EGN-5439 The Design of Tall Buildings

Lecture 08

ASCE 7-02 Solved Problem #1:

Analytical Method 2 (for buildings < 60 feet high).

© L. Prieto-Portar - 2008
This lecture applies the ASCE 7-02 code requirements for wind (Section 6.0) to a
simple structure and analyzes it with,

The ASCE 7-02 Method 2, the Analytical Method for buildings smaller than 60 feet in
height.

The structure chosen is a warehouse-office building in downtown Tampa. Its

dimensions are 100 feet long by 50 feet wide by 20 feet tall.

A drawing is shown on slide #3 depicting the location of all the windows and doors.
The location of these windows and doors are either in the field (or internal) zones or
in the end (or external) zones.

The analysis consists of finding all pressures affecting every part of this structure that
come from all four directions.

Finally, when all the pressures have been calculated, the engineer will choose the
largest positive pressure and the largest negative pressure for the design of the
building.
The example: a single-story warehouse building, 100 feet long, 50 feet and 20 feet tall.
The location of the windows and doors are critical: are they in the “field” or in the
“end” zones; are they “debris resistant” or not, in which case, this face of the
building is breached during a hurricane.
The basic formula used to compute the wind design pressure p that is applied to a
structure or a portion of a structure is,

(
p = 0.00256 K z K zt K dV I 2
) (GC ) − (GC ) p pi

A constant / Table 6-3 pg 75 / Figure 6-4 pg 47+48 / Table 6-4 pg 76 / Table 6-1 pg 73

The wind velocity comes from County maps in lieu of Fig 6-1b pg 73

A constant = 0.85 or Equation 6-4 pg 30 / Fig 6-6 to 6-8 pg 50-53 / Fig 6-5 pg 49

where p = qz (GC ) − (GC )

p pi

This formula is performed upon 10 different zones of the structure in 4 different wind
directions for both the transverse and the building’s longitudinal directions. The
analysis is also performed for both the MWFRS and C&C. Therefore, there are a total
of 160 calculated pressures. From these, the engineer will choose the largest positive and
negative pressures for the final design.
 (
p = 0.00256 K z K zt K dV I 2
) ( factor )
The wind exposure category coefficient Kz shall be taken from ASCE 7-02, Section 6,
page 75, Table 6-3. The Exposure Category is discussed in ASCE 6.5.6, pages 28 and
29.

6.5.6 Exposure. For each wind direction considered, an exposure category that adequately
reflects the characteristics of ground roughness and surface irregularities shall be
determined for the site at which the building or structure is to be constructed. Account shall
be taken of variations in ground surface roughness that arises from natural topography and
vegetation as well as constructed features.
6.5.6.1 Wind Directions and Sectors. For each selected wind direction at which the wind
loads are to be evaluated, the exposure of the building or structure shall be determined
for the two upwind sectors extending 45 degrees either side of the selected wind direction.
The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined in accordance with Sections 6.5.6.2
and 6.5.6.3 and the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used to represent
the winds from that direction.

6.5.6.2 Surface Roughness Categories. A ground surface roughness within each 45-degree
sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site as defined in Section 6.5.6.3
from the categories defined below, for the purpose of assigning an exposure category as
defined in Section 6.5.6.3.
This Example

Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.

Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally
less than 30 ft (9.1 m). This category includes flat open country, grasslands, and all water
surfaces in hurricane-prone regions.

Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside hurricane-prone
regions. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.
This Example ASCE 7-02 Table 6-3, page 75

Case 1 (C&C) and Case 2 (MWFRS)

Kh = Kz = 0.70
 p = ( 0.00256 )( 0.70 ) K zt K dV I ( factor ) 2

where Kzt is the Topographic Factor, and is applied to structures sitting on hills, ridges
and escarpments (ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.7, pages 29 and 30). This topographic factor
is required when,

1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by other similar
topographic features of comparable height for 100 times the height of the topographic
feature (100 H) or 2 miles (3.22 km), whichever is less. This distance shall be measured
horizontally from the point at which the height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment
is determined;
2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind terrain features
within a 2-mile (3.22-km) radius in any quadrant by a factor of two or more;
3. The structure is located as shown in Figure 6-4 in the upper half of a hill or ridge or near
the crest of an escarpment;
4. H / Lh 0.2; and
5. H is greater than or equal to 15 feet (4.5 m) for Exposures C and D and 60 feet (18 m)
for Exposure B. This Example #1.
When not required, use Kzt = 1.0.
Figure 6-4 describes the parameters of the Topographic Factor,
 p = ( 0.00256 )( 0.70 )(1.0 ) K dV I ( factor ) 2

where Kd is the Wind Directionality Factor, and is only applied when used in
conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4 (pages 5 and 6 of
ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.4.4, page 28).

The load combinations can be, for example,

- Live load + wind, or

- Dead load + wind, or
- Snow + wind, etc, etc.
The Wind Directionality Factor is obtained from ASCE Table 6-4, page 76:

This Example #1:

Kd = 0.85
for both MWFRS
and C&C.
 p = ( 0.00256 )( 0.70 )(1.0 )( 0.85 )(V ) I ( factor )
2

where V is the Basic Wind Speed, and is assumed to come from any direction and can
be obtained from local data (ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.4, page 28).
Basic Wind Speed ASCE-7-02, Figure 6-1b.
Within the State of Florida the wind speeds are obtained from the local county
where the project is located through the county’s wind maps, through,

www.dca.state.fl.us/fbc/maps/2_maps.htm

Some counties allow interpolation between wind speed lines, whilst others do not.

To obtain a wind map of this specific example in downtown Tampa (Hillsborough

County), use this address,

www.dca.state.fl.us/fbc/index_page/maps/county_maps/hillsborough2.pdf
Hillsborough County does allow interpolation, although it is not practical.
This Example #1’s site.
Use V = 120 mph.
 p = ( 0.00256 )( 0.70 )(1.0 )( 0.85 )(120 ) I ( factor )
2

where I is the Importance Factor, and is based on the use of the structure as well
as the Nature of Occupancy (ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.5, page 28).
 The Importance Factor (from ASCE Table 6-1, page 73),

V = 120 mph

Category II This Example:

I = 1.0
Thus, the “raw” wind pressure (also known as qz, the velocity pressure) is,

p = ( 0.00256)( 0.70)(1.0)( 0.85)(120) (1.0)( factor )

2

p = ( 21.9 psf )( factor )

This “raw” wind pressure now needs to be modified by the internal and external
pressure coefficients (the “factor”) in order to determine what is the actual
pressure that is going to be applied at different points of the structure.
 WIND

An unbreached house is subjected to positive and negative pressures from the external
wind.
 WIND

When the house is breached (a broken window, or a door that loses its latch, etc) the
wind entering the house will quickly increase the loads on the remaining windows,
doors and roof until they too, fail.
 WIND

The pressure coefficients will add pressure on some walls and roof (see the wind
effect upon the right side wall and roof) and subtract on others. The analysis searches
for the largest positive and negative pressures on the structure.
 Now the “raw” pressure (also known as qz, the velocity pressure) must be modified
by the pressure coefficients,

p = qZ (GC ) − (GC )
p pi

p = ( 21.9 psf ) ( GC ) − ( GC ) p pi

where GCpi is the Internal Pressure Coefficient and is based on the Building Enclosure
Classification (ASCE 07-2, Section 6.5.11.1, page 31).

What is the wind pressure doing internally? How does the wind affect an Enclosed
Building, which is the case for this example?

Even enclosed buildings have cracks around the doors and the windows, so that the
building “breaths” and feels a portion of the raw pressure.
A Building Enclosure is defined in ASCE 7-02, Section 6.2, page 23,
Building, open: A building having each wall at least 80% open. This condition is
expressed for each wall by the equation Ao 0.8 Ag where: Ao = total area of openings
in a wall that receives positive external pressure, in ft2 (m2) Ag = the gross area of that
wall in which Ao is identified in ft2 (m2).

Building, partially enclosed: A building which complies with both of the following
conditions:
1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the
sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by
more than 10%, and
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds 4
ft2 (0.37 m2), or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of
openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed 20%.
These conditions are expressed by the following equations:
1. Ao > 1.10 Aoi
2. Ao > 4 ft2 (0.37 m2) or > 0.01Ag, whichever is smaller, and Aoi /Agi 0.20 where: Ao, Ag are as defined
for Open Building Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and roof) not
including Ao, in ft2 (m2) Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls and roof)
not including Ag, in ft2 (m2).

Building, enclosed: A building that does not comply with the requirements for open or
partially enclosed buildings.

This Example.
This Example #1:
 p = ( 21.9 psf ) GC p − ( ±0.18 ) ( )
where GCp is the External Pressure Coefficient and is computed separately for the
MWFRS cases and the C&C cases (ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.11.2, page 31).

These external pressures are also determined and applied based on which zone of
the building is being evaluated (that is, in the field or in the end zones).

Up to this point, ASCE 7-02’s procedure is identical for both the,

- Method 2, Analytical Procedure for any height, and

- Method 2, Analytical Procedure for the roof at < 60 feet in height.

From now on, the method of finding GCp is different for these two.
The distance a of the end zones corresponds to the Components and Cladding case:
In summary, a = 0.10L
= 0.10B the least of these
= 0.40h

a = 0.04L
= 0.04B but not less than these
= 3 feet

This Example: a = (0.10)(50 ft) = 5 feet

= (0.40)(20 ft) = 8 feet

= (0.04)(50 ft) = 2 feet

= 3 feet therefore a = 5 feet
Calculating GCp for the MWFRS case is represented by GCpf,

(
p = ( 21.9 psf ) GC p − ( ±0.18 ) )
The values of GCpf are found in ASCE 7-02, Section 6.5.11.2, page 31, Figure 6-10,
pages 55 and 56.
Figure 6-10, pages 55 and 56.
An expanded view of the ten (10) zones of a building under a Transverse A loading:
The calculations of GCpf for the MWFRS case involve these ten (10) zones; notice
the values given in the Table for our Example #1’s flat roof ( = 0°):

This Example: a flat roof.

This line of coefficients are now used to calculate the pressures shown on the spread-
sheet shown on the next slide.
The design pressures for the MWFRS at all ten zones for a Transverse A are:

Building Velocity pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz Using +GCpi Using -GCpi

1 21.9 psf 0.40 4.82 12.70

2 21.9 psf -0.69 -19.10 -11.20

3 21.9 psf -0.37 -12.00 -4.20

4 21.9 psf -0.29 -10.30 -2.40

5 21.9 psf -0.45 -13.80 -5.90

6 21.9 psf -0.45 -13.80 -5.90

1E 21.9 psf 0.61 9.40 17.30

2E 21.9 psf -1.07 -27.40 -19.50

3E 21.9 psf -0.53 -15.50 -7.70

4E 21.9 psf -0.43 -13.40 -5.50

Consider the first line of calculations for the building’s zone #1,

p = (21.9 psf ) ( GC pf ) − ( ±0.18 ) = (21.9 psf ) ( 0.40 ) − ( ±0.18 )

Using the positive value of GC pi yields,
p = (21.9 psf ) ( 0.40 ) − ( 0.18 ) = 4.82 psf
Using the negative value of GC pi yields,
p = (21.9 psf ) ( 0.40 ) − ( −0.18 ) = 12.70 psf

Thus, for zone #1, the pressures range from +4.82 psf to +12.70 psf; therefore, we
would choose +12.70 psf for our design pressure.

This procedure now continues for all ten zones in four (4) directions for the transverse
wind loading and the four (4) directions for the longitudinal wind loading, or a total
80 calculated pressures for the MWFRS case.

Choose the largest positive and the largest negative pressures.

 The ten zones for the Transverse A can now be shown with their calculated design
pressures:
-13.80 psf

-10.30 psf -12.00 psf

-15.50 psf
-19.10 psf

-13.40 psf +12.70 psf

-27.40 psf

-13.80 psf

+17.30 psf

Wind direction
Consider now, what would happen to the design pressures if the roof had a small
pitch of = 20° (which corresponds roughly to a pitch of 5:12),

This new variant of Example #1 with = 20°,

Notice the slight increase in pressure due to the increase in the roof’s pitch, although
zone #2E has not changed,

Building Velocity Pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz positive negative

1 21.9 psf 0.53 7.70 15.50

2 21.9 psf -0.69 -19.10 -11.20

3 21.9 psf -0.48 -14.50 -6.60

4 21.9 psf -0.43 -13.40 -5.50

5 21.9 psf -0.45 -13.80 -5.90

6 21.9 psf -0.45 -13.80 -5.90

1E 21.9 psf 0.80 13.60 21.50

2E 21.9 psf -1.07 -27.40 -19.50

3E 21.9 psf -0.69 -19.10 -11.20

4E 21.9 psf -0.64 -18.00 -10.10

The main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) design pressures just found are used
as the lateral forces upon the structural skeleton frame of the building, such as the
steel frame, the reinforced concrete columns, beams and slabs, shear walls, etc.

The design pressures from the MWFRS portion are applied to the columns and beams
through the use of the tributary areas. For example, if the columns are spaced at 30-
foot intervals, and the floor-to-floor height is 10-feet, the tributary area is 10’ x 30’ =
300 SF multiplied by the largest positive or negative design pressures found in the two
previous tables.

Now we will calculate the design pressures for the Components and Claddings (C&C).

The components and cladding are, for example, the roof coverings, wall coverings,
awnings, canopies, etc, anything that is not affected by the internal pressure GCpi = 0.
These C&C external pressures are applied to single components, a “stand-alone” (one
canopy, one door, etc) and are a function of the surface “effective area” of that
component. The smaller the effective area, the more intense the pressure, versus, the
larger the effective area, the pressure becomes smaller, etc.

In the ASCE Method 1: The Simplified Method these two separate procedures
(MWFRS and C&C) are united into a single procedure.
Consider now the External Pressure Coefficients for the walls in the C&C case (ASCE
7-02, Figures 6-1a and 6-1b, pages 57 and 58):

Wall coefficients
These are the C&C roof coefficients,
Consider the External Pressure Coefficients for a wall component that has an area of
only 10 square feet:
The design pressures for a C&C of only 10 SF of wall effective area are,

Building Velocity Pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz Using +GCpi Using -GCpi

4(+) 21.9 psf -1.10 -25.20 -18.10

4(-) 21.9 psf 1.00 16.20 23.20

5(+) 21.9 psf -1.40 -31.10 -24.00

5(-) 21.9 psf 1.00 16.20 23.30
Now what happens when the component’s area is increased to 100 square feet?
The design pressures for the 100 SF wall are smaller,

Building Velocity Pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz Using +GCpi Using -GCpi

4(+) 21.9 psf -0.95 -22.30 -15.20

4(-) 21.9 psf 0.80 12.20 19.30

5(+) 21.9 psf -1.05 -24.20 -17.10

5(-) 21.9 psf -0.80 12.20 19.30

Similarly, for a roof effective area of only 10 square feet, the coefficients are,
Therefore, the design pressures for a roof component 10 SF is,

Building Velocity Pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz Using +GCpi Using -GCpi
1(+) 21.9 psf 0.30 2.60 10.50
1(-) 21.9 psf -1.00 -25.80 -18.00
2(+) 21.9 psf 0.30 2.60 10.50
2(-) 21.9 psf -1.80 -43.40 -35.50
3(+) 21.9 psf 0.30 2.60 10.50
3(-) 21.9 psf -2.80 -65.30 -57.40
Contrast the high pressures on a roof component 10 SF with the same component
that is 100 SF,
Notice the drop in design pressures for this case of a 100 SF roof component,

Building Velocity Pressure GCpf Design pressures

zone qz Using +GCpi Using -GCpi
1(+) 21.9 psf 0.20 0.40 8.30
1(-) 21.9 psf -0.90 23.70 -15.80
2(+) 21.9 psf 0.20 0.40 8.30
2(-) 21.9 psf -1.10 -28.00 -20.10
3(+) 21.9 psf 0.20 0.40 8.30
3(-) 21.9 psf -1.10 -28.00 -20.10
References.

1. American Society of Civil Engineers, Publication ASCE 7-02, “Minimum

Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures”, Washington DC, 2002;

2. W. C. Bracken PE, “Wind Load Design”, Florida Engineering Society,

Tallahassee, 2007;

3. K.C. Mehta, J.M Delahey, “Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provisions of
ASCE 7-02” ASCE Press, Washington DC, 2003.