Consumer behavior is the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations select,

buy, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and
wants. Marketers must fully understand both the theory and reality of consumer behavior
A consumer's buying behavior is influenced by cultural, social. and personal factors.
Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence. Culture, subculture, and social
class are particularly important influences on consumer buying behavior. Culture is the
fundamental determinant of a person's wants and behavior. Through family and other
key institutions Marketers must closely attend to cultural values in every country to
understand how to best market their existing products and find opportunities for new
products Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific
identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationalities,
religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. Social classes have several
characteristics. First, those within each class tend to be more alike in dress, speech
patterns, and recreational preferences than persons from two different social classes.
Second, persons are perceived as occupying inferior or superior positions according to
social class. Third, a cluster of variables-for example, occupation, income, wealth,
education, and value orientation-indicates social class, rather than any single variable.
Fourth, individuals can move up or down the social class ladder during their lifetimes.
social factors such as reference groups, family, and social roles and statuses affect our
buying behavior. reference groups are all the groups that have a direct (face-to-face) or
indirect influence on their attitudes or behavior. Groups having a direct influence are
called membership groups. Some of these are primary groups with whom the person
interacts fairly continuously and informally, such as family, friends, neighbors, and
coworkers. People also belong to secondary groups, such as religious, professional, and
trade-union groups, which tend to be more formal and require less continuous
interaction. Aspirational groups are those a person hopes to join; dissociative groups
are those whose values or behavior an individual rejects. The family is the most
important consumer buying organization in society, and family members constitute the
most influential primary reference group There are two families in the buyer's life. The
family of orientation consists of parents and siblings. From parents a person acquires an
orientation toward religion, politics, and economics and a sense of personal ambition,
self-worth, and love. family of procreation namely, one's spouse and children. In the
United States, husband-wife involvement in purchases has traditionally varied widely by
product category. The wife has usually acted as the family's main purchasing agent,
especially for food, sundries, and staple clothing items. Now traditional purchasing roles
are changing, and marketers would be wise to see both men and women as possible
targets. A buyer's decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics. These
include the buyer's age and stage in the life cycle; occupation and economic
circumstances; personality and self-concept; and lifestyle and values. brand personality
as the specific mix of human traits that we can attribute to a particular brand. Stanford's
Jennifer Aaker researched brand personalities and identified the following traits
Sincerity (down-to-earth, honest, wholesome, and cheerful) Excitement (daring,
spirited, imaginative, and up-to-date) Competence (reliable, intelligent, and successful)
Sophistication (upper-class and charming) Ruggedness (outdoorsy and tough)
Lifestyles are shaped partly by whether consumers are money constrained or time
constrained. Companies aiming to serve money-constrained consumers will create
lowercost products and services. Four key psychological processes-motivation,
perception, learning, and memory-fundamentally influence consumer responses.
Motivation: Freud, Maslow, Herzberg We all have many needs at any given time.
Some needs are biogenic; they arise from physiological states of tension such as hunger,
thirst, or discomfort. Other needs are psychogenic; A need becomes a motive when it is
aroused to a sufficient level of intensity to drive us to act FREUD'S THEORY assumed
that the psychological forces shaping people's behavior are largely unconscious, and that
a person cannot fully understand his or her own motivations MASLOW'S THEOPY
sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times. His
answer is that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy from most to least pressing-
physiological needs (food, water, shelter) , safety needs(security, protection), social
needs(sense of belonging, love) , esteem needs(self-esteem status recognition), and self-
actualization needsself-development ,/ and realization) , People will try to satisfy their
most important needs first. When a person succeeds in satisfying an important need, he
will then try to satisfythe next-most-important need. For example, a starving man (need
1) will not take an interest in the latest happenings in the art world (need 5), nor in how
he is viewed by others (need 3 or 4), nor even in whether he is breathing clean air (need
2); but when he has enough food and water, the next-most-important need will become
salient. HERZBERG'S THEORY developed a two-factor theory that distinguishes
dissatisfiers (factors that cause dissatisfaction) from satisfiers (factors that cause
satisfaction The absence of dissatisfiers is not enough to motivate a purchase;satisfiers
must be present. For example, a computer that does not come with a warranty would be
a dissatisfier. Yet the presence of a product warranty would not act as a satisfier or
motivator of a purchase, because it is not a source of intrinsic satisfaction. Ease of use
would be asatisfier
Perception is the process by which we select, organize, and interpret information
inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world The key point is that it depends not
only on the physical stimuli, but also on the stimuli's relationship to the surrounding
field and on conditions within each of us. One person might perceive a fast lalking
salesperson as aggressive and insincere; another, as intelligent and helpful. Each will
respond differently to the salesperson perceptual processes: selective attention,
selective distortion, and selective retention Selective attention means that marketers
must work hard to attract consumers' notice. Selective distortion is the tendency to
interpret information in a way that fits our preconceptions. Consumers will often
distort information to be consistent with prior brand and product beliefs and
expectations selective retention, we're likely to remember good points about a
product we like and forget good points about competing products. Selective retention
again works to the advantage of strong brands. It also explains why marketers need to
use repetition-to make sure their message is not overlooked The Buying Decision
Process Problem Recognition The buying process starts when the buyer
recognizes a problem or need triggered by internal or external stimuli Marketers need
to identify the circumstances that trigger particular need by gathering information
from a number of consumers. They can then develop marketing strategies that
consumer interest (needs&wants)Information Search Surprisingly, consumers
often search for limited amounts of information (gather information formal and
informal) Evaluation of Alternatives by using believes and attitude
 Purchase Decision In the evaluation stage, the consumer forms preferences
among the brands in the choice set. The consumer may also form an intention to buy
the most preferred brand. In executing a purchase intention, the consumer may make
up to five subdecisions: brand, dealer quantity, timing, and payment method
Postpurchase Behavior After the purchase, the consumer might experience
dissonance that stems from noticing certain disquieting features or hearing favorable
things about other brands and \,vill be alert to information that supports his or her
decision. Marketing communications should supply beliefs and evaluations that
reinforce the consumer's choice and help him feel good about the brand. The
marketer's job therefore doesn't end with the purchase. Marketers must monitor
postpurchase satisfaction, postpurchase actions, and postpurchase product uses.
NONCOMPENSATORY MODELS Of CONSUMER CHOICE ( 1) conjunctive
heuristic, the consumer sets a minimum acceptable cutoff level for each attribute and
chooses the first alternative that meets the minimum standard for all attributes( 2)
lexicographic heuristic, the consumer chooses the best brand on the basis of its
perceived most important attribute(3) elimination-by-aspects heuristic, the consumer
compares brands on an attribute selected probabilistically-where the probability of
choosing an attribute is positively related to its importance-and eliminates brands that
do not meet minimum acceptable cutoffs. Theories of Consumer Decision Making
elaboration likelihood model LOW·INVOLVEMENT MARKETING
STRATEGIES Many products are bought under conditions of low involvement and
the absence of significant brand differences VARIETY·SEEKING BUYING
BEHAVIOR Some buying situations are characterized by low involvement but
significant brand differences. Here consumers often do a lot of brand switching
The market leader will try to encourage habitual buying behavior Decision
Heuristics and Biases availability heuristic-Consumers base their predictions on the
quickness and ease
representativeness heuristic-Consumers base their predictions on how
representative or similar the outcome is to other anchoring and adjustment
heuristic-Consumers arrive at an initial judgment and then adjust it based on
additional information. For services marketers, it is critical to make a strong first
impression to establish a favorable anchor, so that subsequent experiences are
interpreted in a more favorable light.