demagnetize magnets:
a. Heating: The atoms in the magnet will vibrate
vigorously when heated, causing the magnetic
domains to lose their alignment.
b. Hammering: Hammering alters the alignment of
the magnetic domains, causing it to lose its
magnetism.
c. Electrical Method using Alternating Current:
i. This is the most effective method.
ii. Place a magnet inside a solenoid connected to
an a.c. supply (alternating current)
iii. An alternating current is an electric current
which varies its direction many times per
second.
iv. The magnet is slowly withdrawn in the East –
West direction with the alternating current still
flowing within the solenoid.
v. Thus, only the part of the magnet out of the
solenoid will stop rotating.
vi. Magnets in different sections will thus stop
rotating at different positions.
Chapter 20.4: Magnetic Fields
12. A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic object,
placed within the influence of the field, experiences a
magnetic force.
a. It is invisible. However it can be revealed by
placing a piece of paper and sprinkling iron fillings
around it to show the magnetic field pattern.
b. The Earth behaves as if it has a large imaginary
magnet within it. It is probably caused by electric
currents circulating within the core of the Earth.
13. A magnetic field line is the path taken by a free north
pole of another magnet.
 a. Magnetic field lines are directed outward from the
North pole and toward the South Pole.
b. They do not cross or intersect one another.
c. The closer they are, the stronger the magnetic field.
d. The point between 2 similar poles where no
magnetic field exists is known as a neutral point.
14. Magnetic Shielding prevents surrounding magnetic
fields from reaching sensitive areas of a piece of
equipment which can be damaged by magnetic fields.
a. It is achieved by surrounding the object with soft
iron, as magnetic fields tend to travel through soft
iron and concentrate there.
b. Thus no magnetic field will travel through the air.
c. When the wood is replaced with soft iron, the
magnetic fields travel through the iron and thus the
paper clips fall.
Chapter 20.5: Temporary and Permanent
Magnets
15. Although both Iron and Steel are magnetic materials,
however they have different magnetic properties.
a. Iron is a soft magnetic material, whereas steel is a
hard magnetic material.
b. A soft magnetic material magnetizes and
demagnetizes very easily as compared to a hard
magnetic material.
c. A soft magnetic material can be used as temporary
magnets in electromagnets.
16. An electromagnet consists of a solenoid covering a
metal core.
Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
a. When the current is switched on, the core will be
magnetized. It will be demagnetized when the
current is switched off.
b. The strength of an electromagnet can be increased
in several ways:
i. Increasing amount of current
ii. Increasing number of turns
iii. Inserting a soft iron core into solenoid (without
it, the magnetic field will spread out and
become weaker)
Physics Chapter 21:
Electromagnetism
Chapter 21.1: Magnetic Field pattern
around a straight wire
1. A current – carrying conductor has a magnetic field set
up around it.
a. The Right Hand Rule can be used to determine the
direction of the current flow.
b. Magnetic field lines form concentric circles around
the wire.
c. Circles nearer to the wire are closer to one another
as magnetic field is stronger in the region around
the wire.
d. Increasing the magnitude of the current through the
wire causes more magnetic field lines to form.
e. Reversing the current through the wire causes the
direction of the magnetic field to reverse.
2. By convection, a dot represents the current coming
towards whereas a cross represents the current flowing
away.
3. By increasing the number of turns on a flat coil, a
solenoid is formed.
a. The resulting field pattern of the solenoid
resembles that of a bar magnet.
b. The North and South pole can be determined by
using the Right hand grip rule.
c. The magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid
due to the closer magnetic field lines. The parallel
field lines also show that the magnetic field
strength inside is almost uniform.
d. Similarly to the electromagnet, the magnetic field
of the solenoid can be made stronger by:
i. Increasing the current,
ii. Increasing the number of turns per unit length
of the solenoid, or
iii. Placing a soft iron core within the solenoid to
concentrate the magnetic field lines.
e. Electromagnets can be used in the following
devices:
i. Circuit breaker
ii. Magnetic Relay
iii. Electric Bell
iv. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Chapter 21.2: Force on Current – carrying a. The magnetic field pattern of a current – carrying
wire can be found by applying the right hand grip
Conductors rule.
b. Current in opposing directions causes repulsion.
4. When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic
field, the wire experience a force which is known as the
motor effect.
a. This force acts perpendicular to both the direction
of the current and the direction of the magnetic
field.
b. This direction is reversed when the direction of the
current or magnetic field is reversed.

c. Current in similar directions causes attraction.

c. This force is present as when a wire carrying

current passes through a magnet, one side of the
wire have the magnetic field lines all acting in the
same direction whereas at the other side the
magnetic field lines of the current oppose those of
the magnet, making the combined field weaker.
d. A force thus acts on the wire from the stronger field
to the weaker field.

5. Fleming Left Hand Rule can be used to determine the

direction of the force. Chapter 21.5: Force on a Current –
Carrying Rectangular Coil in a Magnetic
Field
8. If a stiff current – carrying wire coil is placed between
the poles of a strong magnet, a turning effect will be
observed on the coil.
a. If the direction of the current is in a clockwise
direction, the coil will experience a clockwise
movement about the axis PQ. Why?

9. The plan view of the magnetic field shows that the

magnetic field of the wires are opposing each other.
Chapter 21.3: Force on a moving charge
in a magnetic field
6. Since a current – carrying wire experiences a force
when it is placed in a magnetic field, and that current is
due to the flow of electric charges, here we shall
examine the effect of charges in a magnetic field.
a. The sides of the wire AB and CD experience equal
and opposite forces, causing the wire to turn
Chapter 21.4: Force between 2 parallel clockwise.

current – carrying wires b. This effect is being used in the d.c. motor.

7. When 2 current carrying wires are placed parallel to

each other, a force is expected to act on each wire.
Chapter 21.6: The d.c. motor

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
10. The d.c. motor is a device that converts electrical a. This could be seen in Faraday’s Solenoid
energy into mechanical energy. It consists of the Experiment.
following components: b. When Faraday brought a magnet close to a
a. Rectangular coil connected in series to a battery solenoid, the galvanometer needle deflected in one
and rheostat. direction.
b. Permanent magnets c. When Faraday withdrew the magnet, the
c. IMPT: Split ring commutator galvanometer needle deflected in the opposite
d. 2 carbon brushes. direction.
d. When the magnet is stationary in the solenoid, the
needle did not deflect.

2. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that

the magnitude of the e.m.f. produced is proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic lines of force linked
with the circuit or the rate at which the magnetic field
lines are cut.
a. This law explains then amount of e.m.f. induced in
the presence of a changing magnetic field.
b. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on 3
factors:
i. Number of turns in the solenoid,
ii. Strength of the magnet, and
iii. Speed at which the magnet moves.

3. Lenz Law states that the direction of the induced

current in a closed circuit is always such that its
11. Firstly, a downward force will act on the right side magnetic effect opposes the motion or change
and an upward force on the left side till the coil producing it.
reaches a vertical position. a. It gives us the direction of the induced e.m.f..
a. The current is then cut off for a moment as the split
ring communtator is not in contact with the Direction of bar Magnetic Pole Direction of
carbon brushes. Magnet of Solenoid induced e.m.f.
b. The turning effect (intertia) of the coil however North pole inserted North Pole Anticlockwise
carries it past that position which reverses the North pole withdrawn South Pole Clockwise
current direction of the wire and causing the South pole inserted South Pole Clockwise
forces to become opposite. South pole withdrawn North Pole Anticlockwise
c. The coil thus continues to move in an anticlockwise
direction.
Chapter 22.2: Alternate Current
12. The purpose of the split ring commutator
is to reverse the direction of the coil every half a Generator
revolution whenever the commutator changes contact
from one carbon brush to the other.
a. This helps to ensure that the coil will always turn in
the same direction.

13. To increase the turning effect of the coil in

the motor,
a. A soft iron core/cylinder can be inserted into the
coil to concentrate the magnetic field.
b. The number of turns or the current in the coil can
be increased.
4. The direction of the induced current can be deduced
Physics Chapter 22: using Flemming’s Right Hand Rule.
a. Motion (Thumb)
Electromagnetic Induction b. Field (Forefinger)
Chapter 22.1: Electromagnetic Induction c. Current (seCond Finger)

1. Electromagnetic Induction is the process whereby a 5. The induced e.m.f. is maximum when the coil is parallel
varying magnetic field can produce an e.m.f. to the magnetic lines of force as the 2 sides are cutting
(electromagnetic force) which will an induced current the magnetic field at the greatest rate.
in a closed circuit.

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
6. The induced e.m.f. is 0 when the coil is perpendicular to
the magnetic field lines. Thisis because the 2 sides are
moving parallel to the magnetic field are are not cutting Obj143

any magnetic field lines. b.

c. The causes of power loss include:
i. Heat loss due to resistance of coils, and
ii. Leakages of magnetic field lines between the
primary and secondary coils.

12. One main problem in transmitting electricity is the loss

of power due to Joule Heating in the cables.
a. This can be minimized by having thicker cables or
reducing the current in the cables using a step-up
transformer.
b. The current flowing in the supply line can be found
by using this formula:
7. The induced e.m.f. of an a.c. generator can be
increased by:
a. Increasing no. of turns on the coil, Obj144

b. Increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil,

c. Power loss as thermal energy:
c. Using stronger permament magnets, or
d. Winding the coil on a soft – iron core to strengthen Chapter 22.4: Converting A.C. to D.C.
the magnetic field lines.

Chapter 22.3: Transformers

8. A transformer is a device that changes a high
alternating voltage at low current to a low alternating
voltage at high current and vice versa. It consists of 3
parts:
a. Laminated Core: Used to link the magnetic field
from the primary coil to the secondary coil.
b. Primary Coil
c. Secondary Coil.
13. Diodes are used to convert an alternating current to a
direct current.
14. The diode is a semiconductor device that allows a
current to flow easily in 1 direction only, preventing the
current to flow in the reverse direction.
15. The diode can convert a.c. into d.c. through
rectification.

9. In a step-down transformer, the voltage of the primary Chapter 22.5: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
coil is higher than the voltage of the secondary coil.
There are more turns in the primary coil compared to
the secondary coil. Likewise for step-up transformer.

10. For an ideal transformer (100% efficient),

Obj140

a.
where V represents voltage and N represents No. of
turns.

16. The cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) is used to show

how voltage varies with time.
Obj141

11. as the power from the primary coil is completely 17. Parts of the C.R.O.:
transferred to the secondary coil.
Electron Gun Consists of a filament which
For a non – ideal transformer (99.99% or below release electrons when hot
efficient), Grid Controls brightness
Accelerator (Anode) Attracts electrons and attracts it
to the screen
Obj142
X and Y plates Controls where the electron
lands.
a. ,

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.
18. The X-shift and Y-shift knobs at the front panel are used
to position the trace at the centre of the screen. 2 other
parameters to get a proper waveform: Appendix 1: Circuit Symbols
a. Y – Gain: It amplifies the Y-deflection.
b. Time Base: Controls the speed at which the
electron bean shifts from left to right (done by
altering the frequency of the time base)

Physics (Syllabus 5058): Measurement | Newtonian Mechanics | Thermal Physics | Waves | Electricity and Magnetism
Copyright © 2010. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from the author.