Chapter 7

1. Cognition is the mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing,

retrieving, and using information and that include sensation, perception,
imagery, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and
language.
2. Concept is a mental category used to represent a class or group of objects,
people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common
characteristics or attributes.
3. A Formal Concept is a concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a
formal definition, or a classification system; also known as an artificial
concept.
4. A Natural Concept is a concept acquired not from a definition but through
everyday perceptions and experiences; also known as a fuzzy concept.
5. A Prototype is an example that embodies the most common and typical
features of a concept.
6. Exemplars are the individual instances, or examples, of a concept that are
stored in memory from personal experience.
7. Decision Making is the process of considering alternatives and choosing
among them.
8. Heuristics is a rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in
decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its
accuracy or usefulness.
9. Availability Heuristic is a cognitive rule of thumb that says that the probability
of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in
memory.
10. Representativeness Heuristic is a thinking strategy based on how closely a new
object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that
object or situation.
11. Problem Solving is thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal that
is not readily attainable.
12. Mental Set is the tendency to apply a familiar strategy to the solution of a
problem without carefully considering the special requirements of that
problem.
13. Functional Fixedness is the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to
solve problems because of a tendency to view objects only in terms of their
customary functions.
14. Language is a means of communicating thoughts and feelings, using a system
of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols)
arranged according to rules of grammar.
15. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in spoken language.
16. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language.
17. Semantics is the meaning or the study of meaning derived from morphemes,
words, and sentences.
18. Syntax is the aspect of grammar that specifies the rules for arranging and
combining words to form phrases and sentences.
19. Pragmatics is the patterns of intonation and social roles associated with
language.
20. Intelligence is an individual’s ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt
effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various
forms of reasoning, and to overcome, obstacles through mental effort.
21. Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind are:
 Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use language both as an aid to
thinking and in communication.
 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to think logically and to
solve mathematical problems.
 Spatial Intelligence: The ability to use images that represent spatial
relations (for example, imagining whether a new sofa will fit in your
living room).
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to learn and execute
physical movements.
 Musical Intelligence: Sensitivity to and understanding of pitch, rhythm,
and other aspects of music.
 Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to communicate and engage in
effective social relationships with others.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand oneself.
 Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to identify patterns in nature and
to determine how individual objects or beings fit into them.
22. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence is Sternberg’s theory that there are three types
of intelligence:
 Componential (Analytical): Mental abilities most closely related to
success on traditional IQ and achievement tests.
 Experiential (Creative): Creative thinking and problem solving.
 and Contextual (Practical): Practical intelligence or “street smarts”.
23. Reliability is the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same
people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of
the test.
24. Validity is the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.
25. Standardization is the establishing of norms for comparing the scores of
people who will take a test in the future; administering tests using a prescribed
procedure.
26. Norms are standards based on the range of test scores of a large group of
people who are selected to provide the bases of comparison for those who take
the test later.
27. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is an index of intelligence, originally derived by
dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100, but
now derived by comparing an individual’s score with scores of others of the
same age.
28. When a large number of test scores are compiled, they are typically distributed
in a normal (bell-shaped) curve. On the Wechsler scales, the average, or mean,
 IQ score is set at 100. About 68% of the scores fall between 15 IQ points (1
Standard Deviation) above and below 100 (from 85 to 115), and about 95.5%
of the scores fall between 30 IQ points (2 Standard Deviations) above and
below 100 (from 70 to 130). The Range is from 55 to 145.
29. Creativity is the ability to produce original, appropriate and valuable ideas
and/or solutions to problems. For the most part, creative ideas that come to
conscious awareness have been incubating for some time. Most experts agree
that genuine creativity “is an accomplishment born of intensive study, long
reflection, persistence and interest”.
30. Divergent Thinking is the ability to produce multiple ideas, answers, or
solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution.

Chapter 8
1. Developmental Psychology (Psychologist) is the study of (or a person who
studies) how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan.
2. Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development include:
 Sensorimotor Stage (age birth to 2 years): Infants experience the world
through their senses, actions, and body movements. At the end of this
stage, toddlers develop the concept of object permanence and can
mentally represent objects in their absence.
 Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children are able to represent
objects and events mentally with words and images. They can engage
in imaginary play (pretend), using one object to represent another.
Their thinking is dominated by their perceptions, and they are unable to
consider more than one dimension of an object at the same time
(centration). Their thinking is egocentric; that is, they fail to consider
the perspective of others.
 Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 or 12 years): Children at this stage
become able to think logically in concrete situations. They acquire the
concepts of conservation and reversibility, can order objects in a series,
and can classify them according to multiple dimensions.
 Formal Operational Stage (11 or 12 years and beyond): At this stage,
adolescents learn to think logically in abstract situations, learn to test
hypotheses systematically, and become interested in the world of ideas.
Not all people attain full operational thinking.
3. Object Permanence is the realization that objects continue to exist, even when
they can no longer be perceived.
4. Conservation is the concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same
despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added
or taken away.
5. Reversibility is the realization that any change in the shape, position, or order
of matter can be reversed mentally.
6. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development are classified into three levels, with
each level having two stages:
  Preconventional Level: Kohlberg’s lowest level of moral development,
in which moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an
act; “right” is whatever avoids punishment or gains a reward.
 Conventional Level: Kohlberg’s second level of moral development, in
which right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others;
“right” is whatever helps or is approved of by others, or whatever is
consistent with the laws of society.
 Postconventional Level: Kohlberg’s highest level of moral
development, in which moral reasoning involves weighing moral
alternatives; “right” is whatever furthers basic human rights.
7. Psychosocial Stages are Erikson’s eight developmental stages for the entire
lifespan; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for
healthy personality development to occur.
8. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development include:
 Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): Infants learn to trust or mistrust
depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection
provided by parents or caregivers.
 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Children learn to
express their will and independence, to exercise some control, and to
make choices. If not, they experience shame and doubt.
 Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years): Children begin to initiate activities, to
plan and undertake tasks, and to enjoy developing motor and other
abilities. If not allowed to initiate or if made to feel stupid and
considered a nuisance, they may develop a sense of guilt.
 Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty): Children develop
industriousness and feel pride in accomplishing tasks, making things,
and doing things. If not encouraged or if rebuffed by parents and
teachers, they may develop a sense of inferiority.
 Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Adolescence must make the
transition from childhood to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a
sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity. Otherwise,
role confusion can result.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Young Adults must develop
intimacy – the ability to share with, care for, and commit themselves to
another person. Avoiding intimacy brings a sense of isolation and
loneliness.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Middle-aged people
must find some way of contributing to the development of the next
generation. Failing this, they may become self-absorbed and
emotionally impoverished and reach a point of stagnation.
 Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Individuals review their
lives, and if they are satisfied and feel a sense of accomplishment, they
will experience ego integrity. If dissatisfied, they may sink into despair.
9. Prenatal Development is the development from conception to birth.
10. Zygote is the cell that results from the union of a sperm and an ovum. This
stage is known as the Period of the Zygote.
11. Embryo us the developing human organism during the period (week 3 through
week 8) when the major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop.
This stage is known as the Period of the Embryo.
12. Fetus is the developing human organism during the period (week 9 until birth)
when rapid growth and further development of the structures, organs, and
systems of the body occur. This final stage is known as the Period of the Fetus.
13. Attachment is the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or
primary caregiver.
14. Authoritarian Parents are parents who make arbitrary rules, expect
unquestioned obedience from their children, punish transgressions (often
physically), and value obedience to authority. Parents using this parenting
style tend to be uncommunicative, unresponsive, and somewhat distant, and
Baumrind (1967) found preschool children disciplined in this manner to be
withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy. The authoritarian style has been associated
with low intellectual performance and lack of social skills, especially in boys.
15. Authoritative Parents are parents who set high but realistic standards, reason
with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and
independence. Authoritative parents are generally warm, nurturing, supportive,
and responsive, and they show respect for their children and their opinions.
Their children are more mature, happy, self-reliant, self-controlled, assertive,
socially competent, and responsible than their peers. The authoritative
parenting style is associated with higher academic performance, independence,
higher self-esteem, and internalized moral standards in middle childhood and
adolescence.
16. Permissive Parents are parents who make few rules or demands and allow
children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior. Children
raised in this manner are the most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and
they seem to be the least self-controlled and self-reliant. Permissive parents
also come in the indifferent, unconcerned, uninvolved variety. This parenting
style is associated with drinking problems, promiscuous sex, delinquent
behavior, and poor academic performance in adolescence.
17. Crystallized Intelligence has aspects of intelligence, including verbal ability
and accumulated knowledge that tend to increase over the lifespan.
18. Fluid Intelligence has aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and
mental flexibility, which peak in the early twenties and decline slowly as
people age.