REPAIR ASPECTS OF COMPOSITE AND 39

ADHESIVELY BONDED AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Anton L. Seidl

39.1 INTRODUCTION the composites industry, is an unfamiliar lan-

guage to the uninitiated. Inspectors are often
39.1.1 MANUFACTURABILITY AND at a loss when attempting to describe a condi-
MAINTAINABILITY OF COMPOSITE AIRCRAFT tion they perceive as a defect; the words
STRUCTURE simply do not exist in their standard lexicon. It
To the manufacturer, weight reductions, struc- is intuitively clear to even the casual observer
tural requirements, manufacturability and that repairs using mechanically fastened con-
production costs have long been obvious pri- ventional materials can be effected quickly,
orities. Only recently, however, and only as a under almost any atmospheric conditions, and
consequence of persistent user demands, have with minimal investments in tooling, raw
maintainability and repairability been added materials, and training. In contrast, repairing
to this list. From the operator’s perspective, even relatively minor damage on composite
nevertheless, composite structures continue to structure requires an array
of non-conven-
tional materials, highly skilled and
be a mixed blessing. Clearly, and despite state-
ments being heard to the contrary, the experienced technicians, special tooling and
equipment, access to production drawings (to
industry would be loath to give up the many
locate and interpret the many hidden features
obvious advantages gained through the use of
characteristic of composite structures), a con-
composites and revert to all-metal airplanes.
trolled environment in terms of temperature
However, the maintenance problems associ-
and humidity, time-consuming preparatory
ated with composites cannot be
work, cold storage of shelf-life limited and
underestimated and may well be regarded as
occasionally hazardous materials, lengthy
the weak link in the new technology chain.
resin cure cycles, post-repair NDT, and legally
mandated record-keeping and follow-up
39.1.2 METAL REPAIRS COMPARED WITH activities.
COMPOSITE REPAIRS
Compared to the relative simplicity of conven- 39.1.3 COMPOSITE REPAIRS: AN AIRLINE
tional metallic structures, composites are PERSPECTIVE
replete with complexities that continue to baf-
The aim and purpose of this presentation is to
fle and confuse maintenance workers trained
highlight the principal aspects of composite
only in the traditional, i.e. metalworking,
structure repairs from an airline perspective.
skills. The glossary of terms alone, as used by
An attempt will be made to:
1. describe some of the more common defects
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published and conditions encountered in service;
in 1998by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7
858 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraff structures

2. give a brief summary of common mainte- subsequent repairs more difficult to perform.
nance practices; When surface defects are detected, it is imper-
3. describe a limited number of typical repairs. ative to determine the extent of the damage
that may already have occurred and if possi-
ble, evacuate and decontaminate the panel. As
39.2 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
a first line of defense against any further struc-
tural deterioration, foil tape should be applied
39.2.1 IMPACT DAMAGE - NON-METALLIC
at the earliest opportunity2.
STRUCTURE Severe degradation is generally quite obvi-
ous, having resulted in visible disbonds and
Foreign object impact without skin delaminations. If the damage is due to a recent
penetration event, and the process of deterioration has
Prior to any repair action, it is important to only begun, the amount of ingested fluid may
determine the extent of the damage sustained still be relatively small and if the precise loca-
by the structure. One must always assume that tion of the contaminant can be determined,
the actual damage is more extensive than the complete evacuation and purging may be suc-
visible damage'. This is especially true for car- cessfully accomplished.
bon fiber-reinforced composites with
non-toughened 177°C (350°F) cured matrix Limitations of moisture detectors3
resins. After a foreign object impact, there is
generally, but not invariably, some visual indi- Commercial moisture detectors are extremely
cation in the form of damaged paint. However, useful devices requiring no special training.
because of the elasticity of high modulus Where appropriate, they may be used to deter-
fibers, the laminate often 'springs back', leav- mine how far any ingested water has spread
ing residual subsurface damage in the form of into the core cells adjacent to the point of
broken fibers, ply separations and in the case impact. Moisture detectors, however, are effec-
of sandwich panels, crushed core and dis- tive only on non-metallic (typically glass or
bonded face sheets. Tap testing is generally aramid-reinforced structures); they cannot be
sufficient to delineate the extent of the damage used on panels containing carbon fibers, or in
and should be conducted before removing any zones reinforced with metals. Nor are mois-
damaged materials. Defects may also propa- ture detectors effective through surfaces
gate during the removal process, often as the coated with carbon-filled conductive paints,
result of stress relief. on panels having metallic coatings, metal-
coated fibers, or similar lightning protective
and EM1 shielding features.
Skin penetrations: holes, cracks, tears,
gouges, cuts and abrasions
E@cacy of radiography
On the 'wetted' outer surface of the aircraft,
even minor penetrations of the face sheet must Radiography (X-ray) is presently the only
be regarded as serious because once an open- available practical technique for determining
ing exists, the part has been rendered moisture contamination in panels containing
permeable to atmospheric moisture and air- electrically conductive elements. Given the
craft system fluids. Ingested water can and limitations of moisture detectors and the lim-
will degrade the affected part, leading to pre- ited availability of X-ray equipment in the
mature failure. Fluids such as hydraulic oil, field, water detection by X-ray and subsequent
when allowed to enter, contaminate both lam- evacuation are generally carried out only dur-
inates and honeycomb core materials, making ing depot level maintenance opportunities.
 Damage assessment 859

Interim repair actions - ‘speed tape’ repairs Effects of skin penetration: corrosion, resin
plasticization and core dissolution
When a composite panel is found to have been
penetrated, it is important to prevent further
Any impact damage resulting in skin penetra-
deterioration of the panel. When fluid detri-
tion must be regarded as serious damage.
mental to adhesion (hydraulic oils, deicing However, unlike non-metallic core materials,
fluid, engine oils, etc.) is present, the affected
which absorb and diffuse water, non-perfo-
area must be thoroughly decontaminated rated aluminum honeycomb cores tend to keep
before attempting a repair, or the contami- any ingested water concentrated about the area
nated material removed entirely. of the penetration. Left unattended, prolonged
When a permanent repair is to be deferred,
exposure will cause the ingested water to
fractured material should be trimmed away migrate to other areas of the panel by gradual,
and the opening covered with foil tape before
progressive diffusion through the adhesive
the aircraft is dispatched to a location where
bondlines and, preferentially, through the core
the appropriate repair facilities exist. Foil tapes
splice adhesives. As the bonding adhesives
must be applied with care to prevent their absorb moisture they become plasticized and
coming loose in flight. Loose foils have been
their bond strength weakens.
known to create static noises that can interfere
At the same time, unprotected areas of the
with radio communications. face sheet, doublers, substructural compo-
nents, cut edges and fastener holes, i.e. where
39.2.2 IMPACT DAMAGE ON METAL-SKINNED the anodic and primer protections have been
SANDWICH PANELS removed during the manufacturing process,
and machined edges of the honeycomb core,
Unlike laminated face sheets, which may are rendered vulnerable to corrosion attack.
show little evidence of an impact having Ingested water, if left unevacuated for long
taken place, thin metal face sheets (common periods, has been known to initiate chemical
on many honeycomb sandwich panels) reactions that lead to complete dissolution of
invariably become dented or gouged by for- the aluminum honeycomb core.
eign object impact. The resulting surface
irregularities are readily seen.
39.2.3 DAMAGED PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Minor damage - no skin penetration AND SEALANTS: LEAK PATHS
Shallow dents may be present that do not nec- Water ingestion and fluid contamination must
essarily result in disbonding of the skin, but be presumed to exist whenever the protective
there will always occur some crushing of the coatings or sealants of a panel have been dis-
core cells. A tap test will usually, but not turbed. The cause may be erosion of the
always, determine whether the skin is dis- protective finish, substrate corrosion, hail
bonded. Dents that have not resulted in skin damage, minor collisions, or similar foreign
disbonds are generally considered negligible object damage episodes. Leak paths, no matter
damage and may be filled with an appropriate how small, are detrimental to the long-term
compound to restore aerodynamic cleanness, structural integrity of the panel because they
provided the added weight does not affect the allow atmospheric moisture, aircraft system
balance of a critical control surface. Flight con- fluids, or a combination of contaminants, to
trol surfaces damaged by hailstones frequently enter the structure.
exhibit multiple dents that cannot be repaired Subsequent ’ground-air-ground’ and
by dent fillers without creating an out-of-bal- ‘freeze-thaw’ cycling are capable of introduc-
ance condition. ing considerable quantities of water and other
860 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures
fluids into the core of a panel. Sandwich pan-
els with thin face sheets of aramid/epoxy are
especially vulnerable to moisture contamina-
tion via small cracks in the resin gelcoat and at
the resin-fiber interface. This phenomenon
has been explained as the result of the thermal
expansion behavior of the aramid fiber, which
is slightly negative in the longitudinal direc-
tion and strongly positive in the transverse
direction, leading to excessive strain build-up
within the weave itself.
39.3 ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE AND
DEGRADATION
39.3.1 GENERAL EFFECTS OF AGINGz4
All polymeric materials are subject to degra-
dation over time. For this reason, the
importance of maintaining protective coat-
ings and sealants cannot be emphasized too
strongly. The 'normal' operating environment
of an aircraft exposes composite structures
not only to considerable static and dynamic
loads, but also to significant temperature gra-
dients, extreme variations in humidity
conditions, and to a number of chemical
agents necessary in aircraft systems, the most
detrimental being hydraulic fluid, a powerful
solvent.
39.3.2 EXPOSURE OF COMPOSITES TO THE
'NORMAL' FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
There is abundant evidence that the combined
effects of stress, temperature, water and other
fluids expose bonded and especially fiber-
reinforced composite structures to a far wider
range of hazards than their baseline metal
analogs. Following is a brief description of the
most common environmental hazards com-
posite materials are exposed to.
Moisture
While demonstrably corrosive to metals,
moisture is far more pernicious in its effect on
composites because it plasticizes resins,
degrades their mechanical properties and
lowers their glass transition temperature4.
The latter effect becomes extremely critical
when carrying out hot bonded and/or
prepreg repairs that require the heating of the
structure.
Atmospheric electricity 22-z
Atmospheric electricity, of negligible con-
squence to metal structures having inherent
conductivities, can have a crippling effect on
non-metallics, which compels the operator to
place a high priority on periodic testing and
proper maintenance of anti-static and light-
ning protection schemes, i.e. ground paths,
bonding fasteners, bus strips, jumper cables,
conductive enamel and/or flame-spray coat-
ings, as well as discharge ports.
Chemical contamination
Aircraft fluids and chemicals that are harmless
on metals can effectively destroy a composite,
if allowed to penetrate its outer protective lay-
ers. Chemical paint strippers routinely used
on metal aircraft are occasionally - albeit inad-
vertently - applied to composite surfaces with
destructive consequences, even if the exposure
is but of short duration. Presently, composites
can only be stripped by abrasive, non-chemi-
cal methods5.
Overheat conditions
Heat, except for annealing temperatures, is of
minor concern with metals; by contrast, the
heat resistance of compositesis effectively lim-
ited by the maximum use temperature of the
polymeric matrix. Heat generated by lightning
strikes has been known to vaporize matrix
resins and create large areas of delamination
and fiber fracturing on composite rudders,

ailerons, wing and stabilizer tips, nose domes,
and nacelle cowling. When exposed to hot
gases over long periods, polymeric resin
binders, irrespective of chemistry, can become
completely destroyed through a process some-
times described as thermo-oxidation. This
condition may be found on all types of com-
posites, including those with inorganic
matrices, such as metal matrix composites.
Preventive maintenance may consist of the
application of heat-resistant, ablative or intu-
mescent coatings. Extensive redesign of the
detail may be necessary, using metals or, if a
fiber composite is to be used, choosing a poly-
imide or similar high temperature resistant
resin system.
39.4 DAMAGE REMOVAL TECHNIQUES
39.4.1 PLANNING THE REPAIR 'THINK
BEFORE CUTTING'
After determining the full extent of the damage,
the repair technician must consider a range of
possible approaches, based on such considera-
tions as damage location, access to the damage,
required disassembly to create better access,
available tooling and repair materials, as well
as the allotted out-of-service time. Because
most repairs are 'on-condition', i.e. the result of
damage events affecting the structure at unpre-
dictable locations in a multiplicity of manners,
allowing only limited pre-planning, the techni-
cian's experience and intuitive problem-solving
abilities are of paramount importance.
39.4.2 AERODYNAMIC SKIN DAMAGE
REMOVAL
If the damage affects the outer, aerodynamic
or 'tool' side of a panel and the backside (the
%ag side') is accessible, it is best to remove
material from the backside, and as much of the
core material as necessary, to gain access to the
damage. Using this method preserves as much
of the aerodynamically 'clean' surface as pos-
sible. Repair work is more easily accomplished
Damage removal techniques 861
from the backside, with the additional benefit
of causing only minimal disruption to the
aerodynamic surface. Figure 39.1 illustrates
this principle.
If the backside is inaccessible, the damage
must be repaired from the aerodynamic skin
side, inevitably enlarging the repair surface
and making the repair more difficult to per-
form. With only one side accessible, the
question of how best to apply vacuum pressure
is always problematic and requires consider-
able operator skills. (Applying vacuum
pressure for a bonded repair is an art form that
must be learned as any other.) As an alternative
to field repairs, panels are often removed from
the affected structure and routed to a repair
facility specially equipped to effect the appro-
priate restorations. It should be noted that the
damages affecting the aerodynamic skin sur-
face normally require 'flush' repairs to
preserve the original contour, particularly in
zones of the aircraft defined as aerodynami-
cally critical. Except for small damages, the
tooling and skill levels required to effect proper
repairs do not exist at field stations.
REPAIR PLIES-/ -FILLER
REPAIR PLIES- \
CORE PLUG
-iti--FLUSH SIDE
~NON-FLUSH
SIDE
Fig. 39.1 Aerodynamic skin side repair.
862 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures
39.4.3 REMOVAL OF METAL FACE SHEETS
AND DOUBLERS
Metal-faced sandwich panels are used on
wing spoilers, wing and stabilizer panels,
flaps, slats, engine cowling, landing gear strut
doors, as well as in a multitude of other appli-
cations, including aircraft interiors. Damaged,
corroded, or disbonded face sheets are gener-
ally peeled away after the application of
carbon dioxide pellets ('dry ice'). The dry ice is
allowed to dwell on the surface until the ther-
mal shock has weakened the bond strength of
the adhesive sufficiently to allow the skin to be
removed. If done properly, the face sheets sep-
arate, leaving the core cells relatively
undamaged.
39.4.4 REMOVAL OF COMPOSITE FACE SHEETS
AND DOUBLERS
The outer surface of most non-metallic sand-
wich panels consists of only a small number
of prepreg fabric and/or tape plies co-cured
onto non-metallic honeycomb core, although
precured laminates, secondarily bonded to
the core, are also found. Removing damaged
or disbonded face sheet materials requires
either a rotary sander (physical abrasion) or
the use of a hot air gun combined with peel-
ing action. Heating the skin laminate has the
effect of weakening the resin fillets suffi-
ciently to allow the technician to peel the face
sheet materials with only minimal damage to
the core.
39.4.5 REMOVAL OF HONEYCOMB CORE
MATERIALS
After the face sheet material has been
removed, the condition of the honeycomb core
must be determined. Because of the high cost
and limited availability of some core materials,
repair shops attempt to salvage the original
material if at all possible.
Aluminum core removal
Severely damaged aluminum core (crushed,
corroded, failed node bonds, etc.) should
always be replaced. Removal is generally
accomplished by using non-metallic scrapers
or chisels mounted in a pneumatic rivet gun.
Care must be taken to avoid damaging the
intact face sheet on the far side. The remaining
adhesive fillets on the far side should be
abraded with a rotary sander, provided the
adhesive is still firmly attached, thils provid-
ing a good base for bonding in the
replacement core plug. If the far side adhesive
is plasticized or unbonded, or corrosion is
found between the adhesive layer and the
metal skin, the adhesive must be removed for
closer inspection and possible reconditioning
of the bonding surface. Corroded skins and
doublers are routinely replaced.
Non-metallic core removal
Non-metallic core materials are generally
replaced if crushed or split at the nodes, or if
irreversibly contaminated by oil, hydraulic
fluids, or other contaminants that would
inhibit subsequent repair resin adhesion and
cure. Repair shops often attempt to deconta-
minate core by flushing out the cells with
solvent, a method not always successful and
a potential environmental hazard. If the cont-
aminant is water, dehydration of the core by
evaporation, placing the part in an oven at a
low temperature, is often possible, allowing
the material to be salvaged (see Section 39.5).
When core replacement becomes necessary,
the affected sections are generally cut out
with knives or rotary cutters; the resin fillets
remaining on the far side are then removed
with rotary sanders, to create a proper sur-
face for bonding in the replacement core
Plug.
 Decontamination 863

39.5 DECONTAMINATION Effects of contaminants on structural

integrity
39.5.1 EVACUATION AND
DECONTAMINATIONOF POLYMER MATRIX
Dimensional swelling and plasticization of the
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES resin matrix generally result from exposure to
high humidity at high temperatures, exposure
Vulnerability of polymers to fluids to many aircraft fluids, to chemical paint strip-
pers, and to a variety of common solvents.
Organic matrix composites typically absorb Absorbed moisture lowers the glass transition
between one and two percent of their dry temperature of the laminate*and may be con-
weight in moisture under normal service con- ducive to additional microcracking within the
ditions. There exists a certain risk when such matrix which, in turn, increases the potential
assemblies are subjected to the elevated tem- for additional moisture absorption. Micro-
peratures routinely applied during bonding cracks are considered irreversible, since they
and laminating repairs. During hot bond remain after the laminate has been completely
repairs, the absorbed moisture volatilizes. The dehydrated. Absorbed chemicals may or may
effect on the repaired structure may manifest not affect the structural or mechanical proper-
itself in the form of porosities in the bondline or ties of the composite, but generally render the
in the laminate. In severe cases, such as when affected part unrepairable because they inhibit
water is present in the core cells, the pressure repair resin adhesion and cure.
resulting from the entrapped steam often
results in uncontrollable skin-to-core disbond-
ing. For these reasons, it is always advisable to 39.5.2 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
pre-dry composite panels when moisture cont-
amination exists in detectable quantities, or Water evacuation under vacuum pressure at
may be presumed to exist, given the general elevated temperatures
condition of the part. One should keep in mind Removing water is mandatory in all cases, but
that fibers, with the exception of aramid, do not the process becomes especially critical if the
absorb moisture. Moisture absorption is a phe- repair requires the application of elevated cure
nomenon that affects primarily the resin matrix temperatures under vacuum pressure, which
and, secondarily, non-metallic core made from is typical or many in situ heating blanket type
aramid fibers. As a general rule, resin systems repairs. The operator must be aware that,
cured at 170°C (350°F) or above are more resis- under a vacuum bag, lowering the vapor pres-
tant to moisture pick-up than resin systems sure also lowers the boiling point of the water;
cured at lower temperatures, which includes all at the same time, increasing the temperature
room temperature-curedrepair resins and cold- increases the steam pressure inside the sand-
bond adhesives-. wich (Fig. 39.2). The result is often a failed
repair: blown core and disbonded face sheets.
Effect of contaminants on weight and
balance Removing moisture barriers (coatings and
films)
Fluids absorbed by, or otherwise introduced
into a structure, induce weight gains and may Evacuation of composite laminates is best
cause out-of-balance conditions in flight con- accomplished by first removing any protec-
trol surfaces. Contamination detected should tive coatings and moisture barrier films that
always be evacuated, the leakage paths identi- may still be present and intact. Barrier mate-
fied, repaired and the structure resealed. rials may be various enamel finishes, sealer
864 Repair aspects of composifeand adhesively bonded aircraft structures

459.02 4

333.89 - e ,. 145

29.90
20.70
13.98

5.88

1.25
OThrough face
0.70 sheet evacuation
0.36
@zoneof ,

oc
OF
-
-
0.18
0
32
20
68
40 60
104 140
; 80
176
100
212
120 140
248 284
160 180
320 356
200
392
" risk
increasina

I
160

Fig. 39.2 Pressure and evacuation guidelines for honeycomb core repair.

coats, or bondable plastic films. Their solvents. Often, considerable quantities may
removal is essential to create a path for be necessary to purge the contaminated core,
volatiles to escape rapidly. creating potential environmental hazards. In
many cases, complete core replacement may
be the only appropriate action.
Removing face sheet materials
Evacuation of honeycomb sandwich panels is
39.5.3 SPECIFIC EVACUATION TECHNIQUES
most effectively done by removing one of the
face sheets. This method exposes the core and
Evacuation of fluids from core with face
allows the thorough flushing of any contami-
sheet removed ('open core' evacuation)
nants with an appropriate solvent. Complete
drying should be performed under vacuum Visible liquids should be evacuated by blow-
pressure at moderate heat. ing filtered, compressed air across the surface.
This should be followed up by flushing the
core with an oil-free solvent and then allowing
Flushing contaminants with solvents
the solvent to evaporate completely. Next, sev-
Evacuation of chemical contaminants may be eral layers of breather fabric are stacked over
accomplished by flushing the core cells with the panel, the assembly is envelope-bagged

and a vacuum of approximately 67 kPa (20
inHg) is applied. The panel is then heated
slowly to approximately 74°C (165°F) and
allowed to remain at temperature for a mini-
mum of one hour.
Evacuation of fluids from core with face
sheets intact (‘through-the-facesheet’)
evacuation
First, all protective coatings and moisture bar-
rier plies must be removed from the areas to be
evacuated. Then the gelcoat of the outermost
ply should be abraded to expose the fibers.
(Fibers inadvertently damaged during this
process require subsequent repair.) Next, sev-
eral layers of breather fabric are applied and
the assembly envelope-bagged. Then a vac-
uum of 34-40 kPa (10-12 in Hg) is applied and
the panel heated very slowly (5°C per minute
maximum heating rate) to approximately 75°C
(165°F) and maintained at that temperature
and vacuum pressure for a minimum of 24 h.
After this initial drying cycle, the temperature
should be increased to 107°C (225°F) and
maintained for an additional four hours.
Handling of dried details - inspection and
storage
After drying, details should be re-examined
and, if satisfactory, stored in a clean, dry envi-
ronment until the appropriate repair actions
can be taken.
39.6 TYPICAL REPAIRS
39.6.1 WET LAY-UP REPAIRS AT AMBIENT OR
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
So-called ’wet lay-up’ repairs are the most fre-
quently recommended because they require
only the most basic in terms of equipment,
tooling, and repair materials. On the other
hand, they are also the most limited in terms
of size and applicability because such repairs
do not restore the full, pre-damage strength of
Typical repairs 865
the structure. Wet lay-ups normally involve
the use of the same type of fabric used in the
original construction, in conjunction with a
laminating resin capable of room temperature
cure under vacuum pressure. The quality of
the repair is generally enhanced by applying
moderate heat (100°C max) by means of heat-
ing blankets, heat lamps or hot air.
Heating blankets
Heating blankets used in conjunction with
vacuum pressure repairs should have an out-
put (watt density) of no less than 7750 W/m2
(5 W/in’). To facilitate draping over curved
surfaces, heating blankets with silicone rub-
ber-embedded elements are preferred over
mineral fiber-insulated pads, because of their
inherent flexibility. Stiffer pads should only be
used on flat surfaces.
Heat lamps
Heat lamps that are used either as the primary
heat source, or as a means of augmenting other
heat sources, should be 250-300 W tungsten or
quartz tube, explosion-proof types. When
using heat lamps as the primary source, the
effective heat input is controlled by the stand-
off distance, as shown in Fig. 39.3. To avoid
overheating any portion of the assembly being
repaired, thermocouples should be placed at
several locations to monitor the temperature
throughout the cure cycle. The stand-off dis-
tance or the positioning of the lamp should be
adjusted as necessary to maintain the cure tem-
perature within specified limits.
Hot air blowers
Hot air blowers similar to hair dryers are often
used to accelerate resin cure; they may also be
used for reticulation of unsupported film
adhesives. Such devices are typically designed
with 1000-2000 W heater elements and fan
drive motors.
866 Repair aspects of composife and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

3. Sand off any protective or decorative fin-

ishes and coatings; scrape off sealants,
especially silicone sealants.
4 Inspect detail for presence of water or other
fluid contamination.
5. Evacuate panel using one of the methods
14
I 5 l \ described in Section 39.5.
n
6. Remove damaged materials - face sheets,
v) doublers, and core, using the appropriate
f0 13 __ techniques described in Section 39.4.
.-
E
v Note: Steps (5) and (6) may be inverted,
$ 12 -- depending on the condition of the part.
is
11 --
Core plug repair
I O -_ 1. Obtain and prefit replacement core plug,
using same as original material, cell size,
and density (or an approved substitute).
I I
I 2. Apply resin compound to edges of core
plug to provide a shear tie and insert the
plug into the cavity.
3. Apply release film, breather fabric, thermo-
couples, and vacuum bagging materials.
Apply vacuum and check bag for leaks.
4. Cure core splice (shear tie) resin, observing
the appropriate time/ temperature relation-
39.6.2 USE OF ADDITIONAL PLIES OVER WET
ship specified for the core splicing resin.
LAY-UPS
Maintain vacuum pressure throughout the
Recognizing that wet lay-ups are inherently cure cycle.
inferior to autoclave-cured laminates, many 5. Remove bagging materials and thermocou-
repair specifications9 call for the addition of ples.
two or more plies of the type of material used
in the original construction, as a means of
Face sheet repair
compensating for the loss of stiffness implicit
in wet lay-ups. The added plies do, however, 1. Taper and splice joint area.
result in weight gain and some loss in aerody- 2. Sand core plug flush with innermost ply.
namic cleanness. 3. Vacuum up sanding dust, solvent clean
repair surfaces and allow solvent to dry
completely.
39.6.3 TYPICAL WET LAY-UP REPAIR
4. Using same as original fiber type and
PROCEDURES
weave style, and observing proper yarn ori-
entation, prepare and impregnate each
Damage assessment and removal
repair ply of fabric with an appropriate
1. Determine perimeter of damaged area by laminating resin mixture.
NDTlO. 5. Apply repair plies, observing ply stacking
2. Clean area with solvent. sequence and fiber orientation.

6. Apply perforated release film, breather/
bleeder fabric, thermocouples, and vacuum
bag. Apply vacuum and check bag for
leaks.
7. Cure laminate under 67-81 kPa
(20-24 in Hg) vacuum pressure, while
observing the appropriate time/ tempera-
ture relationship specified for the repair
resin. Maintain vacuum pressure through-
out the cure cycle.
8. Remove bagging materials.
Restoration of coatings, finishes and
sealants
1. Ensure resin is fully cured (must be hard
when tapped and resistant to solvents when
wiped with solvent-soaked cheesecloth).
2. Reactivate surface by mild abrasion.
3. Clean surface and allow to dry.
4. Reapply finishes, including any anti-static
and lightning-protective coatings that may
be required.
5 . Reapply any sealants or other coatings
removed for repair.
Materials, tooling, equipment and repair
environment 25
1.A two-part epoxy laminating resin of the
required chemistry.
2. A compatible core splice resin or com-
pound.
3. Same as original type and style of fabric
(unidirectional tape may be replaced with
two plies of fabric of equivalent thickness,
if allowed by the local structural repair
manual).
4. Same as original type, cell size, and density
core material, or an approved substitute.
5 . Release film materials, both solid and per-
forated.
6. Breather and bleeder fabrics.
7. Vacuum bagging film, vacuum gage, and
vacuum sealer tape.
8. Abrasive discs, hand-held pneumatic
motor.
Typical repairs 867
9.Oil-free solvents and clean cheesecloth
wipers.
10. Heat lamps and/or blankets, hot air gun.
11. Thermocouples and temperature monitor-
ing equipment.
12. Compressed air and vacuum source capa-
ble of being regulated.
13. Environmental conditions: Work should be
done indoors, under conditions of moder-
ate temperatures (ambient) and low
relative humidity (40-65%).
39.6.4 WET LAY-UPS USING PRECURED
PATCHES
Instead of repairing damaged face sheets 'ply-
for-ply', using dry fabrics and laminating
resins, prepreg materials may be precured,
between layers of peel ply fabric, under auto-
clave conditions, and stored for later use as
patching materials. Precured patches should
be perforated to facilitate resin flow and to
provide vacuum contact. (Perforations should
be of sufficient diameter and spacing to pro-
vide a vacuum path and resin bleed, without
causing resin starvation at the bondline.)
Perforated precured materials may be used
with laminating resins, film adhesives, or
adhesive paste. When using laminating resins,
3-5 wt% fumed silica ('CAB-O-SIL'TM,made
by Cabot Corporation, is generally specified)
or an equivalent thickener should be used to
improve resin filleting on the honeycomb core.
Limitations of precured materials
Precured carbon/epoxy patches are normally
applied only over flat surfaces. Precured
glass/epoxy patches (or similar low modulus
fiber) may be applied over mild curves. Since
precured patches are basically 'scab' patches,
they should not be used if the surface requires
a high degree of aerodynamic cleanness. If
precured patches are needed for repairing sur-
faces having compound shapes, special
contour molds must be fabricated and used as
a strongback to precure the material, so as to
868 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

produce a precise contour match. The pre- 39.6.5 PREPREG REPAIRS

cured patch may be regarded as the composite
equivalent of a metal stamping. Autoclave repairs
Restoring damaged laminates by utilizing the
Necessity of reducing vacuum pressure for same as original preimpregnated fabric or
bonding precured details and for co-curing tape, at the same as original cure temperature
prepregs and film adhesives and pressure, is normally recommended when
full restoration of the original design proper-
Available test data indicate that precured ties is a requirement. In practical terms,
patches, as well as prepregs and film adhe- however, full restoration should only be
sives being co-cured (unless cured in an attempted by depot level facilities, since any
autoclave under positive pressure conditions) such action necessitates:
should be processed under 3340 kPa (10-12
in Hg) vacuum pressure only. Significant 1. removal of the affected part from its parent
reductions in bond strength have been assembly;
observed when such repairs are cured under 2. availability of strongback tooling to main-
heating blankets and at full vacuum pressure. tain contours;
Many combination repair techniques, utilizing 3. an autoclave capable of meeting the origi-
both precured and resin-impregnated dry fab- nal cure parameters;
rics, prepregs and film adhesives have been 4. availability of same as original materials of
developed for specific damage conditions and construction and requisite facilities, equip-
damage locations. All such repairs should be ment and NDT capabilities.
cured under reduced vacuum pressure. Clearly, only major operators have the neces-
sary capabilities to conduct what can only be
Wet lay-ups cured at elevated temperatures described as a remanufacturing operation. At
the present time, only a limited number of the
Unlike low temperature (65°C maximum) cur- major airlines have the requisite equipment to
ing resins, laminating resins capable of being perform rebuilds to OEM specifications. To
cured under vacuum pressure and up to 150°C satisfy market demands, a number of repair
(300"F), so-called 'room temperature set/ele- facilities have been granted remanufacturing
vated temperature post-cure' resins, produce authority under Part 145 of the Federal
high quality repairs and are therefore consid- Aviation Regulations.
ered desirable alternatives to prepreg repairs.
Because of the hazards inherent in all elevated
temperature repairs, especially non-autoclave Non-autoclave repair methods
repairs performed under vacuum pressure For limited damage requiring only partial
only, a cautious approach is necessary. It is restoration, there are approved alternative
almost universally recommended to cure the repair methods. Nearly all these utilize
repair under the lowest possible cure temper- prepregs and film adhesives that are normally
ature at the expense of elapsed time. A given cured by means of heating blankets under
resin may be curable in two hours at 150°C 'vacuum pressure only' conditions. Such
(302°F) and may require six hours at 85°C repairs can be carried out with minimal capital
(185°F). To reduce the risk of part failure dur-
investments. Because such repairs yield lower
ing the cure, it is generally advisable to opt for than original design strengths, size limitations
the longer cure cycle at the lower temperature. usually apply. These limitations are contingent
upon the specific location of the damage as
 Typical repairs 869

defined in the Structural Repair Manual for part.) It is generally accepted that, before con-
the aircraft in question. As a rule, repairs in the templating a prepreg repair, the following
vicinity of a load path, as defined by finite ele- factors be given
- serious consideration.
ment analysis, are severely restricted. The
1. The part must be completely dry (see
allowable repairs in so-called 'field areas', i.e.
Section 39.5).
at some predetermined distance away from
2. If at all possible, the part should be enve-
spars, ribs, hinge and latch points, etc., are
lope-bagged to prevent backskin disbonding
more generous in terms of size as well as
during the cure.
repair method.
3. The cure should always be effected at the
lowest permissible temperature specified
Vacuum pressureheating blanket repairs (using for the product.
prepregs and film adhesives) 4. If at all possible, a repair prepreg and/or
film adhesive should be selected that is cur-
In situ prepreg repairs are often preferred over
able at a temperature 40-60"C (104156°F)
wet lay-up/elevated temperature repairs
lower than the original cure temperature.
because the resin content of the repair is more
This is of particular importance when
easily controlled by using a prepreg. One of
repairing structures originally cured in the
the risks associated with the use of production
170-180°C (338-356°F) temperature range.
prepregs and adhesive films is that these prod-
(Several such products are becoming avail-
ucts were formulated for production and
able as a result of persistent industry
normally require high cure temperatures
demands. Representative products are
which, when applied to damaged parts likely
listed in Table 39.1. This listing is given for
to contain residual moisture, may cause severe
reference only and does not imply endorse-
disbonding of the remaining, thus far undam-
ment of any given product.)
aged, structure. (The repair action thus
severely damages or effectively destroys the

Table 39.1 Repair adhesives and resins curable at reduced temperatures

Product Class Manufacturer Min. cure temperature Max. use temperature

"C "F "C OF
FM300-2 Film Am Cy 120 250 150 300
FM250 Film Am Cy 112 230 80 180
FM73 Film Am Cy 105 225 120 250
FM123-5 Film Am Cy 95 200 120 250
EA9680 Film Hysol 120 250 150 300
EA9394 Paste Hysol 95 200 150 300
PL795 Film BFG 120 250 177 350
CYCOM 919 Resin Am Cy 112 235 70 160
SP377 Resin 3M 95 200 105 220
Epon9410 Resin Shell 80 175 See Note
DER 329 Resin Dow Room temperature See Note
Epocast35A/927 Resin Furane R.T. + postcure See Note
Note: Postcure raises upper use temperature.
870 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures
Voids and porosities in vacuum-pressure cured
laminates and bondlines
Major disadvantages of ’vacuum-pressure-
only’ cures are a reduction in the compaction
of the laminate and the inevitable formation of
porosities in the laminate and/or adhesive
bondline. The finished repair yields, as a rule
of thumb, approximately only 80% of the
strength of an autoclave-cured part in terms of
shear and flexural properties. The problem of
compacting thick laminates may be overcome
to some extent by hot debulking each ply, or a
stack of several plies of a laminate, under vac-
uum pressure before the final cure. This
method is labor-intensive but useful; it draws
off entrapped gasses, improves resin flow,
fiber wet-out and therefore overall laminate
quality.
Prepregs co-cured with film adhesives
Repair technicians often use a compatible film
adhesive together with a prepreg when mak-
ing a repair. A layer of film adhesive is
especially desirable as a bond ply over honey-
comb core because it enhances the honeycomb
peel strength by providing a deeper glue fillet
than would be achieved with prepreg alone.
There is, however, beside the added cost, a
slight weight gain that must be considered
when repairing a weight and/or balance criti-
cal part.
Prepregs applied over metal substrates
Prepregs applied over metallic substrates
always require the use of a layer of film adhe-
sive between the metal and the non-metal. The
metallic substrate also requires the normal
surface preparations applicable for metal
bonding, by one of the methods described in
Section 39.6.8. Prepregs are often used to pro-
vide debris protection in damage-prone areas
of thin-skinned sandwich panels, notably
wing flaps and other panelling in line with the
landing gear. Occasionally, prepregs are used
as panel edge close-out in preference over
metal stampings.
39.6.6 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR NON-
METALLIC SUBSTRATES
Abrasion and cutting of plies
Taper-sanding is the preferred method of creat-
ing a scarf joint at the substrate/repair
interface, especially if the substrate material is
made from a woven fabric. Repairs in unidi-
rectional tape laminates often use step joints,
with each repair ply butted against the original
ply. Instead of sanding, the splice joint is then
prepared by cutting each ply carefully with a
sharp instrument such as an ’Exacto’ knife. It is
common to use a lap of 13-19 mm (0.5-0.75in)
per ply, although there is lack of agreement
with respect to the optimum lap distance or the
stacking sequence of fabric plies, i.e. whether
the smallest or the largest ply should be placed
first. Some authorities calculate the overlap as
a function of materials thickness (e.g. L = 187‘)
whereas others recommend a straightforward
13 mm (0.5 in) overlap per fabric ply and a
25 mm (1in) overlap per tape ply in the zero
degree orientation3,11-13.
Use of peel plies
Multi-stage processes using precured lami-
nates often use peel ply fabrics which, upon
removal, yield a surface that requires no fur-
ther cleaning or abrading. Chapter 29
contains some important observations about
peel piles.
Grit blasting
Grit blasting followed by solvent wiping is
sometimes used to prepare non-metallic sub-
strates for subsequent bonding and
laminating operations. Plastic media with a
Mohs hardness of 3.0-3.5 (US Plastic and
Chemical Corporation’s Polyextra and
Polyplus granulated plastics, sieve size 30/40,

propelled at a low incident angle (15-30") and
at moderate nozzle pressure (25-30 psig) have
been demonstrated to remove coatings effec-
tively without damage to fibers, and to leave
surface conditions of high quality5.
39.6.7 BASIC REPAIR JOINT PREPARATION
Whatever the specific surface preparation
method, the focus must be on producing a
smooth, contamination-free, activated bond
surface capable of promoting adhesion and,
after the cure, capable of transferring the struc-
tural loads across the joint with minimal
disruption of the load path and minimal stress
build-up. Stress risers of any kind, abrupt
changes in thickness, brittle adhesives, the
wrong scarf angle, poor detail fit-up, preloads,
etc. should be avoided.
39.6.8 REPAIR OF METAL BONDMENTS
Honeycomb panels with metal face sheets
Because thin-skinned honeycomb sandwich
panels are the most easily damaged, structures
of this type are most often in need of repair.
Several kinds of repair activity are considered
typical by the industry:
1. minor repairs consisting of the application
of cold or hot bonded metal patches;
2. partial skin and/or core replacement with
or without the benefit of autoclave pres-
sure;
3. rebuild or remanufacture (considered depot
level repair).
Aluminum surface preparations
The quality of the repair is directly related to
the quality of the surface to which the adhe-
sive is applied. Poorly or inadequately
prepared bonding surfaces are the primary
reason why bonded repairs fail.
Typical repairs 871
Cleaning, deoxidizing, anodizing, bonding primer
application /cure
For optimum joint strength and bond durabil-
ity, all metal surfaces that are to be adhesively
joined require the following essential steps: (1)
degreasing; (2) alkaline cleaning; (3) deoxidiz-
ing; (4) low voltage anodizing in chromic or
phosphoric acid; (5) application, and (6) pre-
baking of a bonding primer. For other than
complete rebuilds, which imply complete tear-
down of the bonded elements, stripping of all
adhesive residues, and full reprocessing of
details through solution tanks, tank etch-
ing/anodizing and primer prebaking are often
omitted at the expense of repair quality and
longevity. Comparable values of various pre-
bond surface treatments are shown in Fig.
39.4.
Non-tank anodizing
A process known as PANTA (Phosphoric Acid
Non-Tank Anodizing) exists but requires
extensive preparatory work, equipment and
special skills, and has therefore not been fully
accepted by the industry at the present time.
Parts processed in this manner have been
demonstrated to be almost equivalent to tank-
processed parts in terms of bond strength and
d~rability'~.
Surface preparation for in situ non-autoclave
repairs
Typically, the repair patches or partial
replacement skins are cleaned, acid etched,
anodized, primed and prebaked. Structure
not amenable to tank solution processing, i.e.
the lap joint areas of the structure being
repaired, is typically prepared with an acid
paste, followed by a deionized water rinse,
air drying, and spray application of a bond-
ing primer without, however, the benefit of
prebaking. Elevated temperature prebaking
is generally impossible without exposing the
structure to heat damage and is therefore
872 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

LOSS IN SHEAR STRENGTH OF 2024 -T3 SAMPLES

-
BONDED WITH FM 123 5 ADHESIVE, AFTER 30 DAYS
AT 120OF AND CONDENSING HUMIDITY

UNEXPOSED I
EXPOSED 1 TANK ETCH
+ PHOS. ANODRE + CIP
UNEXPOSED I
, EXPOSED I TANK ETCH + CIP
OSFD I
EXPOSED I TANKETCH

UNEXPOSED
EXPOSED ISCOTCHBRITE. MEK + PASA - JEL
I

I I I I I I I
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 8ooo

SHEAR STRENGTH, (PSb

Fig. 39.4 Effect of various aluminium surface treatments on repair bond strength and durability.

omitted, at some sacrifice in terms of bond
strength and durabilityI5.
Abrasive cleaning of lap joints
For reasons of expediency, many repairs are
effected under conditions considered marginal.
One common practice is to abrade the joint
area with aluminum oxide paper, followed by
solvent wiping and the application of the adhe-
sive. Repairs of t h s type, whether the adhesive
selected be a paste or a film, are rarely of long
duration and should be considered ’interim’
repairs only. On the other hand surface prepa-
rations using three-dimensional abrasives such
as Scotchbrite@,a product of the 3M Company,
in conjunction with high quality bonding
primers, have been demonstrated to produce
joints of considerable durability and should be
encouraged in preference over abrasion with
aluminum oxide paper only.
Application of bonding pressure
Vacuum bagging and bondline thickness control
For non-autoclave repairs, the most common
method of applying bonding pressure is by
means of a vacuum bag. Film adhesives used
for repair are normally scrim-supported and
thus provide bondline thickness control. (A
listing of representative film adhesives avail-
able with supporting scrims is provided in
Table 39.2. This listing is for reference only and
 Typical repairs 873

Table 39.2 Scrim-supportedfilm adhesives

Manufacturer Product designation Cure temperature range Max. use temperature

-
"C O F "C O F
-
Curing at 120°C (250°F)
Am Cy FM73 107-150 225-300 120 250
FM123-2 107-120 225-250 120 250
FM123-5, FM137 95-120 200-250 120 250
Hysol EA9628 113-120 235-250 95 200
3M AF126-2, AF163-3 113-120 235-250 120 250
AF3109-2 107-177 225-350 See Note
Narmco a Metlbond 1113 95-143 200-290 See Note
Metlbond 1133 95-135 200-275 See Note
B.F. Goodrich Plastilock 7178 107-120 225-250 82 180
Curing at 177°C (350°F)
Am Cy FM61, FM150-2 163-177 325-350 150 300
FM96 160-177 320-350 177 350
FM300 163-177 325-350 177 350
FM400 163-1 77 325-350 204 400
FM300-1 150-177 300-350 150 300
FM350 171-182 340-360 177 350
Hysol EA9689 177-182 350-360 177 350
EA9649R 175-180 345-355 177 350
3M AF191 175-1 80 345-355 177 350
AF131-2 175-180 345-355 204 400
AF143-2 175-180 345-355 177 350
AF147 175-180 345-355 150 300
Narmco a Metlbond 328 163-19 1 325-375 150 300
Metlbond 329 135-185 350-365 204 400
Metlbond 1515 163-177 325-350 150 300
B.F. Goodrich Plastilock 729-3 171-182 340-360 177 350
Note: Use temperature increases as a function of cure temperature.
a Now marketed by American Cynamid

not an endorsement for any given product.)
When using paste adhesives, scrim cloth is
normally inserted between the adherends to
prevent adhesive squeeze-out and resin star-
vation in the bondline.
Bondline porosities resultingfiom vacuum
pressure
The repair technician must be aware that not
all film adhesives are equally suitable for bond-
ing under vacuum pressure; indeed, most
products are formulated for positive (i.e. auto-
clave) pressure applications. After curing
under vacuum, some adhesives exhibit bond-
line porosities that inevitably result in lowered
bond strength, which must be taken into
account during the repair design. In an effort to
overcome these negative effects, a unique bag-
ging method called 'double-bagging' was
developed a number of years ago. This method
provides for an inner, 'low vacuum' bag 34 kPa
(under 10 in Hg) for expelling volatiles, and an
outer, 'high vacuum' bag 81-98 kPa (24-29
in Hg) to provide the equivalent of 4147KPa
(12-14 psig) bonding pressure on the assembly.
The intent of this method is to minimize the
effect of full vacuum pressure on the resin dur-
ing cure by isolating the laminate within a
separate diaphragm.
874 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

Application of mechanical pressure Pressure damage affects primarily details made

Mechanical pressure applications are some-
times used when both sides of the part are
accessible for clamping. Anacoustical (sound
suppression) panels having perforated or oth-
erwise permeable skins make the application
of vacuum impossible unless the panel is
envelope-bagged. To do so generally requires
extensive tear-down of the assembly and
removal of the affected panel. Permeable face
sheet materials (perforated metal, feltmetal,
permeable glass fiber /polyimide laminates, or
various fine mesh wire cloth acoustic sheet
materials) may be successfully bonded under
mechanical pressure, using liquid adhesives,
pastes, or unsupported reticulating film adhe-
sives.
Sand bags
Pressure application methods employing sand
bags, shot bags, etc., exist but are cumbersome
and yield repairs of marginal quality and
questionable durability. Such repairs should
always be rendered 'fail-safe' by the addition
of mechanical fasteners to provide a secondary
load path should an adhesive failure occur
during subsequent flight service.
from light-weight honeycomb core, which is
easily crushed if not adequately protected by
well-anchored support blocks. Bondments are
especially vulnerable to damage when the
integrity of the vacuum bag is breached and
compressed gasses enter the assembly. Well-
designed fixtures, proper padding of potential
puncture sites, bagging films of high quality,
pressure levels appropriate for the materials
and part configuration, as well as constant
monitoring of the pressure cycle are imperative
to prevent damaging parts during the cure.
Table 39.3 shows the bonding pressures consid-
ered typical. It should be noted that for
assemblies incorporating honeycomb (sand-
wich structures) the recommended pressures
are predicated on the compressive strength of a
core being simultaneously subjected to both
autoclave pressure and elevated temperatures.
Panel edges are occasionally collapsed during
cure, if not properly supported against side
loads. Bevelled edges should have angles
between 15 and 20°, as shown in Fig. 39.5.
Steeper angles require that the core be stabi-
lized with additional resins or core fillers to
prevent collapse under pressure.
Application of heat

lnj7atable bladders How to introduce the proper amount of heat

for curing the repair adhesive or resin has long
A novel pressure application method using an been considered problematic. Unlike manufac-
inflatable rubber bladder system has report- turing processes, which can be optimized
edly been successful16.The loads generated by through cure cycle verification by destructive
the inflating bladder must be reacted out testing, most repairs are rather unique and
against one or several hard points on the air- influenced by a multitude of factors not easily
craft structure, which requires equipment of controlled. Heating blankets of a constant watt
model-specific design geometry. density tend to overheat thin sections, e.g. the
trailing edges of a bondment, while undercur-
ing the bondlines located over a heat sink, e.g.
Specific risks associated with pressure
a heavy metal fitting or a spar. It has often
Parts may be damaged during repair through been found necessary to protect thin sections
improper pressure application. Most damages against overheating by inserting silicone rub-
occur in the autoclave and are the result of poor ber pads between the heating blanket and the
fixturing and of insufficient attention being part, thus reducing the effective cure tempera-
paid to proper vacuum bagging techniques. ture in selected areas, while allowing the
 Typical repairs 875

Table 39.3 Recommended bonding pressures

Core material Thickness/cell size Density Max pressure

cm in kg/m3 p.c& kPa Psig
Honeycomb Sandwich and MetaYMetal Panels (AluminumBondments)
Aluminum over 12.7 over 0.5 48 or higher 3 or higher 118 35
less than 3 84 25
Aluminum under 12.7 under 0.5 48 or higher 3 or higher 35 40
less than 3 101 30
No core n/a n/a 169-338 50-100
Laminates and Panels Containing Non-metallic Honeycomb Cores
Aramid* 3.1 1/8 48-64 3.04.0 118 35
4.7 3/16 48 or lower 3.0 or lower 84 25
56-88 3.5-5.5 101 30
635 1/4 all 84 25
9.5 3/8 all 84 25
No core n/a n/a 152 or 45 or
higher higher
* Nomex HRH, HRP, Hh4X or similar core materials.

colder portions to reach the appropriate cure
temperature. Occasionally, heat lamps or other
auxiliary means must be employed in conjunc- 3.
tion with heating blankets to provide
additional heat inputs at critical locations to
make sure the resins are fully cured. It is
imperative that thermocouples be used at as
many locations as necessary to monitor the
cure cycle and to ensure the repair meets spec-
ification requirements when completed. 4.
Specific risks associated with heat
The principal risks associated with repair
activities on structures that require the use of
thermosetting resins and adhesives are:
1. Water or residual moisture in any portion of
the assembly may vaporize and cause addi-
tional damage such as ply separation, core
node bond separation, or skin-to-core bond
failure (see Section 39.5).
2. Overheat conditions may develop under a
heating blanket, causing irreversible dam-
age, occasionally a fire. Constant
monitoring or the incorporation of overheat
alarms may prevent part damage during
the cure cycle.
Heat sinks may drain away heat energy
required for resin cure, leaving residual
uncured materials of unacceptable struc-
tural value. Hot bonding should not be
carried out during adverse atmospheric
conditions or while the aircraft is cold-
soaked.
Improper heat-up rate control may cause
resin flow and gel anomalies resulting in a
product of marginal quality. Heat-up rates
must be monitored or appropriate control
devices used.
5. Foaming adhesives may generate exother-
mic reactions resulting in irreversible
damage. This hazard can be avoided by
minimizing the width of splice gaps to be
filled through careful sizing and fit-up of
details prior to and during lay-up. Non-
metallic core details should be joined by
crush splicing rather than by adhesive
foams to reduce the amount of reactive
polymers present in the panel during the
cure cycle.
876 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraff structures

'
0 15' 30' 45 goo
5052 100% 80% 76% 19% 2%

HRH 100% 86% 70% 15% 2%

*O fI I I
\
0
8'.
1
-- - - _
O0 15O 30° 450 900

OFF-AXIS BARE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

OFHONEYCOMB CORE
b

Effect of core edge bevel

on core stability under
bonding pressure
e
C

Fig. 39.5 (a) Bare compressive strength of honeycomb at various angles of loading; (b) Off-axis bare com-
pressive strength of honeycomb core; (c) Effect of core edge bevel on core stability under bonding pressure.
 Typical repairs 877

Lower cure temperatures enhance repair safety

~"
be the choice for repairs on aluminum, because
of its galvanic compatibility and its favorable
Problems associated with hot bonding
CTE with respect to aluminum. Graphite is
increase exponentially as a function of cure
inherently incompatible for the same reasons
temperature. Cure temperatures in excess of
and may be suitable only for repairing titanium
180°C (360°F) are several times more likely to
substrates. Composite repairs can be made by
result in a failed part than repairs performed
applying multiple layers of prepregged fabrics
at lower temperatures. Given the option,
or unidirectional tapes, which may be cured by
repairs should always be conducted at the
means of heating blankets under vacuum or
lowest practical cure temperature, using a
mechanical pressure. Overlays of this type have
suitable adhesive or resin system. See Table
been reported to enhance the fatigue life of con-
39.1 for typical products.
ventional metal structures by several orders of
magnitudez1.One major disadvantage is the
39.6.9 COMPOSITE REPAIRS APPLIED TO need for a chemically prepared surface involv-
METAL STRUCTURES ing the use of acids which, if entrapped under
the repair, could cause corrosion and premature
Resin-impregnated fiberglass cloth repairs structural failure, making periodic NDT of the
on aluminum repair mandatory for the remainder of the air-
frame life. For maximum effectiveness,
Wet lay-up, epoxy-impregnated fiberglass
phosphoric acid non-tank anodizing (PANTA)
cloth repair patches have been approved repair
and the use of bonding primers are essential.
methods via OEM Structural Repair Manuals
When using graphite as the backbone fiber, a
and Military T.0.s for many years1. Utilizing
barrier ply of fiberglass is necessary to prevent
room temperature curing resins in conjunction
galvanic coupling between the repair material
with fabrics, wet lay-up repairs can be applied
and the substrate. The risks involved have thus
over flat as well as curved surfaces with a min-
far inhibited the use of graphite on aluminum.
imum in equipment and under almost any
conditions. Experience has shown, however,
that in terms of overall quality and durability,
39.6.10 MECHANICALLY FASTENED REPAIRS
these repairs are the least desirable and should
be applied only when more advanced methods With increased use of composite materials in
are unavailable. All resin-impregnated cloth primary and principal structure not readily
repairs over metal require the use of primers removable from the aircraft after a damage
(typically nitrile rubber based liquids) to pro- incident, bolted repair concepts are being vali-
mote resin-to-metal adhesion. dated for major skin/stringer and skin/chord
damage repairs. Utilizing mainly precured
composite elements together with metal dou-
Repairs utilizing advanced fibers
blers and splice angles, such repairs can be
Repairs utilizing boron/epoxy and graphite/ effected where access is limited to one side of
epoxy prepregs over aluminum substrates have the structure only. Essentially, such repairs are
been under active consideration for use on mil- a logical extension of, and quite similar to,
Only recently, a conventional mechanically joined metal
itary aircraft for some time17-21.
large freight carrier made the decision to apply repairs, except that both metallic and precured
boron/epoxy patches on some of its large trans- composite elements are utilized. The Boeing
port category aircraft, malung this the first time B-777 is the first major program to approve
that boron is being used for this purpose on a this type of repair on its primary structures,
commercial fleet in the USA. Boron appears to chiefly its all-graphite composite empennage.
878 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

39.7 TECHNICIAN TRAINING AND SKILL 39.8.2 INSUFFICIENCYOF TECHNICAL

REQUIREMENTS TRAINING
Personnel engaged in designing and carrying Technical school curricula as well as regula-
out repairs to bonded and composite aircraft tory guidance materials dealing with
structure should be familiar with the funda- composite aircraft repairs are suffering from a
mental concepts listed in Table 39.4. technology lag that can, ultimately, only be
bridged by greater emphasis on education and
39.8 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY training at all levels. Community colleges and
vocational schools should encourage the
39.8.1 TECHNOLOGICALEVOLUTION active participation of people experienced in
OUTPACING TRADITIONAL AIRCRAFT the field (even though they may not possess
MAINTENANCE SKILLS AT ALL LEVELS the requisite academic credentials) and seek to
enlist the help of subject matter experts.
It has been observed that with every new gen-
eration of commercial aircraft, there is an
increase in the utilization of composite materi- 39.8.3 DESIGN AIRCRAFT FOR
als and a corresponding increase in the MAINTAINABILITY
complexity of its design. The transition from
simple hand layed-up bonded aluminum hon- Design criteria focused on manufacturability
eycomb sandwich and fiberglass-skinned without regard to maintainability may ulti-
Nomex panels to monolithic carbon fiber mately result in compromising flight safety,
structures produced largely by means of auto- especially now that composites are finding
mated equipment has been a long, inexorable, increasing use in primary and principal air-
and not altogether painless process from the craft structure. New regulations mandating
operators’ point of view. ’damage-tolerant’ designs should be of great
The end users, principally the world’s value in the determining the design criteria of
commercial airlines, are finding it increas- future aircraft. Airline customer involvement
ingly difficult to keep up with the rapid in the design of new aircraft must go beyond
technological changes thrust upon them by payload, range, and other marketing concerns;
the manufacturers. Despite the large volume the time has come for the designer to solicit the
of technical literature available on the subject comments and suggestions of the maintenance
of composites, there is a dearth of practical engineer, the inspector and the mechanic.
information. One is tempted to say that the
industry is encumbered by a surfeit of highly
39.8.4 NEED FOR STANDARDIZATION
specialized data that is impenetrable to all
but the experts. There is no denying that this Standardization of repair methods, practices
research is both necessary and beneficial; and especially, repair materials is long over-
there is, however, a dire need to make this due. The emphasis must be placed on the
data amenable to all through thoughtful dis- typical and generic, rather than the peculiar
tillation. The worker in the field must know and proprietary. Cooperative efforts involving
the practical effects of this research on the manufacturers, materials suppliers, airlines,
daily exercise of his craft. He must be kept repair facilities, regulatory agencies, profes-
abreast of technological advances and given a sional societies as well as academia will be
chance to upgrade his skills in order to meet needed to ensure the long-term viability of
ever-changing demands. composites in aircraft structures.
 Conclusion and summary 879

Table 39.4 Composite repair training topics

Components of Composite Materials

Fibers and filaments Glass and quartz; carbon and aramid; boron
Product definitions Fiber; roving; strand; yam; woven fabrics, unidirectional tape; milled fibers
Fiber mechanical Density; strength; modulus; coefficient of thermal expansion
properties
Finishes and sizings Chrome; silanes; plasma treatments; resin solutions
Specialty fabrics Scrims; peel plies; bleeders and breathers; ceramics
Bonding adhesives, Epoxies; polyesters; phenolics; polyimides; bismaleimides; catalysts and
resins, prepregs hardeners; cyanate esters; acrylics; anaerobics; liquid adhesives; primers;
coupling agents; film adhesives; prepreg fabrics and tape
Procedures of Fabrication and Processing
Laminating The 'Laminate Code'; isotropic, anisotropic, quasi-isotropic laminates; cross-plied
laminates; hybrid laminates; anacoustic laminates
Other structures Filament/tape winding; RTM; braiding; pultrusions
Curing methods Autoclave; non-autoclave; single and multi-stage cures; postcuring; cure
monitoring - flow/gel/set
Vacuum bagging Bagging films; sealant tapes; breathers and bleeders; bagging techniques
Adhesive bonding Pastes; liquids; films; cements; pressure application
Sandwich panel Face sheets, doublers and close-outs/pans; core; properties of sandwich
construction construction:static strength and rigidity; adhesive filleting; shear ties
Core materials Metal/non-metal honeycomb; cell sizes and shapes: hexagonal, overexpanded,
flexcore; core density/weight; directional properties; compressive and shear
strengths
Surface preparation Cleaning, etching, anodizing, primer application; aluminum, steel, titanium,
for metals other metallic adherends
Surface preparation Abrasion; grit blast; taper sanding lap joints; step joints; use of peel plies
for non-steps
Joining and fastening Bonded joints; mechanical joints; fastener types and alloys; hole spacing; edge
distances; hole sizes for composite joints
Machining of Sawing; routing; drilling; sanding and grinding; water jet cutting; laser cutting
composites
Protective Coatings and Sealants
Organic polymers Pinhole fillers; sanding sealers; primers; surfacers; enamels: epoxy, polyurethane;
polysulfide coatings and sealants
Anti-static and Carbon-filled enamels; flame spray coatings; EM1 shielding materials
lightning protection
Heat and fire Silicone coatings; ablative and intumescent coatings; heat-resistant enamels
protection
Environmental Effects
Moisture Effect of moisture on uncured resins
Effect of moisture on cured systems
Temperature Effect of temperature on uncured resins
Effect of temperature on cured systems; glass transition
temperature; heat deflection temperature
Corrosion Galvanic corrosion: carbon/metal couples
Corrosion prevention
Erosion Effect of rain and particulates
Radiation Ultraviolet; thermal; nuclear Continued on next page
880 Repair aspects of composite and adhesively bonded aircraft structures

Table 39.4 (Continued)

Atmospheric Static charges; lightning strikes

electricity
Chemicals Aircraft system fluids: oils, hydraulic, deicing
Accidental exposures: paint stripper, solvent spills
Aging Fatigue and embrittlement effects on composites
Standard Tests for Adhesives and Prepregs
Metal adhesion Tensile shear; T-peel; honeycomb peel; crack extension (wedge) test
Prepregs Volatile and resin content; resin flow; gel time; tack
Cured laminates Interlaminar shear; short beam shear; flexure; 45" in-plane shear; tensile and
compressive strength and modulus; sandwich beam; hot/wet strength
Inspection and Quality Controls
Non-instrumented Visual inspection; tap test; penetrants
Instrumented X-ray; moisture detector; pulse-echo ultrasonic; through-transmissionultrasonic;
resonance ultrasonic; eddy current
Process quality Raw materials handling and storage; environmental controls; processing
controls materials controls; facilities and equipment controls; tool design and alteration;
detail preparation; in-process sampling inspections and witness coupons
Post-repair NDI Verification of compliance with specifications:cure cycle chart review; physical
tests and checks
Damage Assessment, Failure Analysis, Preventive Maintenance
In-service damage Foreign object impact; environmental degradation
Failed repairs 'Lesson learned'
Periodic inspections Coatings and sealants
Electrical continuity check
Specific Repair Methods
Repair categories Construction type; original materials; original cure temperature
Repair preparation Stripping; damage assessment and removal; decontamination
Repair materials Adherends and adhesives; auxiliary/ processing materials
selection
Surface preparations Metals; non-metals
Adhesive/resin cure Applying heat and pressure; cure and postcure; cure monitoring
Assembly completion Reassembly; finishes; weight and balance; final inspection
Health and Safety Aspects of Composites
Chemical exposure Dermal; ocular; inhalation; ingestion
routes
Hazard levels Acute vs. chronic toxicity
Material safety data The MSDS and how to interpret
Basic industrial Engineered control systems; personnel protection
hygiene
Toxicology of Resins and catalysts; solvent and diluents; fibers and fiber dust; sealants and
composite materials coatings

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