CERAMIC COMPOSITES 14

M.F. Amateau

14.1 INTRODUCTION The mechanical characteristics of ceramic

Ceramics generally are compounds of metallic composites are profoundly influenced by the
or non-metallic elements and other non-metals mechanisms of strengthening and toughening.
such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and boron. Successful design of ceramic composites
requires an understanding of the role of the
Compared to metals these compounds have
higher melting temperatures, higher Young’s constituents, including reinforcement, matrix
moduli and hardness, lower densities and and interphase, on the these mechanisms. In
lower electrical and thermal conductivities. addition to the properties and form of the con-
Engineered ceramics are used in thermal and stituents, the characteristics of the processing
method can also have a major impact on
structural applications requiring high temper-
ature resistance, high hardness and chemical mechanical and physical properties.
inertness. Applications that exploit the ther-
mal structural properties of ceramic 14.2 CONSTITUENTMATERIALS
commonly include cutting tool inserts, wear
14.2.1 REINFORCEMENTS
resistant components, ballistic armor, heat
exchangers, burner tubes, prosthetics, dental Fibers used in ceramic matrix composites fall
implants, heat engine components and ther- into three general categories based on their
mal barrier coatings. The dominating diameter: monofilaments, textile fibers and
characteristics of ceramics that limit these and whiskers. In addition, reinforcements in the
other engineering applications are their lack of form of particulates and platelets are used in
plastic behavior at room temperatures and ceramic composite designs. The strengthening
their low tolerance to flaws, i.e. low fracture role of the reinforcements in ceramic compos-
toughness, that lead to catastrophic failure. ites is significantly different from that in
Reinforcing ceramics with particles, polymer and even metal matrix composites. In
whiskers, platelets, discontinuous fibers and metal and polymer composites the reinforce-
continuous fibers significantly improves their ments contribute directly to the increase of
strength, toughness and apparent ductility. strength and stiffness by carrying a significant
Composite design can also be used to tailor portion of the load. In ceramic composites the
other important properties such as high tem- reinforcements usually increase the strength
perature strength and thermal shock indirectly by increasing toughness of the
resistance, wear resistance and low friction, matrix. The load carrying capabilities of the
thermal and electric conductivity and thermo- reinforcements are of secondary interest at
elastic proper ties. most. This places special importance on the
whiskers as reinforcements for ceramic com-
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published posites.
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7
308 Ceramic composites

Whisker reinforcements that can profoundly influence their interfacial

Whiskers are a very fine filamentary form of a
material. They are usually 1 pm or less in
diameter and up to 200 pm in length. They are
nearly perfect single crystals with strength
properties approaching the theoretical
strength of the material. Figure 14.1 is a scan-
ning electron microscope image of silicon
carbide whiskers. As a reinforcement for
ceramic matrix composites it is their size and
aspect ratio that is most significant to their
strengthening effect.
The whiskers that have recently been com-
mercially available are listed in Table 14.1.
Silicon carbide whiskers obtained from differ-
ent sources have unique surface compositions
Fig. 14.1 Scanning electron microscope image of
Sic whiskers.
Table 14.1 Selected properties of commercially available whiskers',
properties and hence effectiveness as a rein-
forcement in a ceramic matrix.
Surface layers of the whiskers can contain
crystalline SiO, or amorphous S i 4 4 (so-
called 'black g1ass')l. Surface compositions can
also be modified by chemical treatments such
as HF washing.
Ceramic textile fiber reinforcements
Although significant improvement of mechan-
ical properties of ceramic materials can be
achieved by whisker reinforcement, truly
mechanically robust and reliable structures can
only be approached with continuous reinforce-
ments. Continuous ceramic fibers of sufficient
strength and optimum stiffness and diameter
are now commercially available. They are
capable of being filament wound, woven or
braided into textile forms. They are composi-
tional variations of three systems: A1,03, S i 4
and Si-N. Table 14.2 lists the composition and
selected properties of fibers that are commer-
cially or near commercially available.
The usefulness of these fibers can be mea-
sured by their high temperature properties and
their ability to be shaped into complex pre-
forms for subsequent infiltration. A convenient
measure of the ability to handle these fibers for
processing is their critical bend radius, p,, i.e.
the smallest radius that the fibers can be bent
before they fracture. A simple beam strength

Whisker Grade Source Diameter Length Young's Coefficient Density

(mm) (mm) modulus of thermal (g cm-j)
(GPa) expansion
(10-6PC)
Sic SC-9 Advanced Composite 0.6 10-80 600 4.5 3.2
Materials Corp.
Sic Tokamax Toaki Carbon 0.3-0.6 50-200 400-700 5 3.2
Company
Sic XPW-2 Huber Company 0.05-1.0 5-100 600 4.5 3.2
Si,N, SNWB UBE Industries 0.05-0.5 5-100 370 2.5 3.2
A1,0, Catapal XW Vista Chemical 4-7 40-100 400 7 4.0
Company
 Constituent materials 309

Table 14.2 Commercially or near commercially available continuous ceramic fibers

Manufac- Designafion Composition Tensile Tensile Density Diameter Critical

turer strength modulus Cg cm-’) (pm) bend
OMPa) (GPa) vadius
(mm)
DuPont FP >99 a-Al,O, >1400 385 3.9 20 2.75
Sumitom0 Altex 85 A1,03, 15 SiO, 1800-2600 210-250 3.2 9-17 0.53
3M Nextel 73 A1,03, 27 SiO, 2000 193 3.03 10-12 0.48
550
3M Nextel 62 A1,0,, 14 B,O,, 15 SiO, 1750 154 2.7 11 0.48
312
3M Nextel 70 A1,0,, 2 B,O,, 28 SiO, 2100 189 3.05 10-12 0.045
440
3M Nextel 70 A1,0,, 2 B,O,, 28 SiO, 2275 224 3.05 10-12 0.049
480
DuPont FP A1,0,, 15-25 ZrO, 2100-2450 385 4.2 20 1.83
166
Nippon Nicalon 50 Si, 31 C, 10 0 2520-3290 182-210 2.55 10-20 0.36
Carbon
Ube Tyranno Si, Ti, C, 0 >2970 >200 2.4 8-10 0.27
Dow MPS 69 Si, 30 C, 1 0 1050-2450 175-210 2.65 10-15 0.83
Coming
Dow MPDZ 47 Si, 30 C, 15 N, 8 0 1750-2450 175-210 2.3 10-15 0.50
Corning
Dow HPZ 59 Si, 10 C, 28 N, 3 0 2100-2450 140-175 2.35 10 0.33
Coming
Tonen Silicon 60 Si, 37 N, 30,0.4 C 2500 300 2.5 10 0.60
nitride

analysis will show that the p,, can be calculated studies are critical to developing proper com-
by multiplying the failure strain of the fiber by posite fabrication methods since almost all
the radius of the fiber. Thus high strength, low processing techniques require high tempera-
elastic modulus and fine diameters produce the ture processing. Both FP and PRD166 fibers
most robust fibers. The first successful alumina can be heated to 1000°C before any serious
based textile fiber was DuPont FP fiber. This reduction in strength occurs3.The boria modi-
fiber has a very high elastic modulus but its low fied alumina-silica (Nextel 312) and mullite
strain to failure results in very large critical compositions (Nextel 440 and Nextel 480) are
bend radius which has limited its application. A also degraded with high temperature heat
modification of the all alumina fiber by adding treatments as seen in Fig. 14.24.The high tem-
partially stabilized zirconia, the DuPont FP 166 perature degradation in strengths and elastic
fiber, has reduced the critical bend radius by moduli of the boria modified alumina silica
one third. However, only the silica modified bases fibers are summarized in Table 14.3. The
alumina based fibers such as the 3M Nextel retention of properties at high temperatures
fibers and the Sumitomo Altex fiber have criti- following the relative degree of crystallinity
cal bend radii of about 0.5 mm. among the three grades with Nextel 312 being
Numerous studies have been performed on the least crystalline and Nextel 480 being the
these fibers to determine their strength and most crystalline.
modulus retention after heat treatment. These Strength and Young’s modulus at tempera-
ture of the Sumitomo alumina silica fibers has
310 Ceramic composites

4 480
-*-(===t-A
1oOO- alr
hydrogen
L. '"r=
vacuum

Fig. 14.2 The effect of heat treatment temperature on the strength of alumina and mullite fibers (440 and
4800)4.

Table 14.3 High temperature degradation of boria modified alumina silica fibers4

Property Benchmark Comparative temperature ("C)

~.
Nextel 3 12 Nextel 440 Nextel 480
Strength after heat treatment 50% of initial
in air >1300 1400 >1400
in hydrogen 1200 1100 1200
in vacuum 1200 1350 1400
Hot strength 50% of initial 1000 1120 1200
Hot elastic modulus 50% of initial 950 1000 1250
Creep rate 10-4/h at 69 MPa 800 1010 1190

been measured by Bunsel15u p to 1200°C. Both
the strength and elastic modulus begin to
degrade at 800°C while above 1000°C the
properties drop significantly.
During the last 20 years there have been
significant advancements in the development
of a silicon carbide based textile fiber for com-
posite reinforcement. All commercially
available fibers in this category contain oxy-
gen but can also contain nitrogen and
titanium. Nicalon fiber manufactured by
Nippon Carbon Company and marketed in
 Constituent materials 311

the USA by Dow Corning Corporation is by Monofilament reinforcements

far the most commercially developed. X-ray
Monofilament Sic and boron fibers are pro-
diffraction analysis indicates that Nicalon
duced by chemical vapor deposition onto a
consists of ultra fine p-Sic particles dispersed
fine substrate filament. For the case of Sic
in a matrix of amorphous SiO, and free car-
fibers the core is 37 pm amorphous carbon fil-
bon6. Nicalon has excellent resistance to
ament, while for boron a 13 pm tungsten wire
thermal degradation in argon and air expo-
has been commonly used. The principal
sure at temperatures to 1000°C for as long as
advantage of monofilament reinforcements
100 h7.The loss of tensile strength for Nicalon
are their ability to tolerate some degree of sur-
by exposure to temperatures to 1400°Cin both
air and a r m n are nrewnted in FiP 14 7 face reaction with the matrix during
fabrication or high temperature service. These
fibers can be infiltrated by a number of pro-
cessing methods including powder sintering,
- 3 - powder hot pressing, plasma spraying and
0" t melt infiltration. These fibers are limited to
9.
b structures with relatively simple shapes such
d as sheet, plates and large diameter cylinders
g 2 - because of their large critical bend radius.
g!
r
n Table 14.4 lists the properties of these fibers.
-
Q,

e l - Table 14.4 Properties of monofilament

f reinforcements
'Original fiber
I I I I I I I I .
Boron SCS-6
0
(4 Manufacturer Textron Textron
Composition B Sic
Tensile strength (MPa) 2.5 4.3
Tensile modulus (GPa) 400 427
Density (g ~ r n - ~ ) 2.5 3
0 0 Diameter (pm) 140 140
Critical bend radius (mm) 11 7

14.2.2 MATRIX MATERIALS

0'O\14000C '0
The selection of matrix materials for ceramic
composites is strongly influenced by thermal
stability and processing considerations. The
properties of matrix materials commonly used
in ceramic composites are shown in Table 14.5.
0 These include oxides, carbides, nitrides,
1 10 1d 1o3
borides and silicides. The first indication of the
Heat treatment time, t (h)
ability of a material to resist high temperature
(b)
service is melting temperature. With the
exception of glass ail these materials have
Fig. 14.3 Loss of strength of NicalonTMafter expo- melting temperatures above 1600°C. As the
sure to (a) argon and @) air at temperature to melting temperature increases the ease of pro-
14OO0C7. cessing decreases.
312 Ceramic composites

Table 14.5 Properties of typical ceramic matrix materials

~~

Materials Young’s Poisson’s Modulus of Fracture Density Thermal Me1t ing

modulus ratio rupture toughness (g expansion point (“C)
(GPn) (MPa) (MPa m”?) (10-6PC)
-. __
LAS 117 0.24 138 2.42 2.61 5.76 -
Pyrex 48 0.20 55 0.08 2.23 3.24 1252
Alp, 345 0.26 483 3.52 3.97 8.64 2050
Mullite 145 0.25 186 2.20 3.30 5.76 1850
ZrO, PS 207 0.23 648 8.46 5.75 7.92 2760
ZrO, FS 207 0.23 248 2.75 5.56 13.5 -
TiO, 283 0.28 83 2.53 4.25 9.36 1849
Si,N, SN 310 0.24 496 5.60 3.18 3.06 1870
Si,N, RB 165 0.24 303 3.41 - - -
Si,N, HP 310 0.24 827 5.60 3.19 3.06 1870
SiOz 76 0.16 - 0.77 2.20 0.54 1610
Sic Sn 331 0.19 386 4.94 3.21 4.32 1980
Sic HP 414 0.19 462 4.94 3.21 4.32 1980
290 - 310 - 2.41 3.06 2350
B4C
TiB, 552 0.20 896 6.92 4.62 8.10 2900
Tic 427 0.19 248 - 4.92 8.46 3140
TaC 283 0.24 200 - 14.50 6.66 3880
Be0 359 0.24 234 - 3.00 5.76 2530
wc 669 0.20 - - 15.80 4.50 2870
103 - 262 3.85 5.21 7.56 2435
Cr $4
Cr& 386 0.20 - - 6.70 9.67 1890
34 - 76 - 1.94 6.66 2982
BNL
76 - 110 - 1.94 0.36 2982
BNII -
NbC 448 0.21 - 7.82 6.66 3499

Mechanical and chemical compatibility of the 14.3 PROCESSING METHODS

matrix with the particular reinforcement ulti-
Processing of ceramic composites can be per-
mately determines whether a useful
formed by solid, liquid, or gas phase
composite can be made. For the case of
processing of the matrix material to achieve
whisker reinforced composites the chemical
infiltration of the matrix around the reinforc-
reactions with matrix are particularly critical
ing phase. The goals in processing ceramic
since even minor reactivity can consume the
composites are to achieve minimum porosity
entire reinforcement. Large differences in the
with a uniform dispersion of the constituents
coefficients of thermal expansion between
and controlled bonding between the reinforc-
reinforcement and matrix can lead to large
ing phase and the matrix.
residual stresses during the fabrication and
ultimately result in serious degradation of
mechanical strength. Small or optimum differ- 14.3.1 POWDER PROCESSING
ences can be beneficial to mechanical Fundamental steps in processing ceramics
properties by placing the weaker constituent
composites from powdered constituents are:
in compression or by inducing crack deflection
between reinforcements. 0 powder selection;
0 powder characterization;
0 agglomerate reduction;
 Processing methods 313

constituent mixing; To minimize voids and interfacial weakness

green body fabrication; and maximize the toughening effect of the
green dressing (machining and gate reinforcing phase, a uniform finely dispersed
removal); mixture must be produced. Arranging the con-
binder removal; stituents to minimize free space between them
consolidation and densification; is referred to as ’packing’. When the con-
final dressing (burr removal); stituents are not effectively packed,
inspection. subsequent densification becomes difficult,
requiring higher pressing temperatures, pres-
The selection of constituent powders is the
sures and duration. Both constituent shape
first step in composite design and considera-
and particle size difference can affect packing.
tion must be given to chemical, mechanical
Optimum packing occurs when the particle
and thermoelastic compatibility between the
size distribution contains 30 vol. % of very
constituents as well as the desired final
small particle and 70 vol. % of large particles’.
mechanical and physical properties of the
If uniform round fibers (or whiskers) are per-
composite. In addition to the obvious problem
fectly aligned in a closed packed array then
of reaction between constituents, other incom-
matrix particles approximately 0.15 times the
patibilities such as large differences in melting
fiber diameter would theoretically fit in the
temperature of matrix and reinforcement can
interstices.
preclude successful processing. Thermal
Most ceramic powders can be comprised of
expansion mismatch between constituents can
a mixture of primary particles and agglomer-
cause premature failure in them or at their
ates. Agglomerates are primary particles
interface.
bonded by surface chemical forces, electrosta-
The rational selection of constituents usu-
tic forces or solid bridging. In order to produce
ally requires knowledge of certain physical
a finely dispersed, homogeneous mixture of
characteristics such as particle size distribu-
matrix and reinforcement successfully, the
tion, shape, specific surface area, bulk density,
agglomerates must be reduced. A typical
electrical charge, impurities, etc. The ultimate
agglomerate (mullite in this case) is shown in
aim of such constituent characterization is to
Fig. 14.5. The agglomerate is 8-9 ym in diame-
predict the final characteristics of the ceramic
ter while the constituent primary particles
composite, as shown schematically in
range from 0.1 to 1.5 pm. To uniformly incor-
Fig. 14.48.
porate 0.5-1 ym diameter whisker or particles,

MILL TIME LUBRICANTS

Fig. 14.4 Use of powder characterization in process control8.

314 Ceramic composites
Fig. 14.5 Typical agglomerate found in mullite powders.
the large agglomerates must be broken down
by mechanical action or chemical treatments if
the agglomeration is due to surface forces. If
the whiskers are robust or some degree of
whisker breakage can be tolerated, both
agglomerate reduction and constituent mixing
can be accomplished simultaneously by ball
milling.
Organic binders are usually mixed with the
particle-whisker mixture for near-net-shape
processing by a variety of cold forming opera-
tions including uniaxial pressing, cold
isostatic pressing, tape casting, extrusion,
compression molding and injection molding.
The ceramic preform after cold consolidation
is referred to as the 'green' form. The part in
the green form can usually be machined with-
out damage. In this state additional
near-net-shape processing can be applied such
as gate removal and machining.
Final consolidation and densification is per-
formed at high temperatures. Three of the
most common methods are sintering, hot (uni-
directional) pressing and hot isostatic
pressing. For low fiber or whisker contents
(5 % or lower) sintering may produce satisfac-
tory results. For complete densification of
even low fiber volume fraction composites,
sintering may impractical due to excessive
temperatures and durations. For high fiber or
whisker volume fractions, hot pressing and
hot isostatic pressing are the only effective
methods for densification. Table 14.6 shows
the effect of hot pressing time and temperature
at 31 MPa pressing pressure on the theoretical
density of Sic whisker-Al,O, composites for
various vol.% whiskers. Theoretical densities
of over 99 vol.9'0 can be achieved in unrein-
forced A1,0, at 15OO0C, in lO%SiC whisker
composites at 1650°C and in 2O%SiC whisker
composite at 1800°C10.
14.3.2 LIQUID PROCESSING
When high temperatures and mechanical
forces are used to consolidate composites from
the powder, the optimum strength properties
can be sacrificed. Reducing processing tem-
perature, time and pressure can minimize
damage to the reinforcements but fully dense
 Processing methods 315

Table 14.6 Effect of processing parameters on the theoretical densities of Sic

whisker-Al,O, composites pressed at 31 MPa pressure'"

Vol. % Pressing temperature Pressing time Density Densify

zuh iskers ("C) (mid (g cnz-?) (% theoreticnl)
0 1500 60 3.95 99.1
10 1500 35 3.78 96.7
10 1650 60 3.89 99.5
20 1500 120 3.68 96.1
20 1650 60 3.72 97.1
20 1725 60 3.78 98.6
20 1800 25 3.81 99.5

or near-fully dense composites cannot gener-
ally be produced. Processing by infiltration
with a molten matrix would be an ideal way of
minimizing mechanical damage and still
achieve fully dense structures. The melting
temperatures of ceramics used as matrices in
composites limits the general use of melt infil-
tration as a viable processing route. However,
by careful tailoring of the matrix and the use of
innovative in situ reaction techniques, melt
infiltration has been successfully utilized to
fabricate ceramic composites.
Glass and glass-ceramic matrices have been
successfully infiltrated in the liquid form into
fiber preforms by 'matrix transfer mold-
ing'".The high temperatures required to
achieve the appropriate fluidity of the matrix
limjts the available fiber-matrix compositions
to only those with low mutual reactivity. Other
matrix materials such as CaSiO,, SrSiO, and
SrO~Al,O;SiO, were infiltrated into Sic pow-
der preforms with and without Sic whiskers
with resulting open porosity of about 1%12.
Recently considerable attention has been
applied to directed melt gas-metal reactions
which produce ceramic matrix composites
directly from the liquid metal13.14. Both metal
oxide matrix and metal nitride matrix com-
posites have been produced by this technique.
Net shape composites can be processed at tem-
peratures of the melting temperature of the
metal. The commercial development of this
processes is called the DIMOXTMprocess of the
Lanxide Corporation. In this process oxidation
or nitridation occurs on the surface of the
molten metal forming a layer of solid ceramic.
The layer thickens as the molten metal wicks
up between the grains of the ceramic. A
schematic representation of the process is
shown in Fig. 14.614.The phenomenon is made

Reinforcement preform

Reinforcement preform
entrapped in solid
reaction product

Fig. 14.6 Directional metal oxidation method for processing ceramic composites4.
316 Ceramic composites

possible by dopants which modify the surface 14.3.3 VAPOR PROCESSING

energy between the phases. For instance, if the
grain boundary energy, yB, is less than twice
the energy of the solid-liquid interface, ysI.and
the surface energy of the solid-liquid inter-
face, ysL is greater than surface energy of the
solid-vapor interface, ysv, thickening of the
oxide (or other reaction compound) layer does
not take place. By reversing the relative values
of the surface energies, (i e, yB > 2ys1. and ysr <
ysv) as illustrated in Fig. 14.7the unstable grain
boundary permits wicking of the liquid metal
through the grain boundaries of the reaction
product phase'-'.
Application of this technology to ceramic
matrix components is achieved by allowing
the reinforcement preform to float above the
liquid metal bath for infiltration of the molten
metal. A growth barrier can surround the rein-
forcement preform to produce practical net or
near net shape component^'^, 16.
The infiltration of the reinforcing phase by a gas
that decomposes to form the solid matrix phase
is generally referred to as 'chemical vapor infil-
tration' (CVI).Various carbides, nitrides, oxides
and boridesI7 as well as unreacted carbon'*
have been deposited on silicon carbide-based
yam fibers (e.g. Nicalon and Tyranno fibers),
oxide based fibers (e.g. Nextel fibers) carbon
yam fibers and Sic whiskers. Silicon carbide is
one of the most commonly applied matrices
using CVI. Methyltrichlorosilane is reacted
with hydrogen on the surface of the fiber to
deposit silicon carbide. A typical reaction for
this process is19.
CH,SiC1, + H, + Sic + 3HC1 +H,
This reaction can take place by conventional
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at tempera-
tures of 1000-1400°C. Silane-hydrocarbon
(SiH,-C,HJ mixtures can be used to deposit
Sic at temperatures below 500°C by plasma
assisted chemical vapor deposition (PACVD).
Table 14.7 lists some of the more commercially
important matrix materials that can be applied
by conventional CVD. A more complete list of
ceramic materials produced by both conven-
tional CVD and PACVD can be found in
reference (20).

I Molten Metal I Table 14.7 Ceramic materials formed by CVI

processes2'

Matrix Reactant Reaction

ceraTnic gases temperature ("C)
~ ~~~

Tic Tic,-CH,-H, 900-1000

Sic CH,SiCl,-H, 1000-1400
B,C BC1,-CH,-H, 1200-1400
TiN TiC14-N2-H, 900-1000
Si& SiCl,-NH,-H, 1000-1400
I Molten Metal I BN BC1,-NH,-H, 1000-1400
A1N AlCl,-NH,-H, 800-1200
*1,0, AlCl,-CO,-H, 900-1100
SiO, SiH-C0,-H, 200-600
Fig. 14.7 Mechanism of directed metal oxidation TiO, TiC1,-H20 800-1000
growth14.(a) no growth due to stable grain bound- ZrO, ZrC1,-C0,-H2 900-1200
ary; (b) oxide growth mechanism with unstable TiB, TiC1,BC13-H, 800-1000
grain boundary. WB WC1,-BBr,-H, 1400-1600
 Design considerations 317

The main drawbacks for processing com-
posites by CVI are the high processing time
and costs. Since the deposition occurs most
rapidly on the outer surfaces, the internal pas-
sages can be blocked off long before full
densification is complete. It is usually neces-
sary to interrupt the infiltration process to
grind the surfaces in order to reopen the gas
access to the fibers or preform in the center of
the part. Residual porosity of 10-20% with less
than 10% open porosity are typically
obtainedz1.
Two basic methods of CVI are isothermal
processing and forced flow/thermal gradient
processing. In isothermal processing the fiber
preform is heated by radiation from the walls
of the furnace (so called ’hot wall reactor’) or
by inductively heating a carbon mandrel on
which the preform is placed. In both cases the
decomposing gases are allowed to diffuse
through the fiber preform. In the forced
flow/ thermal gradient method the reactant
gases are forced through the fiber preform
retained in a graphite holder with a sharp
thermal gradient maintained by water cooling.
A schematic diagram of the forced flow/ther-
mal gradient method is shown in Fig. 14.8.
14.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The approach to designing ceramic matrix is
constrained by the brittle nature for both the
matrix materials and reinforcements used.
Unlike polymer matrix composites and even
metal matrix composites, the rationale for
design of ceramic composites is to impart
toughness in a structure that would have unac-
ceptable toughness as a monolithic ceramic”.
Design methods are unique to the form of the
composite, depending on whether continuous
unidirectional reinforcements, discontinuous
reinforcements or multi-layer, multi-directional
reinforcements are being considered. As a start-
ing point in the design of continuous

Exhaust aas
Heating element

Perforated lid

--- Infiltrated preform

Fibrous preform

Reactant gases
Fig. 14.8 Forced flow thermal gradient method for CVI processingzo.
318 Ceramic composites

unidirectional ceramic composites, the rule-of-strength over the range of reinforcement vol-
mixtures can be used to calculate elastic and ume fractions will depend on the relative
thermoelastic properties of the composite. fracture strain, strength and stiffness of the
Strength properties of the ceramic matrix com- constituents. The relative fiber and matrix
posites are poorly predicted by the stress-strain curves and strength prediction of
a composite consisting of a high stiffness, high
rule-of-mixturessince flaw sensitivity and rein-
forcement-matrix bond strength are not strength fiber in a lower stiffness, low strain to
addressed by these tecluuques. Rule-of-mix- failure matrix is represented in Figs. 14.9(a)
tures properties are less important in and 14.9(b),respectively. There are many such
discontinuously reinforced ceramic composites fiber-matrix combinations that have this rela-
since toughness is strongly controlled by the tive behavior as the examination of Tables 14.2
interfacial properties. and 14.5 will reveal. For instance if Nicalon is
selected as the fiber then the selection of mul-
lite, lithium alumino silicate (LAS) or Pyrex
14.4.1 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS
glass, for the matrix meets the requirement.
UNIDIRECTIONAL REINFORCEMENT
Selecting Sic monofilament produces this case
COMPOSITES
for almost all matrix materials listed in Table
The Young’s modulus of unidirectional contin- 14.5 with the exception of TiB, and Tic. The
uous fiber ceramic composites Ec is composite strength in such a system should
satisfactorily predicted by rule-of-mixtures: increase at a rate predicted by the linear rule-
of-mixtures based on the strength of the
Ec = E , V , + Em V, matrix and the stress on the fiber at the frac-
ture strain of the matrix, a;. At fiber fractions
where E , and Em are the Young’s moduli of the to V,,,, failure of the matrix constitutes failure
reinforcement and matrix respectively and V , of the composite. The behavior of the compos-
and Vm are the respective volume fractions. ites with fiber fraction below Vcr,thave simple
When there is a high bond strength between linear stress-strain behavior to failure. Above
the fiber and matrix, prediction of composite this fiber fraction the matrix breaks before the

% Strain 0 Vcrit 1
Fiber Fraction
(b)
Fig. 14.9 Strength prediction for high stiffness, high strength fiber and a lower stiffness, low strain to fail-
ure matrix.
 Design considerations 319

fibers. The fibers can retain the broken matrix X', is between the range given by
in place before the fibers break at a higher
load. Composite strength above Vcritdepends
upon the fiber strength. A typical stress-strain
curve for such a system above V,,, is shown where T is the interfacial shear stress and r is
the fiber radius. The value of strain at the end
of this process, E ~ isz3
~ ~ ,

u)
u)
The final linear rising portion is the curve is
0
L
the elastic response of the fiber. Continuous
z fiber breakage and fiber pull-out can produce
the pseudo-ductility of the final portion of the
curve.
There are many potential continuous
V
E
fiber-matrix combinations in which the matrix
Emu max has a higher elastic modulus than the fiber. For
Strain instance, matrix materials such as titanium
diboride, titanium carbide, silicon carbide and
Fig. 14.10 Stress-strain behavior for composite alumina with most of the continuous fibers
with high stiffness, high strength fiber and a lower listed in Table 14.2 would have the relative
stiffness, low strain to failure matrix. stress-strain behavior shown in Fig. 14.11(a).
The strength of predictions of such systems is
schematically in Fig. 14.10. The elastic portion shown schematically in Fig. 14.11@).In this
of the curve is followed by a serrated, constant case the predicted strength of the composite
stress portion induced by a matrix failure would decrease with increasing fiber fraction
process. During this process the matrix contin- until a minimum fiber fraction, V,, is reached.
ues to crack until the spacing between cracks, This behavior is similar in appearance to the

sf"

(D
8
b
v)

Of

(b) Fiber Fraction

Fig. 14.11 Strength prediction for a high strength fiber and a higher stiffness, low strain to failure matrix.
320 Ceramic composites

case of a high modulus, low failure strain fiber transverse elastic moduli E, and E,, respec-
in a lower modulus, high failure strain matrix tively, composites with aligned short fibers can
as is typical of many metal matrix composites. be made by using the Halpin-Tsai relation?
However the cause of the minimum behavior
is quite different. Below Vmh failure of the
matrix still constitutes composite failure
where the rule-of-mixtures strength is com-
posed of the matrix ultimate strength, omuand
the stress on the fiber at the matrix failure
strain, a;. Unlike the case for the lower modu-
lus matrix, the stress 0; is lower than the a,,
increasing fiber fraction lowers the rule-of-
mixtures strength. Above Vmi,the fracture of
the matrix no longer constitutes composite tL= 2 l / d , and tT = 2
fracture as the fibers alone are able to carry the
The coefficients of thermal expansion in the
load after matrix failure.
longitudinal and transverse directions, a, and
The above description applies to compos-
aT respectively, can be estimated fromz6
ites with a high fiber-matrix bond strength
and neglects the effect of fracture surface a, = (a,E,V,+ amEmVm) / E,
energy. These conditions are not typical in real
composites and the simple rule-of-mixtures aT = (1+ vf) a,V, + (1+ vm)amVm- aLvLT
predictions must be modified to account for
where
these effects. Aveston et aLZ4accounted for the
effect of the fiber-matrix bond strength on the VLT = vf v, + YmVm
matrix failure strain as follows:
6zTE,Vf 1/3 and vf and vm are the Poisson's ratio for fiber
[
E'f = EkVmrEc]
and matrix respectively. These calculations will
usually overestimate the value of these proper-
where r is the fracture specific fracture energy ties because of ineffective bonding between
of the matrix. fiber and matrix and deviation from ideal fiber

14.4.2 DESIGN OF DISCONTINUOUS

REINFORCEMENT COMPOSITES
In polymer and metal matrix composites it is
usually desirable to design the fiber lengths to
exceed the critical length, 1, given by ufr/t to
allow the fiber to carry its full load prior to
fracture. In ceramic composites, fiber breakage
is rarely the design goal. Instead the role of the
fiber is to provide toughness by a combinations
of fiber pull-out, crack deflection and crack
bridging. Nevertheless, the designer may want
to predict the elastic and thermoelastic proper-
ties of the discontinuous reinforcement
composites' An estimate for longitudina1 and Fig. 14.12 Microstructure of 20 vel. yo SiC-Al,O,
composite fabricated by tape casting.
 Design considerations 321

alignment. Figure 14.12 shows the in-plane laminate fracture theories must be employed.
microstructure for a 20 vol% Sic whisker-alu- Examples of material designs that can make
mina composite fabricated by tape casting and use of laminated-composite concepts for
hot pressing. This processing method promotes improved performance are illustrated in Fig.
fiber alignment in the tape cast direction, how- 14.133z.The magnitude of the surface compres-
ever there is still a considerable deviation from sive stress can be calculated from laminate
the predominant fiber directionz7. theory. Figure 14.13(a) shows a laminate
For randomly oriented fibers or whiskers the design intended to produce surface compres-
elastic modulus, E , of the composites can be sive stresses. In this design the layers toward
estimated from the results of the Halpin-Tsai the mid-plane gradually increase in coefficient
method using the empirical relation: of thermal expansion. The outer layers, con-
ET= (3/8)E, + ( 5 / 8 ) E ,

14.4.3 DESIGN OF MULTILAYER, MULTI-

DIRECTIONAL REINFORCEMENT LAMINATES
The concept of a laminated composite is used
effectively in the design of polymer-matrix
composites to achieve the high degree of
strength, elastic and thermoelastic tailoring.
(a) Design with graded composition
Polymer-matrix composites reinforced with
either continuous or discontinuous fibers are
fabricated by stacking layers with specific char-
acteristics and orientations in a predetermined
sequence to achieve desired mechanical or
physical properties. As with polymer compos-
ites, the ceramic composite layer properties
may be calculated using theoretical and semi-
empirical method^^*-^^ from the constituent
I
properties such as the elastic modulus of the
(b) Design with toughening layers
fibers and matrix respectively, E, and Em, the
orientation factor, f, the volume fraction of the Oxidation
resistant layer
fiber, Vf, the fiber aspect ratio, l/d, and the coef-
ficients of thermal expansion for the fibers and Wear
matrix, afand am.By selection of the sequence resistant layer
of layer orientations and compositions, various High
toughness
elastic, thermoelastic, strength, physical and core
chemical characteristics can be produced.
Classical laminate plate the0ry3&~~ can be used
to accurately predict the elastic and thermoelas-
(c) High temperature wear design
tic properties of laminated composites from the
layer properties. The strength properties, on the
other hand, cannot be readily determined by Fig. 14.13 Typical laminate design concepts for
commonly used laminate failure criteria since ceramic matrix composites. (a) with graded compo-
fracture of these laminates is still strongly con- sition; @) with toughening layers; (c) for high
trolled by the presence of flaws. Modified temperature wear.
322 Ceramic composites

taining increasing amounts of low-expansion stresses that are likely in such a construction.
whiskers generate compressive residual Differences in elastic modulus and coeffi-
stresses as a result of the differential contrac- cients of thermal expansion for layers
tion during cooling after the high-temperature containing different volume fractions of rein-
densification process. A major advantage of forcing whiskers can be used to generate
laminated-composite processing is that it pro- favorable residual stress patterns in fabricated
vides the engineering flexibility to use laminates. The thermal stresses o,T,oy' and T~~
innumerable material and property combina- in each layer of the laminate at any position
tions that would be impossible with through the thickness, z, measured from the
traditional methods involving thermal or midplane, caused by the restraint of the neigh-
chemical tempering. This concept also allows boring layer can be determined by Hooke's
the use of non-equilibrium compositions for
greater degree of stress profile variation. For
instance, the depth and magnitude of the
stress gradient can be independently con-
trolled by selection of layer composition and
properties. Maximizing the stress gradient by
the introduction of a high-expansion material
in the interior of the composite would be
impossible by conventional chemical temper-
ing but is quite feasible by lamination.
Strengthening can also be achieved by ren-
dering surface flaws ineffective through the
introduction of a tougher ceramic layer below
the surface (Fig. 14.1303)). This design miti-
gates surface damage in the outer layers by
blunting the cracks when they reach the under-

[:
lying toughened layer. This layer may contain
whiskers, a toughened ceramic, or metallic Alll A'l2 A'
particles. The use of a toughened ceramic layer
as the outer layer would not be as effective
since abrasion or impact could produce flaws
y:'
]= Af12A'22A':6
"16 Af26
{ q%v]
through its entire depth, thus permitting the
crack to propagate through the lower-tough-
ness interior layers with minimum resistance.
In addition to increased strength and tough-
ness, high-temperature corrosion resistance can
be designed into a composite material by using
a corrosion-resistant layer on the exterior sur-
face (Fig. 14.13(c)) and layers tailored for
high-temperature strength in the interior. A
similar concept may be employed for a material
designed as a high-temperature heat exchanger
by grading the interior layers for high thermal
conductivity. Using composite laminate theory,
a materials designer can tailor the grading to
minimize the deleterious residual tensile
 Properties 323

where t, is the thickness of the kth layer, Q, are

the untransformed stiffness coefficients and al
are the coefficients of the thermal expansion in
the principal material directions. The thermal
moments Mx, My and MXyare zero. The resid-
ual stresses, oLand oT,in the longitudinal and
transverse directions respectively are (a) Bridging

For this laminate geometry the residual shear

stress, rLT= 0. (b) Pull-Out
The compressive residual stresses thus
induced in the outer surface of the ceramic
composite raise the fracture strength by that
amounP3.

14.5 PROPERTIES
The principal objective in design of ceramic
composites is to produce enhanced toughness
and mechanical reliability. Various energy (c) Deflection
absorbing mechanisms are produced by the
reinforcement depending on the relative ther-
mal expansion coefficients, relative elastic
moduli and interfacial bond strength between
the reinforcement and matrix. In addition the
size, shape, distribution and volume fraction
of the reinforcement plays a strong role in con-
trolling the effectiveness of the toughening.

14.5.1 MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING

The four principal mechanisms of toughening (d) Microcracking
(crack bridging34,35, fiber pull-out, crack
deflection and matrix microcracking) are
shown schematically in Fig. 14.14. More than
one of these mechanisms can be operative at Fig. 14.14 Toughening mechanisms for ceramic
the same time in a ceramic composite but there matrix composites.
324 Ceramic composites

is usually a dominant one depending on the resistance. A quantitative treatment of the

constituent and interfacial properties. effects of crack deviation on toughness have
Bridging, pull-out and deflection are most been provides by Faber and Evans3'.
effective where the fibers are generally aligned In certain composites the conditions can be
normal to the crack surface. favorable to allow the stress field of the prop-
In the crack bridging mechanism (Fig. agating crack to interact with the stress field
14.14(a))the fibers remain intact for some dis- around the reinforcements to produce local
tance behind the crack front, thus restraining matrix cracking around the reinforcement.
the crack opening displacement and reducing Maximum effectiveness of this mechanism
the stress intensity at the crack tip. The energy requires a fine dispersion of many reinforce-
absorbing processes include fiber fracture, ments as illustrated in Fig. 14.14(d). An
fiber-matrix friction and elastic strain energy appropriate mismatch in thermal expansion
of the fiber. Thus, strong fibers, high strain to coefficients between reinforcement and
fracture fibers and strong fiber-matrix bond- matrix provides the local stress field around
ing promote this mechanism. The toughening the reinforcement. An analysis of this mecha-
produced by a uniform closure stress of the nism of toughening has been provided by
bridging fibers has been estimated by Becher H ~ t c h i n s o n ~ ~ .
et a1.35to be Typical fracture in whisker reinforced
ceramic (SiC/Al,O,) shown in Fig. 14.15 has
dKc = (3fU[VfrEcG,/6(1 - v2)EfGi]l12 elements several mechanisms of toughening.
Whisker pull-out and crack defection are evi-
where Gm and Gi, are the strain energy release dent in this example.

"
between the fiber and the matrix. For fibers of
critical length the increment in toughness is
given as (see Reference 36, for example):

AGc = V ,o f u r / 6 ~

Crack deflection mechanism (Fig. 14.14(c))

forces the crack to deviate out of the normal
stress plane as it negotiates around the rein-
forcements. The driving force for this deviation
is the residual stress distribution produced by
the mismatch in thermal expansion between
the fiber and matrix. Reinforcements with
higher coefficients of thermal expansion than
the matrix will cause the matrix to be in com-
pression near the reinforcement. This state will
tend to deflect a crack as it approaches the
vicinity of the reinforcement which is a higher
crack resistant area to a region of lower crack
Fig. 14.15 SEM photograph of fracture path in Sic
whisker-Al,O, composite.
14.5.2 TYPICAL PROPERTIES
The selection of materials for component
design requires accurate and reliable mechani-
cal property data. Because of the large
variations in processing characteristics and
starting material forms, such data are generally
sparse. The mechanical properties most signifi-
 Properties 325

cantly affected by reinforcements in ceramics 91 1

are fracture strength and fracture toughness.
8 -
Vaughn et ~ 1examined
. ~ ~ the effect of processing
temperature and reinforcement for alumina 7-
and Sic whisker/alumina composites. Table
14.8 shows that processing temperature and
remforcement have little effect on elastic modu-
lus, but a significant impact on strength,
fracture toughness and work of fracture. The
noncompliance with the rule of mixtures for
Young’s modulus is evidence of the lack of
bonding and hence load transfer between fiber
and matrix. The toughening of various ceramic
matrix materials with increasing Sic whisker
content is shown in Fig. 14.1635.
A compilation of fracture strength and frac- 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
ture toughness for Sic whisker (Silar-SC9) Whisker content (Volume fraction)
/A1,0, composites is given in Table 14.92.The Fig. 14.16 Increment in fracture toughness of Sic
fracture strength of the composites for the whisker composites with various matrices35.

Table 14.8 Mechanical properties of polycrystalline A1,0, and Sic whisker /A1,0, matrix composites3’

Alumina Alumina Alumina Composite Composite

(1500°C) (1659°C) (1900°C) (Silar SC-1) (Tateho SCW-1-5)
Young‘s 371 380 375 375 393
modulus (GPa)
Fracture 456k40 385+18 2534 641+34 606+146
strength (MPa)
Fracture 3.3d.2 5.0~0.2 3.7d.1 8.7M.2 4.6d.2
toughness (MPa m1/2)
Work of 10 20 39 67 21
fracture om-’)

Table 14.9 Room temperature strength and fracture toughness of Sic whisker (Silar-SC-9)/A120,
composites (Adapted from Reference 2 )

Whisker content Fracture strength Fracture toughness Xejerence

(Vol. %) (MPa) (MPa mIn)
0 150 4.3 40
253 3.7 39
5 391 3.6 41
475 4.0 42
10 540 4.8 42
15 652 4.6 41
20 675 6.1 42
30 680 8.7 40
641 8.7 39
720 7.0 42
40 640 7.9 42
850 6.2 43
326 Ceramic composites

same whisker content can vary fairly signifi- 8 * I I I I I I I ~ I I

cantly among the different sources while the SiCw-mulIite

fracture toughness is relatively consistent. -
Above 30% whiskers some composites can -
a
exhibit either a strength or fracture toughness z 6-
Y
-
that actually decreases because of the decrease -
in homogeneity of the whisker distribution. E 5- -
The fracture strength and fracture toughness 7 -
for Sic whisker reinforced mullite are shown 2 -
in Figs. 14.17 and 14.18 respectivelp. These
composites were fabricated by tape casting -
and the L-type designation indicates that the
crack propagation direction is normal to the
tape casting direction and the T-type designa- 26 ' Ib ' io ' io
' 40 ' 5'0 '
tion indicates that the crack propagation SIC Whisker Fraction ( ~ 0 1 % )
direction is parallel to the tape casting direc-
tion. Greater strength and toughness are Fig. 14.18 Fracture toughness of Sic whisker-
mullite composites with the crack propagating nor-
achieved for the case of fiber orientation pre- mal (L-type) and parallel (T-type) to the
dominantly normal to the whisker axis
.predominant whisker direction&.
direction. The maximum strength and tough- -
ness for this system is at 40% whiskers. Table 14.10 Room temperature mechanical
The effect of Sic (Silar S-9) whisker content properties of Sic whiskers/Si,N, matrix
on strength and toughness of Si,N, matrix composites45
composites is given in Table 14.1045.For this
material the maximum toughness occurs at Whisker Fracture Fracture
30% wluskers while the strength maximum is content strength toughness
(Vol. Yo) (MPa) (MPa mIn)
1000 I I I I I I I 0 375 4.0
Sicw - mullite 10 395 4.9
20 550 7.0
30 970 6.4

apparently above this fiber content.An alterna-

tive form of Sic whiskers was used to fabricate
Si,N, matrix composites by Shalek et ~ 1 . 4 This
~.
whisker is formed by the Vapor-Liquid-Solid
p r o ~ e s s ~The
~ , effect
~ ~ . of whisker content and
processing temperature on the elastic modulus,
fracture strength and fracture toughness are
shown in Figs. 14.19, 14.20 and 14.21 respec-
2000 I
IJI
III
III
I
IOII 20 30 40 50
Sic Whisker Fraction ( ~ 0 1 % )
tively. There is an apparent critical processing
temperature above 1600°C to achieve maxi-
mum attainable strength and toughness
Fig. 14.17 Fracture strength of Sic whisker-mullite properties in these composites.
composites with the crack propagating normal (L- Continuous fiber ceramic matrix compos-
type) and parallel (T-type) to the predominant ites are more likely to obey the rule of mixtures
whisker directionM. prediction for elastic and strength properties
 Properties 327

especially where minimum fiber damage and

SIC Whisker -hobpressed porosity occurs. The predictable increase in
Si3 N, matrix composite flexural strength for a Nicalon fiber/borosili-
cate glass composite is seen in Fig. 14.2249.

SIC Whisker -hot-pressed

13 Si3 N, matrix composite

300

: Hot-pressed at 1750°C
B : Hot-pressed at 1850°C
A : Hot-pressed at 1600°C

-0 1
..
..
..
..
1 5 10 IS PO 25 30 35 40

Volume Yo S i c whiskers

Fig. 14.19 Elastic modulus of Sic whisker-Si,N4

composites processed at various pressing tempera-
0 : Hot-pressed at 1750OC
ture~~~. :Hot-pressed at 1850°C
4 A : Hot-pressed at 1600°C

. . . . 1 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Volume % SIC whiskers

Si, N, matrix composite

Fig. 14.21 Fracture tougness of Sic whisker-Si,N4
composites processed at various pressing tempera-
1750°C tures&.
1850°C .
1600°C

E3m- *
2500 Rule of mixtures prediction
4-4 B
for SiC/Borosilicate class ,',
03
0) " : 8
50 -,p
I
A
A 2 2000 - ,
#
,
m
t m.
A
E ,
5 1500
1500- ,
'9
,x
A
F
5 1000
1000- ,4
/**4

'7
PI I
500-
/
/
,
0

0 5 10 IS 20 25
Volume Yo Sic whiskers
30 35 40
/
O f '
.1
' . '
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
' ' ' '
.8
'
.9
Fibre volume fraction
Fig. 14.20 Fracture strength of Sic whisker-Si,N4
composites processed at various pressing tempera- Fig. 14.22 Rule of mixtures strength for Sic fiber
tures". (NicalonTM)-borosilicate
glass49.
328 Ceramic composites

14.6 APPLICATIONS Crater Wear

14.6.1 HIGH TEMPERATURE STRUCTURES
The most advanced demonstration of ceramic
matrix composites for high temperature struc-
tures and components has been for Sic CVI
infiltrated carbon and Sic (NicalonTM) fiber.
Extensive application of these composites
have been made by Societe Europeenne de
Propulsion A demonstration two-
stroke 100 cc engine consisting of Sic-Sic pis-
ton, cylinder and cylinder head has run for ten
hours at full load and a speed of 1500 rpm
without lubricant.
A list of fabricated and tested high temper-
ature ceramic composite structures is given in Notch Nose Wear
Table 14.11. These components operated suc-
cessfully under actual- or simulated service
Fig. 14.23 Typical wear pattern in cutting tool
conditions. inserts.

14.6.2 TRIBOLOGICAL COMPONENTS

(CUTTING)
The application of ceramic composites to cut-
ting tool inserts has made a significant impact
on machining of difficult-to-cut metals. The
typical wear pattern in a cutting tool insert is
shown in Fig. 14.23.Uniform wear due to the
rubbing action of the metal work piece pro-
duces the flank and nose wear. Deeper wear
patterns at the depth-of-cut and trailing edge
region of the insert are due to the sharp edges
of the chip. The abrasion of the rake by the
broad face of the chip produces a crater.
Material removal from the rake face can be by
dissolution, adhesion and chemical reaction.
Low chemical reactivity, hot hardness and
wear resistance allows ceramics to minimize
all these forms of wear.
Unreinforced ceramics, while capable of
high cutting speeds, suffer from unpre-
dictable life due to low impact load tolerance

Table 14.11 Typical high temperature applications of ceramic matrix composites

Application Composition Operating Environment Test condition Reference

temperature
("C)
Combustion Sic-Sic 1200 Oxidizing 14 h running 50
chamber
Turbine blade Sic-Sic 1200 Air-kerosene Thermal cycle 400-1200°C 50
Turbine wheel Sic-Sic 1150 Air-kerosene 1 h up to 55 000 rpm 50
Turbine wheel C-Sic 1150 Air-kerosene 70 000 rpm 50
Leading edge C-Sic 1400 Oxidizing Several hours 51
Nozzle C-Sic 1550 Oxidizing Maximum thermal gradient 52
60"C/mm
Radiant Nextel 312-Sic 1150 Air-natural gas 18 month operation 52
burner tube
 Applications 329

or poor thermal shock properties. Reinforcing reinforced alumina and cemented tungsten
ceramics especially by whiskers is an effec- carbide as seen in Fig. 14.2555.
tive technique to defeat these limitations. The
best known example of this application is the
Sic whisker reinforced A1,0, insert. The com-
mercially available composition contains
about 30% whiskers and is designated WG-
300 by Greenleaf Corp., Saegertown, PA, 35 -
USA. 2
The range of machining parameters for the
r 30-
Sic whisker alumina compared to other con- c
S
c
ventional and advances cutting tool materials 'E 25-
>
is shown in Fig. 14.2454.Carbide cutting tools K
.-

are limited to cutting speeds below 100 m/min + 20-

0
while the ceramic cutting tools range from K
._
over 100m/min to 450m/min. The Sic 3 15-
0
whisker reinforced composite can be seen to $
provide the largest range of machining para- - 10-
L

m
c
meters for the machining of nickel based 2 5-
superalloys compared to other advanced cut-
ting materials such as Sialon and Tic 0-
particulate reinforced alumina.
The Sic whisker reinforced alumina (WG-
300) also has significantly greater tool life and Fig. 14.25 Comparison of tool life and metal
allows much greater rates of metal removal removal rates between various cutting tool materi-
for Inconel 718 compared to Tic particulate ais55.

-
0.25
Al,O,-SiC(w)

0.20 C Sialon
a
FE
-
U

2
E 0.15
(I)

0.10

0.05
0
i 100 200 300
Cutting speed (m/min)
400 500

Fig. 14.24 Approximate range of machining parameters allowed by various cutting tool materials%.
330 Ceramic composites

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6. Ishikawa, T., Recent developments of the Sic (2), 350-355.
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135-144. Chapman and Hall, 1992, p35.
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cursors, Composites, 1987,18(2), 107-127. Sinnema, S, Practical designing aspects of engi-
8. Flock, W.M., Characterization and processing neering ceramics, in: Designing with Structural
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matrix composites, Mater. Sci. Eng., 1991, A144, multiple fracture, in: The Properties of Composites,
143-152. Guildford: IPC Science and Technology Press,
10. Kragness, E.D., Processing and mechanical 1971, p.15.
behavior of tape cast and laminated silicon car- 25. Halpin, J.C. and Kardos, J.L. The Halpin-Tsai
bide whisker/alumina composites, M.Sc. equations: a review. Polym. Eng. Sci., 1976,16(5),
Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1988. 344-352.
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Bull. 1986,65(2), 305-322. talline polymers. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1976, 16(5),
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