HAND LAY-UP AND BAG MOLDING 16

D.R. Sidwell

16.1 INTRODUCTION Table 16.1 Advantages and disadvantages of hand

lay-up structures
This chapter presents practical fabrication and
tooling methods that have been successful for Adva n tages
high performance applications. Increasing per-
Design flexibility
formance requirements limit traditional hand Large and complex items can be produced
(’wet’) lay-up methods. Today’s prepreg resin Minimum equipment investment is necessary
systems allow for longer working life and low Tooling cost is low
cure temperatures. Improvements have made The start-up lead time and cost are minimal
the current prepreg systems the choice for high Design changes are easily effected
performance composite structures. Molded-in inserts and structural reinforcements
Composites are a combination of a high are possible
Sandwich constructions are possible
performance resin matrix and various fiber
Proto-typing and pre-production method for
combinations, which have brought about a molding processes
change in the engineer’s traditional approach Semi-skilled workers are needed, and worker
and allow matrix alloying for specific struc- training is minimal
tural applications. Improved materials,
Disadvantages
analysis and manufacturing methods have let
traditional composite structures reach new The process is labor-intensive
limits of achievement. Table 16.1 presents Only one tooled (molded) surface is obtained
Quality is related to the skill of the operator
some of the advantages and disadvantages of It is a low-volume process
hand lay-up of composite structures. Longer cure times required
Composite structures have been manufac- The waste factor can be high
tured from fiberglass and wood to some of the
most expensive 800 GPa pitch fibers for space
applications. The engineer’s imagination is the a structural part upon which the external paint
only limitation in the fabrication of composite finish is applied. The reverse of this procedure
structures. Large, complex co-cured structures occurs with composite materials fabrication,
are successfully manufactured with all engi- where the formless materials harden and take
neering and manufacturing disciplines the shape of the container into which they are
working as one. applied. The makeup of the resulting laminate
In the fabrication of wood or metal prod- is an elementary engineering material. The
ucts, flat sheet stock is joined together to form physical properties can be changed by varying
the resin and fiber ratio, the type and direction
of reinforcement and the type of resin matrix.
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published Today bag molded (vacuum and pressure)
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 composites provide higher performance and

are competitive with alternate types of con-
structions that result from optimization of
process controls, design refinements and
improved materials. Composite designs and
bag molding processes are interrelated by pro-
duction goals, the desire to control
manufacturing costs and by service or mission
requirements. The responsibilities shared by
fabricators and designers include:
0 reproducibility and knowledge of process-
ing characteristics of candidate materials;
knowledge of requirements for facilities
and tooling including provisions for assem-
bly, inspection and quality control;
0 reduction of total part count;
0 avoiding design as replacement for sheet
metal;
0 selecting the best material for the applica-
tion.
16.2 HISTORY
Composite materials first arrived in the New
World with the early Spanish explorers who
produced adobe bricks for the building trades
from a mix of straw and adobe clay. Modern
day users developed the chopper gun and
fiberglass roving that use low cost inexperi-
enced labor; many fabrications utilize ’wet’
lay-up for making bath tub enclosures and
truck hoods. Early use of carbon fiber compos-
ites was primarily for secondary structure
aerospace applications. In the early 1970s, the
first woven graphite fabric was developed for
aerospace structural applications.
Complex and highly detailed hybrid (unidi-
rectional and woven carbon materials)
structures were developed for an interconti-
nental ballistic missile (ICBM) program. It did
not take long to integrate the woven graphite
prepregs into mainstream production, reducing
labor costs over 70% from that of the previous
unidirectional tape structures. During the
1980s, composite hybrids were developed
using the best of all material forms available.
The hybrid structures utilizing both unidirec-
Histoy 353
tional and woven product forms (fiberglass,
graphite and aramid) were developed for com-
mercial applications; aerospace structures were
the prime users of 100%graphite materials.
The fabrication of a 1979 Ford LTD with a
finished weight of 1138 kg (2504 lb) proved
that graphite could be used as reinforcement
for just about any automotive component
including bumpers, hoods, frames, doors and
drive line. The major drawback to automotive
use of these composites was the processing
cost. During the 1990s, processing times were
reduced to acceptable levels (less than 5 min)
for automotive components, using resin trans-
fer and resin injection molding. Improved
mechanical properties, lower costs and
improved resin systems allowed for greater
inroads for fiber-reinforced plastics in the
automotive industry.
The use of ultra high modulus pitch-based
carbon fiber in modern communication satel-
lites has led to refinement in the art of hand
lay-up and vacuum bag molding. The primary
structural element of some communications
satellites is a central cylinder. A typical cylin-
der is about 180 kg (80 lb) and supporting a
13 000 kg (6000 lb) payload at launch. A typical
cylinder consists of 520GPa (75msi) pitch
fiber skin laminates and aluminum honey-
comb core, the structure is oven co-cured
utilizing a nylon vacuum bag. The require-
ments for ever lighter structures created the
need for ultrathin unidirectional prepregs.
Solar array panels for a modern communi-
cations spacecraft required the use of
0.0004 cm (0.001 in) thick unidirectional
520 GPa (75 msi) graphite prepreg. Solar array
panels, made with three-ply skins bonded to
an ultralight honeycomb core, are manufac-
tured on a regular production basis, utilizing
vacuum bag molding process and oven cure.
An example of what can be involved in a
high visibility composite materials application
was the 1992 America’s Cup Challenge, the
first application of graphite composite materi-
als for the America’s Cup racing yachts. The
example utilized here is the ’Spirit of
354 Hand lay-up and bag molding
Australia’ program entered by the Darling
Harbor Yacht Club, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
(See section 16.7.2.) Design and analysis were
performed by Ian Murray and Associates,
yacht designers; the design parameters were
established by the America’s Cup Rules
Committee. The program objective, deter-
mined in large part by available funding, was
to manufacture one America’s Cup racing
yacht. A program of this magnitude requires a
substantial amount of material. The ’Spirit of
Australia’ was a relatively small program
compared with some of the other syndicates.
Twenty-seven America’s Cup yachts were fab-
ricated, representing eight countries, with a
total investment of over $600000000. The
material combinations utilized in the hull con-
struction of the various entries included
Spectra, aramid, graphite and wood. The over-
all goal was to acheve the specified minimum
laminate density and still retain the required
load carrying capabilities.
Various hybrids of Spectra/graphite,
aramid/graphite and graphite/wood were
utilized to achieve the design results. The pro-
gram for ’Spirit of Australia’ required much
dedication from supporters and suppliers to
make it to the elimination trials with competi-
tors. There were significant other concerns in
addition to the normal decision factors in
selecting composite materials for a program,
such as mechanical properties, tack, resin flow
and gel. These other concerns can have a large
influence on the program outcome and require
planning the materials’ delivery schedule,
testing, packaging, export license, custom for-
malities and shipping method. If the program
is within a few hours flight time, the prepreg is
usually packed with dry ice and shipped on
the next available aircraft. On international
programs, the weight of just the dry ice can
equal the material cost and delivery takes 3 4
days. Scheduling becomes the critical path in
overall planning. In the case of ’Spirit of
Australia’, America’s Cup challenge 1993, air
shipments were a minimum of three days. The
three days were a best effort to get the mater-
ial from the supplier, to the freight forwarder,
airline, customs, importer clearing house and
then delivered to the manufacturing facility.
This effort can go astray; the shipment can be
off-loaded at an intermediate stop or off-
loaded at the incorrect destination. Sea
shipping requires 30 days to get material from
the manufacturer to a sea forwarder, provid-
ing the container is off-loaded as scheduled.
All of these considerations combined with
availability of funds and tight fabrication
schedule play a primary role in design and
fabrication decisions.
16.3 MATERIALS
Fiber reinforced composite materials are now
being used to satisfy the high strength and/or
stiffness-to-weight requirements of aerospace
structures. Fibers of extremely high strength
are incorporated into a relatively weak matrix
that is used to bind the fibers; the combination
results in a light, extremely strong structural
material. Experience and theoretical studies
have shown that fibers will always be stronger
than bulk materials. Some of the properties
that can be improved by combining the con-
stituents into a composite are strength,
stiffness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance,
fatigue life, temperature resistance and electri-
cal and thermal conductivity.
The relationship between resin viscosity and
the cure cycle can be used to obtain maximum
performance in a composite structure. Figure
16.1 shows the relationship between resin vis-
cosity and a stepped autoclave cure cycle. The
curves shown are for a typical 121°C (250°F)
curing epoxy resin system. The viscosity will
vary with a change in heat-up rate and tem-
perature. This information relating the effect of
rate and temperature is available from the
material suppliers. Using this information as a
starting point, a cure cycle can be defined for a
specific composite structure. The cure cycle
production capability becomes increasingly
important as the complexity of the composite
structure increases. To help in planning a
 Materials 355

Apply 689 KPa

(loo PSI)
when Part
Reaches 78OC
Heat at 2°C +3"C, Hold 15 Heat at 2% per Hold 120 Minutes at Down to 75
Per Minute Minutes Minute 120°C "C
Curecycle I 1 II I II I

125

Resin Flow-

.1
0 101 201 301 401 501 60I 200
Time (Minutes)
Resin Flow 1 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I b
Initial Resin Removal of Maximum Resin Resin Crosslinking and Cool Down
Flow Entrapped Air Resin FIOW Gel
and Resin
Bleed

Fig. 16.1 Typical autoclave stepped cure cycle.

composite structure, the material supplier can spray-up. In contact molding, after a gel coat-
provide information on specific applications, ing is applied to the mold (if required),
processing parameters, material properties, fiberglass chopped mat, cloth or woven roving
test data and fabrication methodology for the is placed into the mold, saturated with resin
material. Because most materials have compet- and brushed or rolled to compact the material
itive products available, one must consider not and remove entrapped air. This process can
only the price and delivery available but also also utilize 'wet' prepregs. The wet composite
local technical support in selecting a supplier. is then vacuum bagged to compact the mater-
There are two basic types of composite ial and remove entrapped air. Spray-up
matrix fiber combinations: chopped-fiber reinforced composites consist of relatively
reinforced composites and continuous-fiber short fibers mixed with a matrix or binder
reinforced composites. The selection of the material resulting in a composite with gener-
proper matrix material for use in a particular ally lower physical properties.
structure is influenced by many factors Continuous fibers in a matrix material result
including weight limitations, environmental in a composite that exhibits higher strength and
resistance and types of loading. stiffness than the chopped-fiber counterparts.
'Wet' lay-up procedures are divided into Fabrication of parts that use continuous-fiber
two main types, contact or open mold and reinforced composites can be achieved by
356 Hand lay-up and bag molding

several techniques such as hand or machine 1. Thermoplastics. Thermoplastics may be

lay-up, filament winding and pulhusion. shaped, remelted and reshaped, much like
Hand lay-up composites are a special case candle wax. Examples of thermoplastics are
of continuous fiber reinforced composites. nylon, polysulfone, polyethylene, polyvinyl
Layers of unidirectional or woven bidirec- chloride and polyarylsulfone.
tional composites are combined to result in a 2. Thermosetting. Thermosets, once shaped and
material exhibiting desirable properties in one set, cannot be remelted and reset (like a
or more directions. Each layer is oriented to cooked egg it cannot be uncooked). When
achieve the maximum utilization of its proper- heated, a thermosetting plastic becomes
ties. Layers of different materials (different increasingly infusible. It undergoes an irre-
fibers in different directions) can be combined versible chemical change called
to further enhance the overall performance of polymerization (a process in whch simple
the laminated composite material. Some of the molecules combine to form more complex
initial considerations that must be considered ones) during curing of the material.
before undertaking the manufacture of a com- Examples of thermosets are polyesters,
posite structure are: epoxies, phenolics, cyanates and poly-
imides.
0 performance goal to be achieved;
0 can the structure be designed to reduce part In advanced composite materials manufac-
count? ture, there are controls to provide a workable
0 do not duplicate a sheet metal design; resin system. The main control points include
0 manufacturability - in-house or outside volatile content to minimize voids and delam-
supplier; inations, tack that controls the handling of the
0 overall cost compared with performance; prepregs, flow to allow removal of excess
0 use only the amount of expensive materials resin and entrapped air and gel that deter-
needed. mines the point at which the resin starts cross
linking.
Many structures can be designed and manu-
factured with fiberglass laminates using
small amounts of graphite, aramid or Spectra, Volatile content controls
hybridized to obtain the additional stiffness
or reduced density. The high performance of Quality control test results do not distinguish
graphite (both PAN and Pitch) is attractive inert from reactive volatiles but are used to
for fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf clubs and establish volatile content values. They provide
racing applications. Special incentives for qualitative evaluations of prepreg advance-
performance can make cost a secondary ment, degree of volatilization of solvents and
objective. amount of degradation due to aging. Volatile
contents measured prior to lay-up are com-
pared to values when the prepreg was first
16.3.1 MATRIX MATERIALS received and may provide indications of
Plastics are used as the matrix material in excessive aging.
most fiber reinforced composites. These
materials are generally of high molecular
Tack controls
weight and intricate molecular complexity.
Their form and properties can be transformed Tack is the adhesion characteristic that is con-
by the techniques of applying heat and/or trolled to facilitate lay-up operations. It is
pressure. In general, plastics can be divided affected by resin and inert volatile content,
into two categories: prepreg advancement and humidity and

temperature of the lay-up room. Sometimes,
tack is increased by increasing resin and
volatile content, less prepreg advancement, or
a slight increase in lay-up room temperature.
At other times, tack can be modified by the
prepreg manufacturer by changes in resin for-
mulations or new additives blended into the
resin. Alterations to the formulations should
not be accepted without prior requalifications
by the user. Often, properties are severely
affected for a cured laminate; therefore, per-
formance and durability must be verified.
Prepregs with excessivelyheavy tack gener-
ally cannot be handled without grossly
disrupting resin distribution and fiber orienta-
tion or causing a roping (fiber bundling) of the
composite laminate. Excessive tack makes it
difficult to achieve reproducibility in compos-
ite structures since undetermined amounts of
resin are always removed when the release
film or backing is separated from the prepreg.
In general, all the disadvantages of wet lay-up
systems are inherent in the excessively tacky
prepregs.
Prepregs with no tack are either excessively
advanced or have exceeded their normal stor-
age life. Such materials cannot attain adequate
cured properties and should be discarded.
Exceptions are silicones and some polyimides
that can only be prepared with no tack. Lay-
ups with these materials are limited to those
occasions where lower mechanical properties
can be tolerated in exchange for improved
heat resistance or electrical properties.
Thermoplastic prepregs typically do not
exhibit much tack.
Most prepregs are staged to attain more
manageable tack. The tack qualities should be
adequate for adhering the prepreg to prepared
molding surfaces or preceding plies for a lay-
up and still light enough to release the backing
film without loss of resin. Provided that cured
laminates will not be adversely affected, tack
qualities can be specified to require the
prepreg to remain adhered to the backing until
a predetermined force is applied to peel it off.
Tack requirements can be modified to suit
Materials 357
individual plant fabrication conditions. Air
conditioning minimizes local temperature and
humidity sensitivities; reducing the tempera-
ture makes heavy tack manageable. Judicious
use of hot air guns can improve dry tack.
Flow controls
Flow measurements indicate resin capabilities
to fuse successive plies in a laminate and bleed
out the void producing gas reaction by-prod-
ucts. Flow is also an indicator of prepreg age
or advancement. It is often desirable to opti-
mize resin content and tack to attain adequate
flow but, in some cases, flow is controlled by
thickening additives in a resin.
Gel times
Gel time is an indicator of the degree of cure of
resin systems. The amount of staging or
advancement limits gel time for prepregs.
Most prepregs are formulated to attain a use-
ful life (out time) of 8 days or more at standard
atmospheric conditions. Out time can be pro-
longed by storage at -18°C (O'F), but each time
the prepreg is brought to equilibrium at room
temperature, the useful life is shortened. Gel
time measurements can be used as quality
control verifications. Criteria based on those
results determine whether to initiate more
costly property testing or to dispose of an
overage prepreg.
Storage
Most advanced composite hand lay-up mate-
rials that are utilized today are
time/temperature critical. Precautions must
be taken in handling, storage and processing.
During the initial processing, where resin is
impregnated onto the reinforcement fiber, the
degrading of the materials starts the moment
the resin is applied to the reinforcement.
However, cases exist where material has been
stored at -18°C (0°F) for as long as 5 years and
was capable of molding a commercially
358 Hand lay-up and bag molding

acceptable laminate. A new generation resin fiberglass fiber

system, the cyanates, tends to be more stable 0 high impact strengths;
than epoxies and outlife has been increased 0 good overall performance;
from 10-14 days to 3 0 4 5 days. Storage at 0 low costs;
-18°C (0°F) has also increased from 6 months 0 available in many forms;
to 1year. 0 higher density.
In planning a project, one should consider
Aramid fiber
the amount of material needed within a given
0 high impact strengths;
period of out time to complete the lay-up and
0 high specific modulus;
cure of a composite component. If one can fab-
0 poor compression strengths;
ricate enough composite parts in a 10 day
0 high costs;
period to utilize a 22 kg (50 lb) roll of mater-
0 difficult to handle.
ial, then that is the size that one should
procure. If not, reduce the size of the roll Spectra fiber
accordingly. By doing this, the material roll 0 very low density;
has to be removed from the freezer only once 0 difficult to handle;
and the recorded out time can be accurately 0 bond interface poor;
maintained. 0 very high impact resistance;
0 high costs.

16.3.2 REINFORCEMENTS
In continuously reinforced composites, the
fibers carry nearly all of the load applied to the
system, with the matrix transferring the load
into the fibers. In chopped fiber reinforced
plastics, the load is distributed between the
fibers and matrix, depending upon the nature
of the constituents,percentages of each and the
orientations of the fibers. Selection of the
proper fiber for a specific application depends
upon the type and magnitude of loading, oper-
ating temperature and cost limitations. The
following are attributes of several applicable
fibers:
PAN-based carbon fiber
0 high strengths;
0 improved strain to failure;
0 workable;
0 available in many forms.
Pitch-based carbon fiber
0 high to ultra high modulus;
0 low strain to failure;
0 high cost;
0 can be difficult to handle.
Carbon fiber reinforced composites
Carbon/graphite fiber is an attractive material
because it has the best balance of material
characteristics to compete with metals. Carbon
fiber is the end product of a series of manufac-
turing processes that begin with the basic PAIV
precursor that is carbonized and graphitized.
It is then collimated, woven or, chopped to
become tape, cloth, or molding compound
when prepreged with an appropriate matrix
material. Carbon composites offer many
advantages over conventional materials.
Major advantages are:
0 high specific strength and stiffness;
0 can be woven into cloth;
0 dimensional stability at temperature;
0 tight product control;
0 ease of manufacturing;
0 high fatigue resistance;
0 extremely complex structures can be fabri-
cated.
While offering significant advantages, carbon
fiber does present the following problems rel-
ative to conventional materials that must be

considered when designing for specific appli-
cations:
low strain to failure compared to most metals;
relatively low impact resistance;
potential for galvanic corrosion;
potential matrix bonding problems;
low interlaminar shear;
high cost;
chemical resistance.
Non-woven and collimated tape
During lay-up with unidirectional tape, there
are several techniques that will help achieve a
cost effective structure. As soon as unidirec-
tional tape has been selected, start preliminary
planning as to ply orientations and develop
basic patterns for the initial fabrication. The
results of this preplanning will be that wastage
will be minimized and better quality can be
built into the finished part,
Using unidirectional tape on contoured sur-
faces presents a number of lay-up problems.
As the tape is placed on the mold surface, the
orientation can change dramatically during its
application. In order to minimize angle
changes, narrow pieces of unidirectional tape
can be used. Scrap material can be used for
local reinforcements and to fill gaps between
pieces of unidirectional tape. Gay filling pieces
up to 3.2mm (1/8 in) wide are generally
acceptable,
Woven fabric
Joints with woven materials can be more of a
challenge than those with unidirectional tape.
On a highly stressed composite structure, the
selvage edge must be removed to minimize
the discontinuities in the lay-up joints. Joints
in succeeding plies must not be adjacent but
staggered by a minimum of 51 mm ( 2 in).
Hybrid materials
Many combinations of composite materials
have been developed over the past 15 years.
Materials 359
Some are better than others; some have appli-
cation only to specific needs of a particular
structure. Some of these are presented to show
the basic selection process that is required in
the initial design phase and the manufactura-
bility of each product form into a successful
composite structure.
All fibers can be obtained in many different
forms: unidirectional tapes, Unidirectional
tows or yarns, woven cloth, chopped and in
hybrid Combinations. The combinations are
unlimited in hybridizing fibers together. The
following list shows some of the hybrid rela-
tionships and Table 16.2 shows some of the
properties of composite material forms.
Carbon/fiberglass
0 high impact strengths;
0 high modulus;
0 high performance;
0 cost effective.
Spectralcarbon
0 improved bond interface;
0 little improvement in overall properties;
0 low density.
Aramid,@ergIms
0 reduced overall costs;
0 limited applications.
Aramid/graphite
0 limited applications;
0 high costs;
0 highly resistant to cracking;
0 better impact resistance.
16.3.3 EXPENDABLE MATERIALS
Supporting materials can contribute to a pro-
gram’s success as much as the composite
structures. If there are problems with the vac-
uum bag, release film, or sealant tape, the final
product quality can be compromised although
the overall unit cost of most of these materials
is low. Specifications to control support mate-
rials have been slow to develop with the
industry. There have been problems with
expendables such as release coating of porous
360 Hand lay-up and bag molding

Table 16.2 Limits of composite material forms

Material Fiber Tensiltf Compressionc Tensile

form modulus properfies properties modulus
GPa MPa MPa GPa
(mi) (ksi) (ksi) (mi)
Fabric
Graphite 8HS 228 586-724 522489 62-83
(33) (85-105) (80-1 00) (9-12)
Graphite 5HS” 228 758-896 758-827 76
(33) (110-1 30) (110-120) (11)
Graphite 5HSb 537 927-1114 240 188
(75) (132-158) (34) (26.7)
E-glass 8HS 72.4 462483 469-510 22.0-26.2
(10.5) (67-70) (72-74) (3.2-3.8)
Kevlar‘ 49 8HS 130.9 510-579 138-1 79 29.6-33.8
(19.0) (74-84) (20-26) (4.34.9)
Unidirectional tape
Graphite 228 1586-1 792 1517-1 724 124-138
(33) (230-260) (220-250) (18-20)
Graphite” 228 1930-2137 1379-1 723 138-152
(33) (280-310) (200-250) (18-20)
Graphite 345 1069-11 72 896-1034 200-228
(50) (155-1 700) (130-150) (29-33)
Graphiteb 520 1760 420 300
(75) (256) (61) (44)
Graphite 720 1760 330 420
(105) (256) (48) (61)
Graphite 780 1760 330 450
(114) (256) (48) (65)
E-glass 72.4 1034-1171 483-620 41-55
(10.5) (150-170) (70-90) (6-8)
S-2 glass 86.8 1241-1379 552-690 48-62
(12.6) (180-200) (80-100) (7-9)
Kevlar‘ 49 130.9 882 - 64.9
-
(19) (128) (9.4)

a High strength >3447 MPa (>500ksi) PAN based graphite fiber

High strength >3630 GPa (>SO0ksi) pitch based graphite fiber
Composite laminate properties

Teflon fabric where there was insufficient coat-
ing material to provide an effective release,
resulting in a bond between the Teflon fabric
and the composite structure and when using a
perforated release film, the perforations were
torn rather than pin pricked, allowing exces-
sive resin bleed.
Specifications would help limit the incon-
sistency of some of these products. If one
encounters a problem utilizing support mate-
rials, contact the supplier who can provide
technical assistance on its products. During
the lay-up of composite structures, care must
be taken to insure that all areas are covered
with a release or separator film. The bleeder
and/or breather will bond nicely to composite
laminates if there is no separator.
 Tooling 361

16.4 TOOLING for steel, include superior durability, ample tol-

Tooling includes materials, equipment, or erance for elevated temperature service and
forms onto which (or into which) the product good thermal conductivity.
is made, assembled, or cast. Tooling issues are Ceramics have favorable characteristics for
a result of a number of interacting require- molds. They have the lowest coefficient of
ments that are considered when selecting the thermal expansion and their thermal conduc-
most cost effective tooling. These require- tivity approaches that of some hardened tool
ments are as follows: steels. However, ceramics are brittle at ambi-
ent temperatures and they must be protected
ability to achieve a uniform heat up rate, from processing and handling hazards. One
taking into account the mass of the tool; way to get protection is to enclose ceramic
allowing sufficient movement of the lami- inserts in a steel case.
nate while achieving pressure and Dual steel molds are candidate tools for
compaction in all regions; reproducing high quality composites.
accommodating resin flow; However, these tools are costly and produc-
facilitating or allowing for removal of cured tion quantities are often not sufficient to
part; amortize tooling costs at competitive prices for
realistic tolerance for tool and laminate; the production items so less costly alternatives
finishing requirements - coarse finish can are desirable.
create lock-on problems; Aluminum molds are less costly. Although
adequate area for applying sealant tape for thermal conduction is better for aluminum
vacuum bagging and test coupons as than for steel, the tools are less durable and the
required; thermal expansion is large. Shallow or flat
provisions for vacuum fittings and han- mold plates are usually limited to cures below
dling of tool. 177°C (350°F). Other metal tools include
Tooling is less expensive for vacuum bag and sprayed or electroformed molds reinforced
autoclave/oven molding than for matched die with cast backings. Alternate types of tooling
can include composite molds usually based on
molding methods. Molds and molding plates
high temperature resistant cast or laminated
are required to withstand curing conditions
epoxy resins.
without distorting or degrading and to toler-
Master forms for laying-up composite tools
ate handling during the fabrication processes.
can also be fabricated using any of the materi-
They are not necessarily resistant to unbal-
als described; a mock-up model of the item
anced pressures. The higher costs of composite
may be used, or plaster masters can be pre-
tooling can be amortized by taking advantage
pared from models. The quality of the plaster
of the improved capabilities to mold complex
masters depends on the strain compatibility
constructions. Composites that may ordinarily
between the plaster and its reinforcements and
require secondary bonding are often more eco-
on the condition of the hardened surface.
nomically co-cured.
Composite tools can be laid-up using fiber
orientations that most closely match the
expansion of the items to be produced.
16.4.1 MOLD PREPARATIONS
Fiberglass and graphite fibers are the principal
Coefficients of thermal expansion for conven- reinforcements. Woven fiber reinforcements
tional tooling materials and composites are are the most economical to use. Mold mainte-
given in Chapter 25. For metals, the coefficient nance is best relegated to specialized
for steel compares most closely with the coeffi- personnel while preparations for the bag
cients for the composites. Other characteristics molding processes are assigned to production
362 Hand lay-up and bag riiolding
personnel. A successful practice is to provide
production personnel with soft tools and sol-
vents that do not degrade the molding
surfaces. If the production tools and solvents
are inadequate for removing debris and clean-
ing, the molds are taken out of service for
maintenance, repair, or replacement. After
they are returned to service, they are solvent-
wiped clean and mold release agents are
applied.
16.4.2 RELEASE AGENTS
Release agents for bag molding composites
include carnauba paste wax, aerosol dis-
pensed compositions that contain carnauba,
fluorocarbon resins, or silicone resins, plastic
films and metal foils. On most occasions, the
wax or resin mold releases do not contaminate
the composite surfaces excessively nor prevent
subsequent secondary bonding or coating
operations. Prior to bonding, the composite
surfaces are cleaned with solvent and lightly
sanded to remove resin gloss. The user should
be aware of national or regional limitations on
solvent usage due to toxicity or ODS (ozone
depleting substances) concerns. Peel plies can
be used to protect clean surfaces for primary
adhesive bonds. Plastic films, metal foils and
sprayed metal coatings also serve as release
agents when they are integrally laminated to
the co-cured composites.
Both the polished wax surfaces and the
sprayed wax coatings are excellent mold
releases for composites cured below 121°C
(250°F). However, the wax degrades and dis-
colors the composites at higher molding
temperatures. Commercial fluorocarbon mold
releases are used for higher cure temperatures.
FEP (fluoroethylene propylene) mold
releases form a continuous film on mold sur-
faces. Although the condition of the release
film is easy to maintain below 177°C (350"F),
the coating degrades at higher temperatures
above this. Fluorine which is noxious, corro-
sive and highly toxic can be released from the
polymer above 177°C (350°F).
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) is stable and
is often contained in mold releases for service in
excess of 260°C (500°F).The mold releases con-
tain suspensions of micropulverized PTFE in a
volatile dispersant. Depositions on mold sur-
faces do not form continuous films, but the
PTFE particles provide excellent dry lubrication
for the release of the cured composite.
Furthermore, the residual particles on the cured
composite surfaces are easily removed with a
solvent-wipe. Since a variety of commercial
mold releases that contain fluorocarbon (or
equivalent)are on the market, it is essential that
manufacturers' recommendations on uses and
limitations be scrupulously followed.
Silicone oils and greases are to be avoided
since they are the most persistent contami-
nants of molded composite surfaces. They
release secondary bonds and coatings from
composite surfaces as effectively as they
release the cured composites from the molds.
Silicone oils and greases migrate and defeat
most removal attempts. They contaminate the
solvent wetted cloths and sand papers so that
instead of removing the silicones, they spread
them. Contaminated surfaces may be salvaged
for painting by sandblasting with virgin grit.
Table 16.3 summarizes the precautions nec-
essary for successful hand lay-up and vacuum
bagging operations
16.4.3 MOLD DESIGN
hlold design is a function of cost and projected
life and/or use. A production mold should be
made carefully from the best materials. Such a
mold will be designed by an experienced
designer who will incorporate the necessary
thicknesses, materials, structural reinforcement
and hardware required for the intended use.
16.4.4 PATTERNS (PLUGS)
A pattern (plug) is a temporary form in the
exact shape, contour and finish of that to be
molded. (If the outer shape of the items
desired the inside contour is used.) Patterns

Table 16.3 Hand lay-up and vacuum bagging precautions
Mold release application
Selection of correct mold release
‘Seasoning’ new tool to insure coverage a
minimum of three coast
Compatibility of resin system and mold release
Repeated applications can cause excessive
buildup
Sealant tape
Ease of use, release from backing
Double or single strip application
Removal after cure
Cheapest when suitable
Flash breaker tape
Check compatibility
Useful for holding prepreg during lay-up and
heat debulks
Separator film
Compatability and will release as intended
Quality control on perforations
Drapability for complex shapes
Elongation (%) (high elongation)
Bleeder
Not all bleeders the same, select for application
Ensure no compaction during cure
Potential seal off during cure
Excessive bleed can saturate bleeder
are made of many materials: wood, plaster,
plaster/metal and other combinations. Almost
any material can be considered as a pattern
material if it holds its shape.
It is assumed that when only one large com-
posite structure is required, such as a 23 m
(75ft) America’s cup yacht hull, the cost of
making a pattern and a mold in order to make
the hull may not be justified. However, the
construction of a pattern that becomes a male
plug can be cost effective for high performance
composite structures. To avoid excessive cost
with this tooling approach, one must remem-
ber that it is the total cost of the end product
not just the cost of the pattern (plug) that must
be considered. A limited use plug for a large
marine hull 14-23 m (45-75 ft) in length would
be made as follows: a simple wood frame to
Tooling 363
Breather
Able to malntain vacuum path
Care not to puncture nylon film
Bagging film
Higher the percent elongation the more
forgiving
Pliability
Defect free
Select for temperature performance
Thermocouples
Through bag/sealant tape, potential vacuum
leaks
Placed on outside of bag - reliability
Vacuum fittings
Caution not to allow resin to fill
0 Source for potential leaks
Removal from bagging film before disposal
0 Integral with tooling
Vacuum lines
Ensure fittings do not leak
Hose has not been crushed
0 Not pinched off
Not filled with resin
the inside contour of the hull is constructed
from stanchions and stringers and covered
with strips of wood, with a laminate of 2 45”,
90” layers. The tooling plug is finished and
covered with mold release.
16.4.5 INTEGRATING INSPECTION AND
MACHINING
A machine tool is for machining. If it isn’t mak-
ing chips, it’s wasting time, so keep non-cutting
time to an absolute minimum. That’s the stan-
dard philosophy most shops try to live by. In
fact, many shops are investing in pallet shuttles,
quick-change fixtures, tooling systems, rapid
transverse fixtures, programming and schedul-
ing systems to keep spindles turning and
cutting tools w o r h g at optimum capacity.
364 Hand lay-up and bag molding

Inspecting the workpieces right on the five- parts. If the workpiece will not fit into the hard
axis mills, has the equipment functioning as gauge, it has out-of-tolerance features and will
both machine tool and coordinate measuring not fit mating parts. The workpiece is rejected.
machine, so that the production of parts and A soft gauge can be used to make similar
producing inspection data become equally either-it-fits-or-it-doesn’t comparisons. Instead
important. Such a radically different plan of placing two physical objects together, two
means that design, numerical control (NC) CAD models are laid one over the other on the
programming, machining and inspection can- graphics screen. The software version of the
not be separate functions.Just as each machine checking fixture is the soft gauge. The soft-
tool would have to serve more than one role, ware version of the workpiece to be inspected
one computerized database would have to is a geometric model constructed from inspec-
share the same information with designers, tion data. Out-of-tolerance conditions will be
programmers, operators and inspectors. This just as conspicuous in this comparison, but
combination allows a shop to machine, inspect analysis is far more complete and much faster.
and analyze any surface without removing the Moreover, a soft gauge is created directly from
work piece from the five-axis machine. This the original design data. Because it is created
system helps produce higher quality tooling on a computer screen instead of in a tool room,
with significant gains in productivity. a soft gauge can be constructed quickly and
A large machine bed will accommodate modified easily. It spares the high cost of
unusually long workpieces and also leave building and validating a hard gauge.
room for smaller workpieces to be clamped on
one end while another workpiece is being
Closed-loop machining
machined at the other end (see Fig. 16.2).
Closed-loop machining begins with electronic
data representing part geometry from the cus-
Soft gauge
tomer. This data describes the outer surface of
A soft gauge can be compared and contrasted the customer’s end product. The CAD system
with a ’hard’ gauge such as a conventional then creates a 3D model of its surface. Once
checking fixture used for inspection and qual- this surface has been established, all manufac-
ity control. If a workpiece drops into the hard turing operations will be derived from and
gauge, it is acceptable and will fit with mating related to it. NC tool paths will be generated

Fig. 16.2 Closed-loop machining - mounting vari- Fig. 16.3 Closed-loop machining - touch probe
ous tools. (Courtesy of Coast Composites, Inc.) inspection tool. (Courtesy of Coast Composites, Inc.)

from it. Using dynamic display of the tool
path, programmers can visually verify the NC
program, check clearances and make sure
gouges are avoided.
The inspection path will be generated from
the same surface geometry. By referencing the
soft gauge, the inspection path will be sure to
include checks of all critical features. The path
of the probe can be visually verified in the
same way as the NC program.
After executing the NC program, the work-
piece can be inspected immediately using the
touch probe in the spindle (see Fig. 16.3). This
inspection can be considered in-process,
because the workpiece is still fixed on the
machine tool and can be remachined without
being moved or refixtured. This approach is
called closed-loop machining.
Results of this inspection routine are auto-
matically used to create a 3D model of the
features checked. By comparing this model to
the soft gauge, any out-of-tolerance conditions
can be identified. It will also show where addi-
tional machining passes will be required.
Final inspection can performed on the
machine tool. These results are compared to
the soft gauge again to verify that the con-
toured surface of the graphite tooling will
produce the intended part. Using this machin-
ing approach for inspection on the machine
tool reduces inspection time by 80%. The
biggest savings come from eliminating work-
piece moves and additional setups and from
streamlined programming of the inspection
routines. By integrating inspection and
machining, overall manufacturing cycle time
can be reduced by 30%.
16.4.6 THERMAL EXPANSION MOLDING
Thermal expansion molding techniques are
utilized for special applications of small com-
plex composite structures and composite
tubing with critical outside surfaces. Figures
16.4(a)and (b) illustrate the methods allowing
the expansion of the silicone rubber to provide
the required pressure for the compacting of
Tooling 365
the composite materials. For complex shapes
with integral stiffeners, each block of silicone
rubber is wrapped on all but one side, the side
in which the tooling rubber is removed (see
Figs 16.4(c) and (d)). In tooling a thermal
expansion molding, it is best to avoid using
rubber on both sides of a laminate as illus-
trated in Fig. 16.4(e)unless straight edges are
not critical. Vacuum bag assist (see Fig. 16.4(f))
provides an alternate method.
The linear thermal coefficient of most sili-
cone rubbers that have been measured fall into
the range of 1-2.1 x This range is consis-
tent over a 23-246°C (75480°F) temperature
range. The rubbers are said to have a linear
expansion of approximately 17 times that of
carbon steel which is why they are used to
mold composites by thermal expansion mold-
ing techniques. Precautions in mixing some
silicone rubber compounds are required if full
potential is to be achieved. During prolonged
storage, the catalyst tends to separate and set-
tle to the bottom of the container. Mixing the
catalyst prior to adding it to the base rubber
will allow correct mixtures and long tool life.
(a) Compression molding
(b) Oven cure critical outer surfaces
Fig. 16.4 Thermal expansion molding. (Continued
on next page.)
366 Hand lay-up and bag molding
(c) Enclosed molding
3 50-75 composite parts before having to be
~~~~
(d)Negative draft molding
r - - - - 1
I 1
(e) Oven/press cure
(f) Vacuum bag assist
Silicone rubber
Steel molds
IICompositelaminate
Fig. 16.4 Continued.
Incorrect mixtures will be light or dark in color
and materials such as Silastic J@ will start to
crumble within a few thermal cycles.
The use of thermal expansion rubber can be
hazardous if not planned well. The tooling
rubber can exert up to 6.9 MPa (1OOOpsi)
during its first few thermal cycles. The tool-
ing rubber requires the minimum of five full
cure heat cycles free standing after the initial
cure in order to stabilize the expansion charac-
teristics. The tooling is capable of producing
replaced.
One other problem with thermal expansion
rubber is with its removal from the composite
structure. Sharp pointed objects will have a
very lasting effect on tool life; once the rubber
is damaged, it will continue to tear, needing
replacement much sooner than usually
required. Silicone rubber is very slow to cool
down and extra time must be allowed because
the rubber is impossible to remove from the
composite part until it has shrunk back to its
original size. Putting the thermal expansion
rubber tooling into a freezer can accelerate the
manufacturing cycle. However, since some of
the tools are heavy, due to steel outer encase-
ments, a 12-15 h cooling down period should
be planned into the manufacturing cycle.
Experimentation is suggested with this mold-
ing method since extreme pressures can be
generated and undesirable results may occur
if the molding method is picked arbitrarily.
16.5 BAG MOLDING PROCESS
Molding methods include vacuum bag, pres-
sure bag, oven and autoclave molding. Bags,
the thin and flexible membranes or silicone
rubber shapes, separate the laid-up construc-
tions from atmospheric pressure during
composite cures. The bagged lay-ups in auto-
claves are usually vented to pressures lower
than those applied to the bag. Consolidations
and densifications of the lay-ups are achieved
by the resulting pressure differentials across
the bag contents. Consolidations are achieved

when the separate plies of prepreg in the lay-
ups and other adherents are bonded together.
Densifications result in reduction of voids and
removal of excess resin. Other results desired
of bag molding methods during cure include
prevention of blistering in the composites,
increased controls of pressure and heat appli-
cation and control of the fiber/resin ratio.
Consolidations and densifications of vac-
uum bag moldings can be achieved by
atmospheric pressure alone as the bagged lay-
ups are evacuated throughout the cure cycles.
The pressure-bagged and autoclaved-cured
composites are pressurized by hot gases. Vents
to the atmosphere or vacuum provide for the
escape of the volatilized reaction by-products
and the entrapped air from the curing com-
posites. If the pressures within the bag are not
reduced from those applied to the bag, the
membrane remains inert and there is no com-
paction. Of the three methods, vacuum bag
molding is least limited as to the size of con-
structions that can be processed. On a few
occasions, 'wet' lay-up vacuum bag molded
composites are room-temperature cured. Most
are thermally cured to produce improved
properties. Thermal cures are best attained in
air circulating ovens/autoclaves, but can also
be achieved in infrared heated and passive
type convection ovens.
Pressure bag molding methods are efficient
for producing both deeply contoured struc-
tures and shallow composites. Sonar domes,
radomes and antenna housings are examples
of deeply contoured composites.Architectural
panels, door panels and aircraft fairings are
examples of shallow composites. Heavy
molds are built to reproduce deeply con-
toured structures. Each specialized mold is
constructed to withstand the elevated temper-
atures and increased pressures required for
the cures.
Shallow items may often be bag molded in
modified compression presses. The lower
press platens contain vents and vacuum lines.
The upper press platens are made hollow to
enclose the mold plates together with the laid
Bag molding process 367
up assemblies. When the presses are closed,
the sealed chambers are pressurized and
heated to attain molding conditions similar to
those of an autoclave. Unlike the specialized
pressure bag molds, the modified presses are
used to cure many different composite con-
structions.
Autoclave and pressure bag molding condi-
tions to 177°C (350°F) and 1379 kPa (200 psi)
are routinely attained. Newer, customized
autoclaves attain cure conditions that exceed
260°C (500°F) and 3447 kPa (500 psi). Fire haz-
ards are greatly increased at elevated
temperatures and pressures. Pressure vessel
fires are minimized by uses of fire retardant
processing materials and inert pressurizing
gas. Fire prevention measures include uses of
silicone rubber, nylon or Tedlar bags. Before
cure cycles are initiated, the pressure vessels
are purged of all enclosed air. After the ther-
mal cure is completed, the pressure vessels
and their contents are cooled to 68°C (150'F)
before the pressure is relieved and the auto-
clave is opened.
16.5.1 EXPENDABLE VACUUM BAGGING
TECHNIQUES
Bleed-out systems are devised to maintain
reduced pressures within the bags' contents.
The bagged lay-up includes the bleed out sys-
tem designed for the composite part. Bagged
lay-ups can be bled in two ways: vertically or
edge bled. The classical differences between
the two can be seen by comparing Figs 16.5
and 16.6. Many of today's resin systems are
mostly 'net resin' and do not require any resin
bleed during cure. This allows for better con-
trol of the resin content of the composite
structures. If a resin bleed sequence is pre-
ferred, the following sequence can be used as
a guide.
0 The surface of the mold is prepared with
the release agent.
0 The composite plies are applied and rubbed
out to remove entrapped air.
368 Hand lay-up and bag molding

ATMOSPHERIC
OR VACUUM
VENT

Fig. 16.5 Vacuum bag edge bleeder - schematic.

CAUL PLATF

RAG

NOTE HEAVY PROTECTION AGAINST BAG PERFORATIONS DUE TO INCREASED

AUTOCLAVE PRESSURES

Fig. 16.6 Vacuum bag vertical bleeder - schematic.


A perforated release film is applied over the
composite laminate and extended approxi-
mately 3.2 mm (1.25 in) beyond all edges.
A predetermined number of bleeder plies
are applied over the release film and
extended to the perimeter of the lay-up.
A perforated release film is applied over the
bleeders and extended 3.2 cm (1.25 in) from
edge.
One or two layers of a non-woven breather
is placed over the lay-up and extended over
the release film.
Sealant tape is applied around the perime-
ter of the bleeder.
The vacuum bag is positioned and sealed.
The contents are evacuated and smoothed
and the bag is checked and sealed against
leaks.
The bagged lay-up is ready to be cured.
In any bagging sequence, the types of release
film, bleeder, breather and bagging materials
used vary from company to company and from
supplier to supplier. Each supplier has typical
data sheets on expendable materials to acheve
the most efficient use of the materials.
f SEALANT TAPE
VACUUM BAG
Fig. 16.7 Vacuum bag bridging (Morena, J., Advanced Composite Moldmaking; New York, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1988).
Bag molding process 369
In a typical vacuum bag lay-up, there are
several methods available; some use double
sealant tape side/side, some single and some
one on top of the other. The best system is the
one that works. The side/side method is used
to provide some insurance during cure that
the bag will not shrink, pulling an edge off,
causing loss of vacuum. The over/under
method is used to provide ease of placement
of ears to allow some movement of the vac-
uum bag. No matter which method is chosen,
it is important to remember that vacuum bags
tend to pull down more than expected and
can puncture, if bagging is over a sharp
object. During the application of a vacuum
bag, 'ears' are required to facilitate the uni-
form application of vacuum to the composite
laminate.
Vacuum bag bridging is one of the leading
causes of resin rich and excessive voids in cor-
ners of composite laminates. Figure 16.7
illustrates this common problem. One method
of eliminating bridging of the vacuum bag is
presented in Fig. 16.8by means of 'ears' in the
bag. Another method to help reduce resin rich
LAMINATE BEING FORMED
370 Hand lay-up and bag molding

fSEAMNT TAPE

VACUUM BAG
4- INCH HIGH PLEAT OR FOLD

LAMINATE BEING FORMED

Fig. 16.8 Elimination of vacuum bag bridging (Morena,J., Advanced Composite Moldmaking; New York, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1988).

Fig. 16.9 Large vacuum bagged structures. (Courtesy of Richmond Aircraft Products.)
 Bag molding process 371

and excessive voids in corners is the place- 16.5.2 REUSABLE VACUUM BAGGING
ment of an intensifier over the area, usually TECHNIQUES
placed between the separator film and There are material and recurring labor cost
breather. The intensifier can be molded rubber disadvantages to the use of expendable vac-
in the radius desired or some sealant tape to uum bags of plastic films for fabricating
fill the corner. 'Ears' may be required in sev- production composites. Expendable bags, laid
eral sections of a complex part. Experience will up of plastic films and associated sealants, also
determine the height of the ear for a specific incur recurring costs. Expendable bags can be
application; 10 cm (4 in) is a good starting laid up only once because of degradation dur-
point. Some will be smaller and some will be ing handling and the thermal cures.
larger depending upon the complexity of the Use of silicone rubber reusable bags can
component being vacuum bagged. reduce fabrication costs and defective com-
There is essentially no limitation on the size posite parts because of resulting work
of thermoset composite structures. The use of simplification and more positive control of the
the thermoset vacuum-bagged composites bag molding cure conditions. Figure 16.11
(autoclave, oven or integrally heated) will con- illustrates an example of a component being
tinue to provide excellent composite manufactured utilizing a reusable silicone
structures for many years to come. Figures
16.9 and 16.10 illustrate some more complex
uses for expendable vacuum bags.

I I
Fig. 16.11 Disposable vacuum bagging (top);
Fig. 16.10 Complex vacuum bagging. (Courtesy of reusable vacuum bagging (bottom). (Courtesy of
Richmond Aircraft Products.) The Darner Corporation.)
372 Hand lay-up and bag molding

vacuum bag and an expendable vacuum bag. are combined when the product is made. The
There are often difficulties in having the facili- composite designer must consider how the
ties to handle large reusable vacuum bags load bearing fibers are placed and ensure that
weighing several hundred pounds. A cost eval- they stay in the proper position during the fab-
uation must include all aspects of the program. rication.
There are some very large aircraft components
utilizing expendable vacuum bag materials
16.6.1 DESIGN PROCESS
very successfully. The more complex the com-
posite structure becomes, the more effective With some large composite structures, poten-
the reusable vacuum bagging system is. tial problem areas can best be identified using
scale models. Working problem areas on an
individual basis, a major factor in the success
16.6 DESIGN
of a program is the amount of planning that
The fundamental information needed for any can take advantage of the work force experi-
design includes the stresses applied under ence. Successful composite structures are not
storage and use and the strength of the mater- fabricated by one person; they require team
ial used. Assume that the size, shape, quantity work from all disciplines. It is considerably
and rate of production have dictated the use of harder to make a smaller composite structure,
open mold techniques. Then the final thick- than make the full scale article. Procedures
ness, orientation and quantity of reinforcing developed for the scaled article can, however,
fibers are dependent upon the stresses that be easily translated into a full scale structure.
must be resisted, how often and for how long.
It is essential that the designer find out
16.6.2 FIRST ARTICLE FABRICATION
what strength can be built into the laminate.
This sets composite structures apart from The first article, also known as tool proof arti-
other types of materials, since the material is cle, can be used to provide information not
made during fabrication of the product; the only on the tool to manufacture to the correct
percentages and orientation of the reinforce- tolerances but also to produce an acceptable
ment and the types of resins determine the composite structure meeting the design
properties of the final laminate. requirements. In addition, it can be utilized as
During the initial phase of the development a proof of the documentation of quality con-
of a composite structure, there is a need for trol inspection requirements, manufacturing
design, manufacturing engineering, tooling, procedure's verification and allow design
materials and quality control to provide inputs engineering to review overall requirements.
so that the selection processes can be estab-
lished. By coordinating early in a program,
16.6.3 DESIGN DETAILS
one can focus on the real problems of design
and manufacturing. The preplanning phase
Parts with severe contour and thickness
will allow for a program to develop at a more
variations
rapid pace. Confirming materials, manufac-
turing methods, tooling concepts and design It may seem easy to incorporate variations in
requirements early can avoid the extra time contour and thickness into the design of a new
and expense to attempt to make the composite product but in open mold products such vari-
fabrication process successful. ations must be made with caution. The
The design of composite structures, while molding operation requires laying the mater-
essentially similar to conventional design, ial on the mold to follow mold contour. If the
does have the added dimension that materials angles are sharp (90' without radius), the lay-up

will not follow the mold surface and will
develop voids and resin rich areas in the lami-
nate in the vicinity of the angle. For instance,
in inside right angle corners without radius,
(Fig. 16.12(a))the laminate will not pack into
the corner. When there are sharp outside cor-
ners, the laminate (Fig. 16.12(b))will not wrap
tightly over the corner. The solution to such
problems is to design with a generous radius,
preferably 4.75-12.75 mm (0.187-0.500 in)
inside and out. The laminate will then follow
the contour. Abrupt changes in direction are
high stress areas and tend to delaminate and
crack. They should be avoided and moderate
self reinforcing curvatures used.
L I
Fig. 16.12 Corner lay-up techniques (a) radius cor-
ner; (b) no radius corner.
Design 373
Changes in thickness
To change thickness in open mold construc-
tion is to add or remove plies of material. An
abrupt change means that the plies must be
carefully laid up in a precise pattern. An
abrupt change in thickness (Fig. 16.13(a))
results in a stress concentration and should be
avoided as delamination is sure to occur at
such a point. The solution to this problem is
not to have abrupt changes but to gradually
change by stepping back or 'shingling' the lay-
up (Fig. 16.13(b)).
Openings
The best opening is a round hole; the worst, an
opening with sharp, non-rounded corners.
The solution to stresses in an opening is to use
large radii in the corners, to build up thickness
gradually at the sharp corners, or to design a
molded in flange around the opening (Fig.
16.13(c)).
Fig. 16.13 Changes in ply lay-up (a) abrupt
changes; (b) stepped piles; (c) hole reinforcement.
374 Hand lay-up and bag molding

Joints and bonding However, these structures are not generally

highly stressed structures.
Although common practice is to use joints
Large amounts of waste can be expensive
intended for other methods of fastening, struc-
for any program. As a rule, in programs where
tural adhesives require joints of a special
is little or no preplanning, the waste factor can
design. It cannot be stressed too strongly that
be 20-35%. This may be acceptable for low
the practice of using ordinary joints that have
cost materials such as fiberglass but for carbon
been slightly altered can lead to disastrous
prepreg materials costing over US$59OO/kg
results. The type of joint used depends on the
for 827 GPa (120 msi) pitch fiber, the cost for
basic characteristics of the adhesive since
the waste can break an otherwise successful
structural bonds act over an entire area and
composite program. A well-planned approach
not at a single point as rivet fasteners do. A
to the cutting, kitting, lay-up and inspection
joint should therefore be designed to minimize
requirements can reduce the waste factor to
concentrations of stress. There are four basic
10-15%. Large structures tend to have less
types of stress encountered in structural bond-
waste than small components. The carbon
ing: tensile, shear, cleavage and peel.
epoxy central cylinder for a modern commu-
nication satellite has less than 3% material
16.6.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS waste, the majority being for localized rein-
forcements. The America's Cup racing yacht
The initial lay-up starts with the preparation
was fabricated with less than 2% material
of the prepreg ply kits. Individual ply kits will
waste.
reduce the overall labor requirements during -
the ensuing lay-up. Hybridization of materials
can be achieved on a ply-by-ply
- . . - .
basis. Off axis 16.6.5 GENERAL DESIGN PRACTICE
(* 45") ply orientations can be prepared utiliz-
e Attention to ply orientation on strength
ing a woven graphite cloth. Interleaf layers of
controlled laminates can prevent matrix
titanium or fiberglass can distribute high load
and stiffness degradation. The 0" ply orien-
inputs into the laminate.
tation is used to carry the longitudinal
With large composite structures, i.e. racing
loading, the 90" ply orientation the trans-
yachts, the prepreg materials are usually dis-
pensed directly onto the lay-up. One must
*
verse loading and the 45" ply for shear
loading.
allow for 'fresh' prepreg, with maximum tack,
e In order to minimize in-plane shear, place
to be applied to the laminate with minimum
the +45" and -45" plies together; the in-
out time of the material during the fabrication
plane shear is carried by the tension and
phase.
compression in the 45" plies.
One of the first reactions to using hand lay-
To minimize warpage and interlaminar
up fabrication methods for a composite
shear within a laminate, maintain the sym-
structure is: "this will be too labor intensive".
metry about the center line of the laminate.
This can be misconstrued to mean that all
Stress concentrations can be minimized by
composite structures done by the hand lay-up
designing tapered or stepped laminate
are expensive. Complex, integral, stiffened
thickness changes.
composite structures may not only be cost
The placement of specific ply orientations
effective but may not be able to be fabricated
can influence the buckling strength and
by other methods of manufacture.
damage tolerance. The outer ply orienta-
Compression molding, resin transfer mold-
tions influence the laminate bending
ing and sheet molding processes are cost
characteristics more than plies placed at the
effective for specific types of material forms.
neutral axis.

16.7 APPLICATIONS
16.7.1 AEROSPACE
Two aerospace examples that were manufac-
tured utilizing the hand lay-up and vacuum
bagging process were an ICBM equipment
section structure (300 parts) and a central
cylinder (6 parts) for a modern communica-
tion satellite. These two primary composite
structures illustrate that hand lay-up and vac-
uum bag procedures can be effectively utilized
on limited production programs. For greater
production demand or with a less complex
structure other methods (machine lay-up or
filament winding) could have been used.
However, neither alternative process could
achieve the results required with materials
selected.
ICBM equipment structure
The ICBM equipment structure was initially
designed to utilize unidirectional
graphite/epoxy materials because unidirec-
tional materials were available during the
design phase. The development of woven
graphite was undertaken in order to reduce
the manufacturing costs of the program. Initial
prototypes (unidirectional tape) required over
2000 man-hours labor to complete. The first
prototype utilizing woven graphite required
only 900 man-hours, better than 50% reduc-
tion in manufacturing costs. Eventually
production labor requirements were reduced
to less than 200 man-hours.
Satellite central cylinder
The graphite/epoxy central cylinder was a
unique structure from its inception. The pro-
ject was undertaken not just because
composites would be lighter but that the
metallic (beryllium) design required a longer
manufacturing time that was unacceptable.
The materials of choice were a 520 GPa
(75 msi) pitch graphite fiber, epoxy resin and
aluminum honeycomb. During the initial
Applications 375
manufacturing/design reviews, the decision
to fabricate the central cylinder as a one piece
monococque structure was made. One quarter
scale models were made as initial feasibility
trials and the finished cylinder was 108 cm
(42 in) in diameter and 231 cm (91 in) high.
With that initial success, a full size manufac-
turing development cylinder required 1700
man-hours to fabricate. By production unit
five, the fabrication time was reduced to 500
man-hours per cylinder. The final design
incorporated compression molded graphite
inserts for hard mounts and was co-cured as a
one piece structure.
The program set new standards of coopera-
tion between engineering analysis/design,
manufacturing and quality control groups. A
manufacturing plan including all required
inspection points and a detailed fabrication
sequence was prepared. The major problem
during the fabrication was the out time avail-
able with the graphite epoxy resin system.
With only 10 working days available, the kit
preparation, lay-up, compacting cycles and
final cure was on a tight time schedule.
This program used various operational pro-
cedures to achieve success. Tank inserts were
compression molded from chopped
carbon/epoxy material prior to the start of the
laminate schedule on the cylinder. It was
determined early in the development cycle
that the unidirectional tape material handled
better if it was not precut into kits, but pre-
pared just prior to application to the tool. A
combination of heat debulks and pre-bleeding
was utilized to maintain the desired resin con-
tent, until the supplier could prepare an
acceptable net resin unidirectional tape. With
limited facilities to autoclave a large cylinder
with in-house capability, other methods of
manufacture were employed. After the com-
pleted hand lay-up was done, a vacuum
debulk was applied to ensure all air was
removed and the lay-up was compacted. The
cylinder was then wrapped with perforated
shrink tape (to allow for resin/air bleed dur-
ing cure), then breather cloth was applied
376 Hand lay-up and bag molding

prior to final nylon vacuum bag. Studies were Challenge. A typical America’s Cup yacht uti-
conducted on utilizing a silicone rubber vac- lized over 13 006 m2 (140 000 ft’) of ply surface
uum bag, but overall program costs and area of unidirectional graphite tape in the hull
difficulties in handling a large (heavy) bag, and deck structure and 9290 m’ (100 000 ftz)of
pushed the utilization of nylon bagging film ply surface area for a one piece graphite mast
for the final vacuum bag. The part was then structure.
oven cured. Due to the overall size and past experience
with the boat builder, a male wood plug was
fabricated with integral heated wires imbed-
16.7.2 MARINE APPLICATIONS
ded to reduce the heat sink effect during the
The fabrication of an America’s Cup racing final co-cure of a complete hull laminate. As
yacht (Fig. 16.14) presented another set of the maximum temperature allowed was 90°C
requirements. With limited cure temperature, (183”F),wood was a good choice.
resin matrix and control density requirements, The hull laminate was then applied, start-
the challenge was to be able to hand lay-up ing with the inner skin (as on an America’s
and cure a large composite structure to meet Cup racing yacht) then film adhesive and hon-
design requirements. Marine applications had eycomb core was applied. The inner laminate
reached new heights when the new rules went and honeycomb was vacuum bagged and par-
into effect for the 1992 America’s Cup tially cured. The honeycomb core was
smoothed and all joints were filled prior to the
application of the outer skin laminate. The
outer laminate and any local reinforcements
were applied to the core and inner laminate
(Fig. 16.15). The completed hull laminate was
then vacuum bagged and oven cured.
The outside of the hull was essentially com-
plete but had a rough surface. The roughness
was greatly dependent upon the care of work-
ers during the lay-up of the outer laminate
skin. With reasonable precautions, prepreg
material can be placed in such a way that there
are no overlaps and all gaps have been filled
with additional fiber. This effort alone can save
hundreds of man-hours during the final fin-
ishing.
This effort saved over 1200 man-hours com-
pared with a ’wet’ prepreg that did not
produce an acceptable outer surface finish.
The oven cure achieved maximum mechanical
properties required by the design. Laminate

Fig. 16.14 ’Spirit of Australia’. consisted of filling and grinding the surface in

1-
.k&
- ---- -
I
I *
I
t pole and rudder stock utilized variations of
Fig. 16.15 'Spirit of Australia' laminate laydown
(top) 45" ply laminate; (bottom) 0" ply laminate.
two or three stages and culminating with a
final coat of good grade epoxy or urethane
marine paint. This step is often postponed
until the boat is completely assembled and
ready for fitting out. Then, the hull was
inverted and placed in a fitted saddle; the male
plug was removed. Additions of bulkheads,
flooring and interior completed the work.
The manufacture of the carbon/epoxy mast
for the 'Spirit of Australia' presented some
unique challenges. The major program chal-
lenge was how to obtain a mast that would
provide the required performance at affordable
Applications 377
cost. A discussion with design/analysis and
manufacturing concluded that it was possible
to fabricate a one piece mast within the facili-
ties available and technical expertise within
the syndicate. The design of the tooling was
aimed at providing a capability to cure the car-
bon/epoxy resin within the America's Cup
rules. The requirements specified the cure
temperature 120°C (250"F), cure pressure (3
atmospheres), laminate density /modulus of
graphite fiber and overall mast profile. All
these objectives were realized within 100 days,
from start to completion of the first one piece,
35 m (115 ft) in length, America's Cup com-
posite mast. Performance exceeded all
expectations.
Additional masts starting with mast num-
ber 3 were manufactured with the final weight
objective of less than 450 kg (990 lb). Total fab-
rication time for each mast, from the start of
material kit preparation to completion of the
cure, required a maximum of 21 days. The
selected carbon/epoxy resin system was
workable for this limit. The mast, spinnaker
pressure bag molding with integrally heated
fiberglass tooling.
These two tooling approaches allowed for
some of the largest one-piece structures to date
to be fabricated in the commercial marine mar-
ket. Logistics can become a major role player
in the planning required in that not only the
support materials are on hand but that power
is available; materials handling is taken into
account and there is sufficient crew available
to complete the lay-up within the material out
time limits.
As seen in the above examples, the one
major factor for all the programs was the
material out time. With the development of
new resin matrixes, the design of complex
structures can be achieved.