CONSTRUCTION
Ever J. Barber0
46.1 INTRODUCTION
Composite materials are used by the construc-
tion industry to replace or complement
conventional materials such as steel and con-
crete. The main reasons for the use of
composite materials are corrosion resistance,
electromagnetic transparency and weight sav-
ings. Frequently, structural engineers take
advantage of more than one salient feature of
composites to formulate a design that is com-
petitive with an alternate design based on
conventional materials.
Corrosion resistance is the most important
advantage of composites with respect to steel
for construction applications. The selection of
a composite material usually begins with the
selection of a resin that is capable of resisting
the attack of a corrosive substance. The corro-
sive agent can be anything from spring water
to sulfuric acid. Most composite manufactur-
ers provide corrosion resistance guides for
their products. For example, a table listing the
maximum operating temperature of isoph-
thalic polyester and vinylester resins as a
function of the chemical type and concentra-
tion is given by TUFSPAN Technical Data and
Design Guide (1991). Chemical resistance of
common resins used in pultrusion to various
chemical and concentrations as function of
operating temperature is given by Pletcher
(1991). Fibergrate (1992) supplies a Chemical
Resistance Guide for their molded fiberglass
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7
46
and pultruded products listing concentration,
operating temperature, and frequency of
exposure for a variety of chemicals. Most fiber
reinforcements are usually corrosion resistant.
Unlike metals, composites do not produce
interference with electromagnetic radiation.
The resin system can be selected to obtain very
low loss factors, but standard resin systems
are adequate for most structural applications.
Buildings for electromagnetic interference
(EMI) testing must be non-magnetic to avoid
attenuation and interference with the phenom-
enon that is being measured. All computer
equipment, for example, must be tested in an
EM1 facility. Imaging equipment such as
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) in hospi-
tals must be mounted in a magnetically free
environment. An electromagnetically trans-
parent cover for communications equipment
allows for the use of less-expensive, non-envi-
ronmentally protected electronic hardware
and reduced maintenance costs. Antennae
structures that do not interfere with the signals
being relayed or received by the antennae
increase the efficiency of the system.
While weight saving is the main driving
force behind the application of composites in
aerospace, it is not so critical in construction
projects. However, reduction of structural
weight can be exploited as a secondary advan-
tage to help offset the higher cost of
composites as compared to conventional
materials. Lightweight structures require less
foundation and supporting structure. In the
case of bridges, a noncorrosive bridge deck
can be built to replace existing steel reinforced

concrete decks that corrode rapidly under the
attack from de-icing chemicals. For example, a
pultruded deck was used to construct the
Wick Wire Run vehicular bridge on public
road 26, in Taylor County, West Virginia (com-
pleted August 1996).An added advantage of a
composite deck would be the weight reduc-
tion that supposedly would allow the user
(highway department) to re-rate some bridges
for a higher live load without major modifica-
tions to the existing superstructure. The live
load could be increased by approximately the
same amount of dead load saved with the use
of the composite deck minus adjustments for
dynamic effects. Other applications where
weight savings are important are cladding of
buildings, rehabilitation of chimneys, etc.
46.2 CURRENT APPLICATIONS
Current applications of composites in con-
struction can be classified by the major
advantage of the composite material that is
exploited. The main ones are corrosion resis-
tance and magnetic transparency. An
alternative classification may be based on the
type of construction. Composites are used in
the form of structural shapes (similar to steel
construction), as reinforcement for concrete,
cables, and for rehabilitation of existing struc-
tures. Reinforcement of concrete may be in the
form of conventional reinforcement, pre-
stressed concrete, or post-tensioned structures.
Rehabilitation applications include repairing
deteriorated structures as well as increasing
the load carrying capacity of sound structures
to re-rate them for higher load capacity.
Some of the recent applications of compos-
ites in construction of civil infrastructure will
be described in the next section. Further exam-
ples of applications can be found in previous
reviews (Barbero and GangaRao, 1991,
GangaRao and Barbero, 1991), professional
journals ( e g SAMPE Journal, ASCE Journal)
and edited books (Mufti, Erki and Jaeger,
1991a, 1991b; Iyer, 1991, Neale and Labossiere,
1992).Applications to pipes and tanks in ser-
Current applications 983
vice for more than twenty years atest the excel-
lent corrosion resistance of fiberglass
reinforced composites. The following exam-
ples of fiberglass reinforced isopolyester resin
applications, described extensively in the
excellent review by Adams and Bogner (1993),
illustrate the feasibility of constructing com-
posite structures and using them for many
years. A three mile pipe of diameter 254 mm
(10 in) is reported in service since 1971. Fifteen
miles of piping, carrying saline water with
temperature up to 50°C (112"F),pressure up to
lo6 N/m2 (10 bar), and exposed to sunlight has
been in operation in Saudi Arabia since 1983
without problems. An old sewage duct was
lined in 1971, then inspected in 1991 showing
no sign of deterioration. More than 300 000
underground fuel tanks are in use in North
America alone. Some of these have been in
operation for more than 26 years without
problems. Internal or external lining of steel
tanks has been common practice for more than
twenty years in the oil industry to protect and
reinforce the bottom of steel tanks that are cor-
roded internally because of corrosive
substances in the oil or externally because of
contact with soil. Wine tanks have been in
operation for more than 20 years without
problems. Ducts carrying chlorine gases and
sulphur dioxide, in use since 1962, and tanks
holding hydrochloric acid, in use since 1964,
remain in perfect condition. A chimney
exposed to organic chemicals, water vapor,
and temperature up to 60"C, in operation since
1968 is reported. Chimneys are important con-
struction applications because they are load
carrying structures designed for large wind
loads. A detailed account of recent applica-
tions of composites in construction, classified
by the type of construction, follows.
46.2.1 REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE
Concrete can be reinforced with fiber rein-
forced composites, with fibers mixed in the
concrete, or by polymers added to the concrete
mix. This article will concentrate on the use of
984 Construction

fiber reinforced composites, i.e. a combination Rebars

of fiber and polymer matrix, to substitute or
Reinforcing bars (rebars) have been used for
complement the traditional use of steel rein-
reinforcing concrete structures that require
forcing bars (rebars) in concrete. The addition magnetic transparency, such as imaging
of polymer or fibers to cementitious materials, equipment at hospitals (Fig. 46.2). The major
sometimes better classified as a ceramics, bear- expected application is to replace steel rebars
ing limited resemblance to regular, low cost in concrete bridge decks exposed to de-icing
concrete, falls beyond the scope of this article.
chemicals. The first use of composite rebars for
The interested reader may wish to consult a vehicular, public bridge is the McKinleyville
Mufty, Erki, and Jaeger (1991b, Chap. 2). Use Bridge, located in West Virginia, USA.
of fiberglass and carbon fibers mixed directly
Construction was completed August 1, 1996,
into concrete has been reported (Mufty, Erki
by Orders Construction Co., of St. Albans, WV.
and Jaeger, 1991a).Seibu Construction Co. Ltd. The bridge is a 54 m (177 ft) long concrete deck
used carbon fibers, produced by Mitsubishi
over steel stringer accommodating two lanes
Kasei Co., for the exterior walls of the
of vehicular traffic. The reinforcement of the
Kitakyushu Prince Hotel in Japan. Kajima Co.
concrete is exclusively made of composite
also used carbon fiber reinforced concrete pan-
rebars with E-glass fibers. It was designed by
els for the exterior of its head office building in
the West Virginia Department of
Japan. Polymer concrete is used in a variety of Transportation - Division of Highways (pro-
applications, such as in highway parapet walls
ject S305-27/4-0.03) and the Constructed
developed by Morrison Molded Fiber Glass
Facilities Center at West Virginia University.
(Fig. 46.1). The installation of the lightweight
The project was supported by the Federal
polymer concrete panels reduces to anchoring
Highway Administration, composite rebar
the panels to an existing parapet, then pouring
concrete into the panel that act as a stay-in-
place concrete form. Composite reinforcement
of regular, low cost concrete can be done using
rebars, grids, pre-stressing tendons and post-
tensioning cables.
F 1

Fig. 46.2 Fiberglass reinforced composite rebars

Fig. 46.1 Installation of polymer concrete panels as during construction of reinforced concrete struc-
highway parapets. (Courtesy of the Quazite ture. (Courtesyof Reynolds, Schlattner,Chetter, and
Division o~MMFG.) Roll Inc.)
 Current applications 985

manufacturers, and the Corps of Engineers. sion strength and, for most practical pur-
E-glass polyester rods are cost competitiveposes, negligible tensile strength it is
with steel rebars at the present time. These advantageous to pre-stress concrete so that a
rebars have evolved from smooth pultruded state of compressive stress is created before
rods to engineered rebars with improved bond the actual load is applied. (The American
strength to concrete. Further improvements in Concrete Institute recommendation ACI 363 R
bond strength, tensile strength, and durability
suggests a value for the modulus of rupture of
are certain to occur in the near future. concrete f, = 11.7 cfc)1/2which is a very low
E-glass composite tanks have been in ser- value of tensile strength in relation to the
vice for over 20 years, in permanent contact compression strength of concrete, f,.)Then,
with highly acid environments and under con- applied loads only reduce the amount of com-
stant stress. The use of the SPI liner (ASTM pressive stress without producing tensile
D-3299 and D-4097) proved very successful to stresses. In this way, concrete cracks are pre-
protect glass fibers from attack by chemicals in
vented, which in turn reduces moisture intake
storage tanks. Also, composites have been in and degradation. High strength steel tendons
contact with concrete for many years without are currently used for pre-stressing concrete.
deterioration. Investigation of the possible Even though cracks are arrested by the pre-
degradation of fiberglass rebars in concrete is
stress, concrete is porous and water and
under way. The possibility of moisture intake chemicals may reach the prestressing tendons.
of Aramid fibers may be a problem for rebars Composite tendons may replace the steel ten-
expected to be in service for at least 50 years.
dons for added durability. Pre-stressed
Carbon fibers have superior properties but concrete is usually pre-cast at a factory, then
transported to the site. The tendons are pre-
their cost limits their potential as a replace-
ment for construction steel. stressed by a hydraulic jack, the concrete is
Rebars are placed in the form-work to pro- poured and left to cure. After the concrete is
vide for reinforcement of concrete in the sameset, the tendons are cut to remove the chucks
way as fibers are used to reinforce polymers. used to apply the pre-stressing load. Some of
Usually, two perpendicular orientations are the pre-stress is lost because of the compres-
used, with more rebar area in one direction, sion, creep, and shrinkage of concrete. The
higher the elastic modulus of the tendon, the
according to the requirements of the structure.
Placement of rebars requires relatively inex- higher the pre-stress loss. For this reason, low
modulus glass fiber tendons experience less
pensive labor. The grid-like structure necessary
to reinforce concrete can be obtained pre- pre-stress loss than steel or carbon fiber ten-
assembled in the form of grids. Grids are dons. Pre-stress loads are high and induce
rectangular networks of rebars produced with large strains in the tendons, which may accel-
continuous fibers. Although more expensive erate degradation if the tendons are exposed
than rebars, they may be convenient if the to highly alkaline environment (Sen, 1992).
Two important requirements for pre-stress-
labor cost is high or the installation difficult, as
in the case of tunnels. Grids can also be pro-ing applications are a good bond strength
between the tendon and the concrete and
duced at or near the construction site by tying
rebars into a grid. The light weight of the availability of an effective temporary anchor-
age system. The anchor is not very critical
resulting grid makes transportation to the site
and installation simple. because it is temporary. Therefore, it does not
have requirements of non-corrosiveness, cost,
size, etc., but it must be able to transfer the
Prestressing load and sustain it until the concrete sets.
Since concrete has a relatively high compres- Anchorage systems are reported by Noritake
986 Construction
et aZ. (1992), Mochida, Tanaka and Yagi (1992),
Kakihara et al. (1991), etc. for various types of
tendons based on glass, aramid, and carbon
reinforcement. Sen (1992) used the anchorage
developed by Iyer at South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology. Efficient utilization of
composite tendons calls for large pre-stressing
forces to be applied. Permanent levels of stress
in the tendons should be under the stress rup-
ture limit of the composite (see Section 46.3.4).
The pre-stress forces applied to composite ten-
dons may induce cracking of the polymer
matrix. Matrix cracking;may be detrimental to
" d
the fatigue life of the composite. Also, cracking
facilitates the ingress of moisture that may
cause degradation of organic fibers or precipi-
tate alkaline reaction of glass (see Section
46.3.4).
Pre-stressing has been successfully used
by Iyer (1993) in a bridge deck (Fig. 46.3) pre-
cast and pre-stressed, then transported to the
bridge site. The bridge construction was
sponsored by Owens-Corning, AMOCO,
South Dakota Office of Economic
Development and South Dakota Cement
Plant; with the participation of Clark
Engineering, Glenn C. Barber and Associates,
FMG Engineering, Polygon, Shell, Central
Mix, Carlon/Ace Hardware and South
Dakota Concrete Products. A 180 mm (7 in)
concrete deck was post-tensioned with glass
and carbon fiber tendons which were subse-
quently grouted with epoxy based mortar.
The deck is supported by steel girders 2.6 m
(8.5 ft) apart and the bridge spans 9 m (30 ft).
Aramid bars were used in a standard pre-
stress pre-cast concrete factory to build
concrete barges (Noritake et aZ., 1992). At least
10 concrete bridges have been constructed in
Japan with some kind of composite reinforce-
ment (Mufti, Erki and Jaeger, 1991a). The
Shinmiya bridge is a pre-tensioned concrete
bridge built in 1988 in a coastal area. The pre-
cast concrete girders were pre-stressed with
seven strand, carbon composite tendons pro-
duced by Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co.
Epoxy coated steel rebars were used for the
- -'*----
I
J. I
I
r,_
Fig. 46.3 Post-tensioned concrete-deck bridge over
steel stringers. (Courtesyof Owens Coming.)
stirrups. The Sumimoto Construction Co. built
a demonstration bridge in 1990 in Oyama
using three concrete box girders pre-tensioned
with aramid composite rods, produced by
Teijin Co. Grouted anchorages were used to
pre-stress the rods at a permanent stress of
70% of their static tensile strength. While the
stirrups were also aramid composite rods,
epoxy coated steel rebars were used as shear
connectors between the girders and the rein-
forced concrete deck, which was reinforced
with epoxy coated steel rebars. The deck was
post-tensioned with aramid composite rods
which were then permanently grouted in the
deck. The Birdie bridge was built by Kajima
Co. in 1990 at the Ibaragi Prefecture using a
variety of composite materials. Carbon fiber
composite rods, produced by Mitsubishi
Kasei, were used to anchor the abutments. Pre-
cast concrete panels reinforced with vinylon
short fibers are connected with a grid of car-
bon fiber composite cables produced by Tokyo
Rope Manufacturing Co. The bridge is pre-
stressed with aramid composite flat bars
commercialized by Nippon Aramid Limited.
Half of the aramid bars are used as pre-ten-
sioning tendons and the remaining act as
post-tensioning tendons,with a permanent

stress of one third the static tensile strength.
Post-tensioning
Post-tensioning of concrete with steel or com-
posite tendons is performed to induce a state
of compressive stress in the concrete similarly
to pre-stressing, but post-tensioning is per-
formed at the construction site. A hole or
some kind of access is left in the concrete to
thread the post-tensioning cables through.
Tensile force is applied to the tendons against
the concrete structure before the structure is
loaded by the service loads. The anchorage
system is subject to severe requirements. First,
it must sustain the tension load for the whole
life of the structure, which requires very care-
ful design against creep in the anchor. Second,
the anchor should be resistant to corrosion as
the tendon itself if the non-corrosive proper-
ties of the system are the objective of replacing
steel tendons. The reduced weight of the ten-
dons is not very important because the heavy
weight of the concrete structure. While the
stress losses of fiberglass tendons are smaller
than those of steel cables, it is difficult to jus-
tify the use of more expensive and novel
composite tendons for this reason alone.
Therefore, corrosion resistance is the main
objective of using composite tendons. In this
case the anchorages should be resistant to cor-
rosion. Also, the structure to be post-
tensioned is usually made of reinforced con-
crete (although the reinforcement is not
sufficient to carry all the load). If corrosion is
a problem, the conventional reinforcement
(not pre-stressed or post-tensioned) may also
have to be made of composite material rebars.
Anchors for post-tension applications are
still being developed and evaluated.
Meisseler and Preis (1989) report on an
anchor developed to hold glass reinforced
tendons. The anchor is of the potted type, in
which the tendons comprising a cable are
spread at each end and potted in a steel
anchor with some grouting material, usually
a polymer. The potted type anchors are based
Current applications 987
on the transfer of the axial load in the cable,
by shear in the grouting material, to the
anchor. Attaching the anchor to the tendons is
a labor intensive process. The resin used to
bond the tendons to the anchor may creep,
leading to loss of pre-stress. This anchor was
used to partially post-tension several bridges.
Cases have been reported where individual
tendons slipped and broke at the anchor dur-
ing post-tensioning at the bridge site. Porter
and Barnes (1991) report several anchorage
systems. To avoid the problems that all pot-
ted type anchors have, Ahmed and Plecnik
(1989) developed a filament wound cable
where continuous fibers are wound around
the end eyes of the cable. Each cable must be
custom made for the required length, but the
problems of potted type anchors are elimi-
nated.
The Bachigawa-Minami-Bashi bridge (Koga
et al., 1992) uses both pre-stressing and post-
tensioning carbon fiber tendons. The
Schiessbergstrasse bridge in Germany and the
Notch bridge in Austria (Wolf and Miesseler,
1992), use partial post-tensioning with fiber-
glass cables. Some of the tendons that form a
cable contain sensors (copper wire or fiber
optical gauges) to monitor the strain level,
integrity of the tendon, and location of even-
tual damage. A demonstration bridge was
built in 1990 by the Sumimoto Construction
Co. in Oyama, Japan, using a single concrete
box girder, post-tensioned with aramid com-
posite rods produced by Teijin Co. The
internal tendons are placed in a parabolic
housing in each web and post-tensioned with
steel grouted anchorages to a permanent stress
of 25% of the static tensile strength of the ten-
dons. The external tendons are placed at the
bottom of the box girder and post-tensioned,
with grouted anchorages built with composite
casings for added corrosion protection, to a
permanent stress of 10% of the static strength.
Besides the composite post-tension cables, the
regular reinforcement of the girder uses epoxy
coated rebars. Further details are given by
Mufti, Erki and Jaeger (1991a).
988 Construction
Rehabilitation
There is significant interest in using compos-
ite materials for rehabilitation and upgrading
of existing structures. These structures may
have been damaged as a result of corrosion of
the steel reinforcement or they may need
upgrading to new seismic standards, larger
traffic loads and volume, etc. Interest in com-
posites is motivated by the ease of
installation of the reinforcement, its corrosion
resistance (mainly at the bond surface), and
the possibility of selecting from a variety of
elastic modulii which improves the compati-
bility between the reinforcement and the
existing structure Meier et al. (1992),
Saadatmanesh and Ehsani (1991), and others
have demonstrated the feasibility of rehabili-
tating concrete, steel, and wood structures by
reinforcement with composite plates. Meier et
al. report a variety of failure modes that may
be encountered in concrete beams reinforced
with composite plates. The reinforcement
may be a cured composite plate bonded to
the beam (Munipalle, 1992), or a room-tem-
perature cure prepreg directly applied to the
structure. The reinforced plates can be
applied with or without pre-stressing. While
pre-stressing the composite plate increases
the efficiency of the reinforcement, it also
complicates the rehabilitation process. Since
delamination of the reinforcing element is of
major concern, special reinforcement details
are used at the ends of the reinforcement.
Composite materials can also be bonded to
the sides of beams to improve the shear
strength. While using prepreg materials, both
shear strengthening and resistance to delami-
nations can be obtained by partially or
completely wrapping the beam with the rein-
forcement. Meier et al. (1992) reports on the
rehabilitation of two bridges in Switzerland.
The Ibach bridge was repaired using carbon
fiber reinforced plates bonded to the concrete
bridge. The rehabilitation of the timber
bridge in Sins involved replacement of the
wood pavement with transversely pre-
stressed and glued laminated deck (Davalos
and Salim, 1992). Some of the timber beams
were reinforced with carbon reinforced epoxy
plates. Rostasy, Hankers and Ranish (1992)
report on the reinforcement of the
Kattenbusch bridge (Germany) using steel
and glass reinforced composite plates. The
main reason cited for the selection of com-
posite plates is the documented corrosion of
the steel plates at the bonded interface.
Composite jackets have been proposed to
retrofit columns for seismic solicitations. Scale
samples (40%) were tested (Priestley, Seible
and Fyfe, 1992) and promising results were
found. A fiberglass epoxy jacket is built
around the hinge region of the column. On an
active confinement jacket, hoop stress is
induced by pressure grouting the space
between the concrete column and the compos-
ite jacket with either epoxy or concrete. A
passive confinement is obtained when no
pressure grouting is used. Passive confine-
ment is used in regions of high compression
stress, over the region of lap-spliced longitudi-
nal bars, or for regions of high shear stress.
Significant concrete dilation and consequent
longitudinal microcracking is necessary to
activate the confinement effect in passively
encased concrete. Active confinement has the
advantage that the confinement effect is
always available.
Chimneys have been rehabilitated in Japan
by Mitsubishi Kasei using carbon composite
tape and strands (Mufti, Erki and Jaeger,
1991a). The composite tape is applied along
the length of the chimney to provide addi-
tional bending strength. The strand is wound
around the chimney to provide hoop rein-
forcement. A fire protection mortar is finally
applied to protect the polymer composite from
fire, to limit the heat gain, and to avoid degra-
dation of the polymer matrix that otherwise
would occur if the carbon composite were
exposed to the environment.

46.2.2 STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Composite structural shapes resemble steel
hot- and cold-rolled structural sections.
Composite shapes are produced by pultrusion
in a variety of sizes and shapes (Creative
Pultrusions, 1989; MMFG, 1992). The rein-
forcement of choice is E-glass mainly because
of low cost. Most shapes are produced with
isophthalic polyester and vinylester, but some
pultrusions using epoxy, phenolic, and even
thermoplastics are available at higher cost.
Even for the most common polyester and
vinylester, there is a wide variety of resins sys-
tems, differentiated by mechanical properties,
thermal behavior, and cost. While vinylesters
are considered to have superior corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties than
polyesters, high grade polyesters may match
the mechanical properties of vinylesters.
Structural shapes are used primarily
because of their excellent resistance to chemical
degradation. In the case of electromagnetically
transparent structures, structural shapes are
routinely used for building construction in
very much the same way as steel shapes.
However, E-glass reinforced shapes have a
much lower modulus of elasticity than steel,
which causes design problems when direct
replacement of steel shapes by composite
shapes is attempted. Specialized sections, with
cross sections different from steel shapes, are
available for use in building systems with con-
struction characteristics (e.g. joist spacing)
very similar to steel frame buildings
(Composite Technology, 1992). Unlike steel
shapes, the mechanical properties of compos-
ite structural shapes largely depend on the
internal reinforcement, and the thermal and
corrosion response varies drastically with the
resin system used. Since the reinforcement
and the resin systems used are not standard-
ized, very different set of properties are
possible for identical cross sections, from dif-
ferent manufacturers.
Current applications 989
Platforms
Industrial platforms built entirely of pul-
truded fiberglass reinforced plastics are
widely used because of their corrosion resis-
tance. An area of application of special interest
is offshore platforms for oil production. Two
views, from above and below, of a fiberglass
well bay platform are shown in Figs 46.4(a)
and (b). Steel well bay platforms corrode
quickly in the marine environment. Painting
jobs are difficult because sand blasting may
release paint into the ocean unless costly pre-
cautions, such as scaffolding, are taken. Old
paint may be lead-based and cannot be
stripped unless it is completely captured and
dumped at a hazardous waste site. Well bay
platforms are installed after the production
wells are in operation. The area is usually clut-
tered with equipment, which makes difficult
the access of heavy lifting equipment needed
for installing heavy steel platforms, and weld-
ing cannot be done without shutting down oil
production. Fiberglass platforms weigh typi-
cally 30% of their steel counterpart, allowing
for installation by a smaller crew, in less time,
with less demand for space for lifting equip-
ment, and reduced transportation costs to the
site. The composite platforms are assembled
with mechanical connections eliminating the
need for welding and they are virtually main-
tenance free in the corrosive marine
environment, without need of painting. A 6 m
x 12 m (20 ft x 40 ft) well bay platform was
installed in 1986 on Shell’s Southpass 62 pro-
duction platform in the Gulf of Mexico by a
crew of four in two days and it is estimated
that a similar steel platform would have
required five days by a crew of eight because
of the lack of room for heavy lift equipment.
Building systems
Complete building systems, including the
structural frame, cladding and roofing are
available in fiberglass reinforced composites
(Composite Technology, 1992).Electromagnetic
990 Construction

Fig. 46.4 Well bay platform in an off-shore oil production facility (a) seen from above, @) seen from below.
Composite materials manufactured by MMFG. (Courtesy of MMFG.)
 Current applications 991

Interference ( E M ) testing buildings must be

built of materials free of magnetic interference,
with all metals ruled out and the use of timber
limited by the need to use steel connectors.
Pultruded structural shapes, fiberglass
cladding, and foam core panels offer an attrac-
tive alternative since all components can be
connected with fiberglass bolts and or glued
together to form an electromagnetically trans-
parent structure. Innovative combinations of
glued laminated timber (GLULAM)with com-
posites have also been exploited. A computer
testing facility (Fig. 46.5) was built for IBM in
Poughkeepsie, NY, by Corflex International Inc.
of Warren, OH, and Haines Lundberg Waehler
of New York, NY, using pultruded structural
shapes from Creative Pultrusions Inc. (1989).

Fig. 46.6 Fiberglass spire installed atop the 55-story

Nations Bank in Atlanta, GA. Comuosite materials
manufactured by MMFG. (Courtes; of MMFG.)

Fig. 46.5 Computer testing facility using pultruded Pedestrian bridges

structural shapes and fiberglass reinforced panels.
(Courtesy of Creative Pultrusions, Inc.)
The Nations Bank building in Atlanta, GA,
shown in Fig. 46.6 features a 11m (36 ft) tall,
all fiberglass spire at its top. Electromagnetic
transparency of the composite material used
allows the spire to house valuable communi-
cation antennae. Light weight, molded-in
color, and timely delivery were cited as advan-
tages of composite materials for this highly
visible application. The spire is mounted
312m (1023ft) above ground, and it is
designed to sustain a wind pressure of 550 kPa
(BO psi).
A number of pedestrian bridges have been
built with composite materials. Early bridges
are reported by Meier (1991), Barber0 and
GangaRao (1991) and others. While a few
bridges have been built by hand lay-up, the
majority are built with pultruded sections.
Concrete bridges partially reinforced with
composite tendons are discussed in previous
sections on concrete reinforcement. In this sec-
tion, we concentrate on bridges where most of
the materials used in the construction of the
bridges are composites. Because of cost, E-glass
reinforcement has been used most.
Johansen et al., from E. T. Techtonics of
Philadelphia, PA, report on the construction of
992 Construction
shapes. (Courtesyof E.T. Tcchtonics.)
three bridges of 6.1 m (20 ft), 9.75 m (32 ft),
and 15.24m (50 ft) (Fig. 46.7) using their
design and construction method, called
PRESTEK. Given the low stiffness of E-glass
reinforced pultruded composites when com-
pared to steel, conventional steel or concrete
designs are not efficient when implemented
with composites. The PRESTEK system uses a
beam-truss geometry of pultruded tubes pre-
stressed with aramid or steel cables. The three
bridges are a king-post truss, a queen-post
truss and a bow-string truss respectively.
Maunsell Structural Plastics in Beckenham,
Kent, England, with the participation of GEC
Reinforced Plastics (pultrusion manufactur-
ing), Scott Bader Co. Ltd (resin supplier),
Vetrotex UK (glass reinforcement), Ciba Geigy
Plastics (adhesives), Linear Composites
(Parafil cable stays), R. O'Rourke and Sons
(construction management), and University
of Dundee, constructed a pedestrian bridge
over the river Tay in Aberfeldy, Scotland. The
pultruded deck is cable stayed from two A-
frame towers, 17.5m (57 ft) high, to provide
for adequate stiffness despite the low stiffness
of the pultruded glass-polyester deck (Fig.
46.8). The bridge is 113m (370ft) long and
2.23 m (7.3 ft) wide, with a main span of 63 m
(206 ft). The deck and towers are constructed
with Maunsell's interlocking panels (ACCS
System by Designer Composites Technology
Ltd), pultruded with 70% volume of fiberglass
reinforcement and isophthalic polyester resin,
then bonded together with an epoxy adhe-
sive. The cable stays are Parafil ropes, a
Kevlar fiber core in a polyethylene sheath.
The bridge deck was designed to be modular
so that every component could be handled by
hand. The heaviest module, a 6 m (19.7 ft) by
0.6 m (2 ft) plank weighed only 66 kg (145 lb).
The weight of the deck is only 150kg/m
(lOOlb/ft) and each tower weighs only
2500 kg (5511 lb), facilitating erection and
reducing the cost of the foundation. The com-
posite system has class 2 fire resistance rating.
Bridge enclosures
The A19 Tees Viaduct in Middlesbrough, UK, is
a steel-concrete bridge with 117 m (383 ft) span

Fig. 46.8 Pedestrian bridge across the river Tay in Aberfeldy, Scotland, features an all-composite deck cable
stayed with Parafil cables from two composite A-frame towers. (Courtesyof Maunsell Structural Plastics
Ltd.)
(Head, 1988) where rapid deterioration of the
steel plate girders was taking place.
Maintenance (e.g. painting) and rehabilitation
work are difficult since the viaduct spans over
railroad tracks. A composite material enclosure
was built in 1989 to prevent further deteriora-
tion by isolating the bridge from the
environment and to facilitate maintenance and
rehabilitation. A floor area of 16000m2
(172 200 ft2)using 250 metric tons (275 US tons)
of composite material was created under the
bridge by interlocking pultruded panels
wrapped around the steel girders of the bridge
to create a box. The enclosure system was
designed by Maunsell StructuralPlastics Ltd, of
Beckenham, Kent, UK. The system uses inter-
locking panels designed by Maunsell and
fabricated by GEC Reinforced Plastics Ltd,
while the main contractor was Fairclough
Construction Ltd. The enclosure system has
been also used in the construction in 1992 of the
enclosure to the Bromley South Bridge, seen in
Current applications 993
Fig. 46.9, over the railway station. Pultruded
plank and connector sections are joined to form
a floor system suspended from the steel girders
of the bridge. Pleasant appearance was
required since the bridge is located in a resi-
dential area and over the railway station. Light
weight and low maintenance costs were cited
as additional advantages of composites for this
application.
Cooling towers
The resistance of composite materials to
humidity and creep under sustained loads has
been demonstrated by their successful appli-
cation to cooling towers, in operation for more
than twelve years (Fig. 46.10). Cooling towers
are permanently loaded with the heavy
weight of the ceramic filling used for cooling.
These towers are built by Ceramic Cooling
Towers of Forth Worth, TX, entirely of com-
posites except for the ceramic filling. The
994 Construction
Fig. 46.9 Enclosure of the Bromley South bridge is accomplished with interlocking pultruded panels
bonded together into a floor system and suspended from the steel girders of the bridge. (Courtesy of
Maunsell Structural Plastics Ltd.)
composite material is in permanent contact
with hot water and humid hot air circulating
through the tower. Reduced maintenance of
the tower is cited as an important advantage of
using composites. Light weight of the struc-
ture of the tower is an additional advantage
when the towers must be located on top of
buildings. Construction of large industrial
cooling towers motivated the development of
the UNILITE Modular System which takes
advantage of modular construction to reduce
cost. Composites facilitate modular construc-
tion because of the variety of shapes that can
be easily produced.
Marine construction
Potential applications for composites in the
construction and rehabilitation of marine and
waterfront constructed facilities include
docks, piers, harbors, etc. An all-composite
pontoon designed by Maunsell Structural
Plastics Ltd, of Beckenham, Kent, UK and dis-
tributed by Designer Composites Technology
Ltd, UK, is shown in Fig. 46.11. Finger piers of
up to 15 m (49 ft) are built with cellular inter-
locking pultruded panels, joined to foam filled
flotation units. The surface of the pontoon is
covered with a non-slip polyurethane coating
which is acid, solvent, and heat resistant.
46.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Current composite design practice emphasizes
simultaneous design of the structure (beams,
plates, frames, etc.) and the material (compos-
ite) for optimum performance. Design practice
for composites used in construction differs
from aerospace applications in the sense that
standardization of components is required
because of cost and safety. Therefore, design is
divided into member design, usually per-
formed by the manufacturer, and system
design, carried out by the structural engineer.
Codes of practice do not yet exist for structural
design with composites, but they are being
 Design considerations 995
. .. ... ._... .
deflections are controlled by the bending stiff-
ness D, equivalent to EI for steel beams. Since
composite beams have different values for
modulus of elasticity at various points in the
cross section, it is not possible to completely
define the stiffness with respect to both axis of
bending by the product of the modulus and
the corresponding moment of inertia (€1 and
€Ixx ) Instead, two bending stiffnesses and <
Dx are defined, with respect to the strong axis
and weak axis respectively. Shear deforma-
tions are neglected for steel beams because the
shear stiffness of steel is high ( G / E = 0.4) while
for composites is low ( G / E < 0.1). The shear
stiffnesses of a composite beam with respect to
the two axis of bending are denoted F y and Fx.
The values of the bending, shear, and axial
stiffness (Dy, K F ~ A,)
, can be obtained from
tables supplied by the beam manufacturer,
k
obtained experimentally (Bank, 1989), or com-
puted if detailed information about the
constituent materials is known (Barbero,
1998). Maximum deflections can be computed
using the formulae in Fig. 46.12. Experimental
values of shear stiffness usually refer to the
Fig. 46.10 All-composite cooling towers like this, product of K F where
~ K is the shear correction
developed and manufactured by Ceramic Cooling factor.
Tower, have been in operation for more than twelve
years.
c
developed. Some methods of analysis and
design recently developed are described in
this section.

46.3.1 BEAMS
Beams are the most common structural com-
ponent in civil engineering applications. Both . -+-----
deflection and strength are equally important
in the design of composite beams. Composite
beams are thin-walled and composed of an
assembly of flat panels. Most beams are pris-
matic but they can have taper. They are
Fig. 46.11 The pontoon pier shown is built of inter-
produced by pultrusion, filament winding, locking pultruded panels and foam filled flotation
hand lay-up, automated lay-up, etc. devices. A polyurethane coatingprotects the surface
Deflection of composite beams has two from acid, solvents, and heat. (Courtesy of
components, bending and shear. Bending Maunsell Structural Plastics Ltd.)
996 Construction

W
4
5 W L + 1 WLZ
n s%=384% 8 KF~
I

Fig. 46.12 Center deflection of composite beams including bending and shear effects.

The sigruficance of the shear deflection with
respect to the bending deflection varies with
the span, the larger the span the lesser the influ-
ence of shear. Sometimes, properties of beams
are reported without distinction between the
bending and shear components, using an
apparent value of modulus Eapp= Dy/lyy,where
D,, is the bending stiffness with respect to the
strong axis. The bending stiffness with respect
to the weak axis Dx cannot be accurately
obtained as Dx = EapIxx. The apparent stiffness
Eappis then used in &e classical deflection for-
mulas (for steel) that do not account for shear
deformations. The reported values are usually
based on three-point bending tests, performed
at the factory with a specific span, which is sel-
dom reported. The results of using the classical
(steel) deflection formulas for spans or loading
other than that of the test are only approximate.
The main modes of failure of beams in
bending are: (a) compression crushing of the
compression flange; (b) local buckling of the
compression flange; (c) tensile rupture of the
tension flange; (d) shear failure of the web;
and (e) web buckling. Since each part (panel)
of the cross section can be built with different
materials, the failure mode can be controlled
by design. Local buckling modes can be elimi-
nated by increasing the thickness and
choosing the fiber orientations properly
(Barber0 and Raftoyiannis, 1993). The com-
pression strength of composites is lower than
the tensile strength. Therefore, a symmetric
section is not the most efficient cross section.
Symmetric sections fail in the compression
flange first. Tensile failure may occur in
unsymmetric sections, when the compression
flange works with composite action with a
deck, etc. Shear failure is less likely to occur in
sections with multiple webs. Incorporation of
off-axis fibers (cloth, mats, etc.) increases the
shear strength.
46.3.2 COLUMNS
Columns are structural members subjected
primarily to compression forces acting along
Design considerations 997
the length of the member. Lateral forces (e.g.
wind forces) and bending moments (e.g.
eccentric loading) are considered secondary
forces, which are dealt with separately.
Column performance is limited by one of two
failure mechanisms, crushing and buckling.
Crushing is the failure of the material because
of excessive compressive stress, similar to
yield of steel. Buckling is more frequent in
composite columns because thin-walled sec-
tions are preferred. A thin-walled section may
experience at least three different types of
buckling, which are described next.
Long and slender columns fail in a global
sense when the axial load reaches a critical
value P,, For load values lower that the criti-
cal load the column remains straight. When
the load reaches critical value, the column
experiences sudden lateral deflection. The
axial stiffness after buckling is much lower
than the stiffness before buckling. Therefore,
the lateral deflections are quite large and they
usually precipitate another mode of failure
like crushing of parts of the cross section, lead-
ing to collapse.
The concept of slenderness allows us to
compare members of different cross sections
and column lengths for their tendency to
buckle. For a composite column, the slender-
ness is defined as
= L&) (46.1)
where P, is the local buckling load, D is the
bending stiffness, and Le is the effective
length of the column, which is used to
account for different end conditions (Gere
and Timoshenko, 1990, p. 589).
Short and stubby columns, which have a
low Slenderness value, are less likely to buckle
in a global mode as described previously.
However, individual parts (flange or web) of
the cross section may buckle locally. Local
buckling is very likely to occur in composite
columns because they are commonly thin
walled. The compressive stress required to trig-
ger local buckling increases with the thickness
998 Construction
of the cross section and the local stiffness of the
material. The narrower the flange or web
under consideration, the higher the local buck-
ling load P,. The wavelength of local buckling
is independent of the length of the column for
columns of practical lengths.
Flange buckling of open section members is
triggered by pure compression.It occurs during
compression of columns and on the compres-
sion flange of beams in bending. Web buckling
is initiated by shear and it occurs during bend-
ing of beams. Web buckling of open section
columns is not common because most open sec-
tions have wide flanges that buckle first. There
is of course no distinction between flanges and
webs in closed section columns. Unlike steel
structural shapes, composite closed sections are
easier to produce and structurally more effi-
cient than open section members.
Local buckling can be prevented by choos-
ing the section geometry and material
properties. Global buckling can be prevented
by a combination of section geometry, material
properties and bracing. If all buckling modes
are prevented, the strength of the member is
limited by the crushing strength of the mater-
ial itself, which plays a role similar to the yield
strength of metals. The crushing strength is a
material property which is independent of the
thickness of the flange or web and the geome-
try of the section. As for any composite
property, it depends of the constituents (fiber
and resin) and the arrangements of the fibers
inside the material (orientation, fiber volume
fraction, stacking sequence). The crushing
strength is usually determined experimentally
but the main factors that influence its value
can be highlighted by predictive equations
(Tomblin, 1994; Barbero, 1998).
A slender column buckles in a global
(Euler) mode. A not-so-slender column may
fail in a local buckling mode. A thick-walled
stubby column may fail due to crushing.
Columns with a slenderness ratio less than 0.5
fail in a local buckling mode. For slenderness
larger than 1.5 the mode is purely global
(Euler). Columns with slenderness between
0.5 and 1.5 show some type of interactive phe-
nomenon. The interaction occurs between the
local mode, the global mode, and crushing.
Interaction results in lower buckling loads
than those predicted by any of the modes act-
ing alone.
There are many situations of practical inter-
est for which the buckling loads required to
produce two or more failure modes (Euler,
local, crushing) may be very close. In this case
the failure modes interact. That is, the proxim-
ity of the stresses to more than one mode of
failure causes the structure to fail at a lower
stress value that predicted by either of the
modes involved should they be acting sepa-
rately. Euler and local modes interact to give
an overall strength deterioration. Interaction
must be taken into account because the
strength values predicted by either isolated
mode fit are not conservative. The failure load
of a column (Po) taking into account local,
global, and interaction phenomena simultane-
ously can be obtained from the following
design equation (Barbero and Tomblin, 1993)
The column properties needed to use this
design equation are: the local buckling load PL;
the interaction constant c; and the bending
stiffness D, which along with the length of the
column enter in the computation of the slen-
derness 1 (46.1). All these properties can be
determined experimentally or predicted ana-
lytically. The bending stiffness D and the local
buckling load P,, can be predicted analytically,
while an analytical study of the interaction
phenomenon is presented by Raftoyiannis
(1993). The design equation does not have any
safety factor included. Typical properties of
wide-flange pultruded structural shapes are
given in Table 46.1 where the interaction con-
stant is c = 0.84 for all sections reported.The
length at which maximum interaction occurs
is denoted by L‘.
 Design considerations 999

Table 46.1 Column properties obtain the Euler buckling load P,,, as the
inverse of the slope in the A/€' vi: A plot,
Section PL (kN) D (kN cm2) L x (cm) where A is the lateral deflection and P is the
102 x 102 x 6.4 223.25 6094.67 105.9 load.
152 x 152 x 6.4 175.12 20954.42 221.5 Interaction testing can be performed with
the same setup described for global (Euler)
testing. The objective is to determine the inter-
action constant c in (46.2). Once two or more
modes of failure interact, the Southwell
method cannot be used. Therefore, only the
Testing of short columns is performed to iden- maximum collapse load is reported for tests
tify the local buckling load P, in the column performed on columns having slenderness
design (46.2).Buckling of the flanges is seldom values between 0.5 and 1.5. The collapse load
a sudden phenomenon as described by the is lower than the critical load that would occur
theory because of the imperfections of the should any of the modes involved act isolated
material. Therefore, flange lateral deflections from the others, as the experimental data
are observed from the onset of the test and clearly indicates. The test is conducted with a
they grow as the load is applied. The buckling column length that exhibits maximum interac-
load P,, to be used in the design corresponds tion (L*), which occurs for a column
to the asymptote of the hyperbolic curve of slenderness 1= 1. The interaction constant is
load vs. deflection. Since it is not practical to computed as c = (q + s - l)/qs, where q = P/P,,
conduct the test up to the large deflections s = P/P,,, P is the collapse load, P, is the local
needed to realize the asymptotic value of load, buckling load (predicted or previously mea-
a data reduction technique (Tomblin, 1991) is sured on short columns) and P,, is the Euler
used. buckling load (predicted or previously mea-
Columns having slenderness larger than 1.5 sured.)
will buckle in a global mode (Euler).The Euler
buckling load is controlled by the bending 46.3.3 REINFORCEMENT OF CONCRETE
stiffness D. A column with pinned-pinned end
conditions is subjected to an axial load (prefer- Reinforcement of Portland cement concrete
ably under axial displacement control).Pinned can be accomplished with composite reinforc-
end conditions are the only conditions that can ing bars (rebars) instead of steel bars to
be achieved with any degree of certainty. A minimize the corrosion of steel and cracking of
100% degree of fixity required by a clamped concrete caused by the expansion of the cor-
end condition is not achievable on composite roding steel rebars. Composite rebars should
columns because of the difficulties associated have good bond with concrete and adequate
with connecting composites. Data from corrosion resistance. Pultruded rebars are the
pinned-pinned columns can be used for other most common and least expensive alternative
end conditions by using the effective length for the reinforcement (not pre-stressed) of con-
concept (46.1). Weak axis tests are simpler to crete. Pultruded rebars have an angle
perform, since strong axis tests require the use overwrap and/or a sand coating to improve
of lateral support. Because of the imperfec- the bond with concrete. Fiberglass rebars,
tions in the material and loading fixture, the aramid rebars, seven-wire carbon cables,
load deflection plot has an hyperbolic shape, grids, and even gratings have been used in
the buckling load being given by the asymp- research studies as reinforcements of concrete.
tote of the plot. A data reduction technique Fiberglass rebars have lower modulus of
known as the Southwell method is used to elasticity than steel rebars, causing larger
1000 Construction

deflections than in steel reinforced concrete Creep is observed as increasing elongation

beams. Typically, the deflection of reinforced under constant load. Relaxation is the reduction
concrete (RC) beams is controlled by two fac- of stress over time for a constant elongation.
tors: the amount of concrete that remains Permanent levels of stress in the composite
un-cracked (essentially in compression); and should be under the stress rupture limit (also
the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement. called static fatigue) of the composite. Martine
The extension of cracking in the tension side of (1993) reported stress rupture of E-glass rein-
RC beams depends largely on the strength and forced composite at 10 000 h at 58% of the initial
uniformity of the bond between the rebar and strength. Glaser, Moore and Chiao (1983) report
concrete. Good bond translates into uniformly survival of S-glass reinforced epoxy specimen
spaced cracks in the tension side of the beams. to a 10 year sustained load test: 90% of the spec-
Therefore, a larger area of concrete remains imens survived at 50% of static strength; 98%
un-cracked, thus contributing to the bending survived a 40% loading; and 100% survived a
stiffness and limiting deflections. Fiber rein- 35% loading. To account for stress rupture and
forced composite rebars have a linear other factors in the design of fully overwrapped
stress-strain behavior up to failure, thus they pressure vessels for compressed natural gas,
experience a brittle behavior when compared stress ratios (burst over service fiber stress) of
to steel rebars that have a yield plateau (i.e. 3.5 for fiberglass, 3 for aramid, and 2.25 for car-
plasticity) before they rupture. Brittle behavior bon reinforced composite were proposed by the
is not convenient from a safety point of view American National Standards Institute (AGA
because of possible catastrophic RC member NGV2 1992).These are indications that the sta-
failure. However, concrete reinforced with tic strength of fiber reinforcements cannot be
fiberglass rebars experiences very large deflec- utilized for long duration loads like those
tions up to failure, larger than comparable encountered in construction applications.
steel reinforced beams in their plastic regime, Glass fibers, if unprotected, deteriorate
because of a combination of low modulus of when exposed to an alkaline environment.
elasticity and high tensile strength of the fiber-Therefore, glass reinforced composites rely on
glass rebars. the protection provided by the resin to resist
No code or standard regulating the design the attack of alkaline environments. Alkaline
of RC beams, reinforced with fiberglass com- degradation is of particular concern in con-
posite reinforcing bars (rebars) is in place at crete reinforced with fiberglass composites
the time of this publication. Faza and since the concrete mix is alkaline. While con-
GangaRao (1993) suggest that it is possible to crete alkalinity is well documented at the time
proceed along the lines of the American concrete is poured, only now are studies being
Concrete Institute guidelines ACI 318-89 com- conducted to investigate the level of alkalinity
plemented by the recommendations ACI 363 of concrete with time. Water is needed to
R, properly modified to account for the prop- establish a link between the glass fibers and
erties of the fiberglass rebars. the alkaline concrete environment. If water is
present, the link can be established through
46.3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
cracks in the resin. Permeability of the poly-
mer matrix resulting from voids or moisture
Dead loads (e.g. the weight of the structure) diffusivity of the polymer are being consid-
will be applied to the composite material for the ered as possible additional mechanisms that
life of the structure. Sustained loads induce two may place the alkaline concrete environment
major effects in composites, creep and stress in contact with the glass fibers.
rupture. Creep and relaxation are two altema- S2-glass reinforced Shell Epon 9310 com-
tive descriptions of the same phenomenon. posite rods produced by pultrusion were used

by Sen, Issa, and Mariscal (1992) to pre-stress
concrete piles. Seven 3 mm (0.125in) diameter
rods were twisted with one turn every 30 cm
(12 in) to create a seven wire strand. The
strands were used to pre-stress concrete piles
to be used in marine environment. To simulate
marine environment, the piles were subjected
to wet and dry seven-day cycles in a 15%
sodium chloride solution, then tested to failure
in bending. To facilitate the moisture ingress,
four out of eight glass composite reinforced
piles were pre-cracked at the mid-span prior
to testing. The bending strength of specimens
subjected to the wetting cycles, specially those
pre-cracked, reduced significantly over time.
From the pre-stressing force applied, it is pre-
dicted that 1.6% strain was induced in the rod,
while larger values of strain may have been
induced during the precracking of the beams.
Additionally, radial stresses produced by the
twist of the rods in the strand and by the mois-
ture ingress in the resin may have caused
cracking. Although the neat resin failure strain
is reported at 4%, the strain applied to the
composite rods may have produced cracking
of the matrix, thus facilitating the ingress of
moisture carrying the alkaline solution to the
glass fibers. Scanning electron microscopy
micro-photographs clearly show degradation
of the glass fibers along with some cracking of
the matrix. An additional pile was fabricated
with pultruded fiberglass rods for which an
additional coating resin was added to provide
a smooth finish. This pile performed signifi-
cantly better than the other four after a nine
month exposure, perhaps because of the
added protection of the finishing resin. It is
concluded that the alkalinity of the environ-
ment (eg. concrete), the availability of water
or other solvent, and the protection provided
by the resin must be evaluated for each spe-
cific application.
46.4 CONCLUSIONS
Composite materials have been used for many
structures that have performed well over
References 1001
many years of service, mostly in adverse con-
ditions. Composites are being used
extensively for applications where the advan-
tages significantly justify their higher initial
cost. Composites have been successful when
the design and manufacturing of a product
was performed by a single company or group
of companies, using the integrated design
approach typical of the aerospace industry.
The use of composites in the traditional civil
engineering environment, where individuals
create unique structures from standard com-
ponents, has been slow, with the exception of
markets where corrosion resistance offsets
higher costs and less than optimum perfor-
mance. Large markets have not developed
partly because of lack of design codes and
specifications and lack of awareness of com-
posites advantages by structural engineers. A
number of factors, including the decline of
military industry and the need for rehabilita-
tion of USA infrastructure, have produced a
flurry of activity in this area, which undoubt-
edly will produce significant progress in the
application of composites in construction.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere gratitude to Prof. G. Turvey for his help
researching applications in Europe, to all the con-
tributors of information for this article, and to West
Virginia University for the support of this project.