Chapter 4 Reading Questions

Period 6
APES

1. What is the basic unit of life? Jonathan Zuniga

Is the result of about 1 billion years of chemical change to form the first cells, followed by about
3.7 billion years of biological change to produce the variety of species we find on earth today
(pg. 83)

2. Why do populations evolve and not individual organisms? Nick Unger

Populations change over time, because populations not individuals evolve by becoming
genetically different. The most widely accepted idea is that biological evolution by natural
selection results from changes in a population's genetic makeup over time. (pg.85)

3. Explain how populations evolve. Sergio

Darwin and Wallace observed that organisms must constantly struggle to obtain enough food and
other resources to survive and reproduce, They also observed that individuals in a population
with some edge over other individuals are more likely to survive, reproduce, and have offspring
with similar survival skills. They concluded that these survival traits would become more
prevalent in future populations of the species through a process called natural selection. 
Page 83

4. Describe 3 types of mutations. Gabriella Terrana

There are many different types of mutations but 3 of them are inversion, deletion, and frame-
shift. In an inversion mutation an entire section of DNA is reversed. A small inversion may
involve only a few bases within a gene, while longer inversions involve large regions of a
chromosome containing several genes. In a deletion these mutations can be small, such as the
removal of just one gene, but longer deletions can affect a large number of genes on the
chromosome. A frame-shift mutation one or more bases are inserted or deleted, and often results
in a shortened protein.

5. Explain what natural selection is and give an example. Mike Sheptock

Natural selection is a process by which a particular beneficial gene (or set of genes) is
reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes. The result of natural selection is a
population that contains a greater proportion of organisms better adapted to certain
environmental conditions. Therefore, this would increase their chance of survival and their
ability to produce offspring with the same traits. For example, in a snowy and cold environment,
individuals with thicker skin than others of its species might live longer. Since the individuals
with thicker skin survive, their offspring would be more likely to have this thick skin.

6. Describe the three conditions necessary for biological evolution by natural selection.
(Arielle)
1. There must be enough genetic variability for a trait to exist in a population.
2. The trait must be heritable (can be passed down from one generation to another).
3. The trait must lead to differential reproduction (it must enable individuals with the trait to
leave more offspring than other members in the population. (Page 86)
7. Explain coevolution and describe an example. Harrison Merker
When two different species interact over a long time, changes in the gene pool of one species can
lead to changes in the gene pool of another. An example is bats and moths. Bats like to eat moths
and they hunt at night and use echolocation to navigate and locate prey. To do so, they emit
extremely high frequency, high intensity pulses of sound. They analyze the returning echoes to
create a sonic "image" of their prey. As a countermeasure, some moths species have evolved ears
that are especially sensitive to the sound frequencies that bats use to find them. When the moths
hear the bat frequencies, they try to escape by falling to the ground or flying evasively.
Page 86
 

8. Define hybridization and gene swapping and give an example of each. Mike L
New species can arise through hybridization. It occurs when two distinct species crossbreed to
produce an individual, called a hybrid, which in some cases has a better ability to survive than
conventional offspring of the two parent species. Biologists are finding that some
microorganisms can exchange genes without sexual reproduction. This gene swapping process
known as horizontal gene transfer can occur when one species feeds upon, infects, or comes into
close contact with another species (such as bacterium or virus) and transfers bits of genetic
information from one species to another. Hybridization and gene swapping can occur rapidly
compared to the millions of years for conventional evolution of sexually reproducing species
through natural selection. 

9. What two factors limit adaptation through natural selection? William

A population's ability to adapt to new environmental conditions through natural selection is
limited by its gene pool and how fast it can reproduce. A change in environmental conditions can
lead to adaptation through conventional natural selection only for genetic traits already
represented in a populations gene pool. Also even if a beneficial heritable trait is present in a
population, the populations ability to adapt may be limited by its reproduction capacity.
Populations of genetically diverse species that reproduce quickly - such as weeds, bacteria rats,
or mosquitoes - often adapt to a change in environmental conditions in a short amount of time.
Species that cannot reproduce large numbers of offspring rapidly - such as elephants, sharks,
tigers, and humans - take a long time (typically thousands or even millions of years) to adapt
through natural selection. (Page 87)

10. Explain why we will not see any adaptation of the human population within our
lifetime. Priyanka
We will not see any adaptations of the human population in our lifetime because adaptations in a
species take a very long time, slowly with time the species changes. It occurs over multiple
generations, if an adaptation in the human’s species is needed, every generation will slowly
begin to change until the adaptation occurs.

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12. Explain the difference between a realized niche and a fundamental niche. Paul
A species’ fundamental niche consists of the full potential range of physical, chemical, and
biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if it could avoid direct competition
from other species. But in order to survive and avoid competition, a species usually occupies
only part of its fundamental niche in a particular community or ecosystem, which is what
ecologists call a realized niche.

13. Explain the difference between a generalist and a specialist species and give an example
of each. Donnie Cusick
A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make
use of a variety of different resources. For example, a heterotroph with a varied diet is a perfect
example like a deer. A specialist species can only thrive in a narrow range of environmental
conditions or has a limited diet. Most organisms do not all fit neatly into either group, however.
Some species are highly specialized, others less so, while some can tolerate many different
environments. In other words, there is a continuum from highly specialized to broadly generalist
species. A cactus could be considered a specialist species. It will die during winters at
high latitudes or if it receives too much or too little water.

14. If you could, would you exterminate all cockroach species?  What might be some
ecological consequences of this action? Zach
Although cockroaches can cause human diseases such as hepatitis, polio, typhoid fever, and
salmonella, I would not extermninate all cockroach species. This because they play a big part in
nature's food webs. They are eaten by many birds and lizards. Removing cockroaches from the
food chain can produce a domino effect, and other species might soon become extinct. (pg. 90)

15. Explain what evolutionary divergence is and give an example. (Dan Bellet)
- Evolutionary Divergence is when one species may evolve into a variety of species with
different adaptations that reduce competition and allow them to share limited resources. An
example is a bird called the honeycreeper. Starting from an ancestral species, the honeycreeper
has evolved into species with different types of beaks, specializing in eating different types of
food. (Pg. 91) 

16. What is a factor that can cause evolutionary divergence? Alex Bacon
Evolving over time to adapt to your environment in order to obtain food. For example if a bird
needs to obtain food in hard to reach cracks in tree bark, their beaks will evolve, they will
become thin to reach in between cracks. p. 91

17. How do species evolve? Mike A

A new species can evolve when members of a population are isolated from other members for
such a long time, that when or if they reunite they will not be able to produce fertile offspring.
Under certain circumstances however, in the process called speciation, natural selection can
cause two species to arise from one. (page 91)

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19. What is an endemic species? Jonathan Zuniga

Species that is found in only one area, such species are especially vulnerable to extinction
(pg.92)

20. Compare/contrast background extinction with mass extinction and give and example of
each. Nick Unger 
The difference between background extinction and mass extinction, is that background extinction
is when a certain number of species disappear at a low rate. Mass extinction is a significant rise
in extinction rates above the background level. Both background and mass extinction will
accumulate a great amount of extinctions over a given period of time. An example of a mass
extinction is the cretaceous- tertiary extinction event. In this extinction 75 percent of species
became extinct and it ended the reign of dinosaurs and allowed mammals and birds to take over.
An example of background extinction is when one species of bird will go extinct every estimated
400 years. (pg.93-94)

21. How are humans impacting the earth’s biodiversity? Sergio

The scientific consensus is that human activities are decreasing the earth's biodiversity. As
human population and resource consumption increase over the next 50-100 years, we are
expected to take over a larger share of the earth's surface and net primary productivity (NPP) and
degrade or destroy more of the planet's wildlife habitats. We are also destroying or degrading
ecosystems such as tropical forests, coral reefs, and wetlands that are centers for future
speciation. 
Page 94

22. Explain what artificial selection and genetic engineering and give an example of each.
Gabriella Terrana
Artificial selection is the process of changing the characteristics of animals by artificial means.
An example would be Pigs are artificially selected by man to produce the largest amount of
meat. Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organism’s genetic material through adding,
deleting or changing segments of its DNA to produce desirable traits or eliminate negative ones.
An example would be genes from a fish species could be put into a tomato or strawberry.

23. What is the purpose of artificial selection? Mike Sheptock

The purpose of artificial selection is to breed members of populations to produce offspring with
certain genetic traits that we find desirable. For example, we select one desirable genetic trait in
the population of a plant or animal and then we use selective breeding to create the species with
the genetic trait we desire. Genetic engineering can also used to transfer genes from one species
to another.

24. What can genetic engineering do that artificial selection cannot? What is this called?
What are the organisms called? (Arielle)
Through genetic engineering, scientists can transfer genes between different species that
would not interbreed in nature. This is called gene splicing. Scientists use recombinant DNA,
which is DNA that has been altered to contain genes or portions of genes from organisms of
different species. Organisms that have been genetically engineered are called genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic organisms. (Page 95)
 
25. Make a list of what genetics have accomplished through gene splicing. Harrison Merker
Scientists have used gene splicing to develop modified crop plants, genetically engineered drugs,
pest-resistant plants, and animals that grow rapidly. They have also created genetically
engineered bacteria to extract minerals such as copper from their underground ores and clean up
oil spills and other toxic pollutants. Also chickens that lay low- cholesterol eggs, tomatoes with
genes that can help prevent some types of cancer, bananas and potatoes that contain oral vaccines
to treat certain viral diseases in developing countries where needles and refrigeration are not
available.

26. Describe synthetic biology and cloning and give an example of each. Mike L
The goal of synthetic biology is to go beyond the conventional genetic engineering, separate
cells into their fundamental components, and use them to rebuild new organisms. Genetic
engineers have learned how to produce a clone--a genetically identical version of an individual in
a population. Cloning experiments have shown high miscarriage rates, rapid aging, a shortened
life span, and defects of the kidneys, liver, heart, and brain. Current research focuses on reducing
such problems.

27. What are problems associated with cloned organisms? William

Cloning experiments on animals have led to several problems for the clones. They include high
miscarriage rates, rapid aging, a shortened life span, and defects of the kidneys, liver, heart, and
brain. (Page 96)

28. Describe several concerns about the genetic revolution. Priyanka

One concern about the genetic revolution is that it may create and breed a new species of
dangerous insects. A second concern is that it will have devastating results due to cross
pollination. This has already caused multiple problems with different species, including monarch
butterflies. Cross pollination may also cause certain plants to become sterile.

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30. Do you think that widespread of genetically engineering and synthetic biology will
enhance or hinder the earth’s long-term ability to adapt to environmental changes? Paul
Personally, I think that earth and its natural processes should not be tampered with. Earth
systems have been advancing and evolving on their own for thousands of years prior to our
interference. It seems as though we as humans have caused nothing but harm to the earth through
things like genetic engineering and synthetic biology. So continuing in the direction we’re going
will most likely hinder the earth’s long-term ability to adapt to environmental changes.