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Introduction (1)
- Multipath propagation causes fading
- Fading causes poor signal quality or bit errors on systems using digital
modulation
- Wireless systems need to use one or more techniques to reduce the effects of
multipath.
- Three most effective techniques are equalization diversity and channel
coding
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Introduction (2)
Techniques are used to improve radio link performance
Equalization
- Compensate for intersymbol Interference (ISI) create by multipath within
time dispersive channels
Diversity
- Compensate for fading channel impairments
Channel coding
- Used by the receiver to detect or correct some (or all) of the errors introduced
by the channel in a particular sequence of message bits
Equalization Characteristic
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Equalization Concept (2)
Operating mode
Training
- Pseudorandom or fixed binary signal which is prescriptive bit pattern
Tracking
- Algorithm to evaluate the channel and estimate filter coefficients
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Equalization Concept (4)
Equalizer condition
y (t ) = x (t ) ⊗ f ∗ (t ) + nb (t )
d̂ (t ) = x (t ) ⊗ f ∗ (t ) ⊗ heq (t ) + nb (t ) ⊗ heq (t )
f ∗ (t ) ⊗ heq (t ) = δ(t )
F ∗ (− f )H eq ( f ) = 1
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Equalization Concept (6)
Linear equalizer (transversal filter) with both feedforward and feedback taps,
and is called an infinite impulse response (IIR) filter
Symbol period
Ts = 1.00 µs
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Equalization Simulation (2)
Frequency domain
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Equalization Simulation (4)
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Diversity Concept (1)
Basic idea
- Send same bits over independent fading paths
- Combine paths to mitigate fading effects
- Provide two or more inputs to the receiving site for that fading on
among those inputs are uncorreleated
- If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path
may have a strong signal
- Two kind of fading, long term (large scale) and short term (small
scale) fading
- Long term fading can be mitigated by macroscopic diversity (apply
on separated antenna sites) like the diversity using two base stations
- Short term fading can be mitigated by microscopic diversity (apply on
locally located antenna site) like the diversity using multiple
antennas on the base station or mobile unit
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Diversity Concept (3)
None Diversity
Single Input Single Output (SISO)
Receiving Diversity
Single Input Multi Output (SIMO)
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Diversity Concept (5)
Transmit Diversity
Multi Input Single Output (MISO)
Transmit/Receiving Diversity
Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO)
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Diversity Techniques (1)
Diversity Techniques
Space diversity
- Multiple antenna elements separated by decorrelation distance
Angle or direction diversity
- One or multiple directional antenna(s), each responds to a narrow
direction of arrival (DOA) spread
Polarization diversity
- Two transmit or receive antennas with different polarizations
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Diversity Techniques (3)
Space Diversity
- Branches are two or more antennas separated in space
- Used in cellular systems in almost all base station
- Used by most microwave point-to-point links
(2 antennas space vertically on same tower)
- At mobile, need little separate distance (0.4λ -0.5λ )
- At base station, need lager separate distance (10λ -20λ)
- Seldom used in mobiles due to cost and limited space
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Diversity Techniques (5)
Polarization Diversity
- Radio wave polarization given by direction of electric field vector
- Polarization of the signal can change when it reflects
- Can use antennas sensitive to different polarizations
- Can make use of orthogonal polarization (horizontal and vertical polarization
or clockwise and anticlockwise polarizations
- Advantage is that don’t need any spatial separation between antennas
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Diversity Techniques (7)
Time Diversity
- Same information is transmitted on times with interval separated by the
coherence time of the channel
- Problem is that each diversity path (time) increases the bandwidth
required
- Not commonly used
- Interleaving
- Automatic repeat request (ARQ)
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Diversity Techniques (9)
Automatic repeat request (ARQ)
- When the receiver detects errors in a packet, it will automatically request
the retransmission of missing packets or packets with errors
Common schemes
- Stop & wait
- Go back N
- Selective repeat
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Diversity Techniques (11)
Go back N
- Uses a window mechanism where the sender can send packets that are within
a window rang of packet
- If windows size = N, sender cannot send packet i+N until it has received the
ASK for packet i
- When the transmitter reaches the end of its window, or time out it goes back
and retransmits packet within the window
- Attempts to retransmit only those packets that are actually lost (due to errors)
- Receiver must be able to accept packets out of order, then receiver must be
able to buffer some packet
- Packets that are not ACKed before a time out are assumed lost or in error
- Negative acknowledge (NAK) can request retransmission of just one packet
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Diversity Techniques (13)
Path Diversity
- Fading cause multipath of signal
- Used in wideband channel such as spread spectrum and CDMA system
- RAKE receiver is used for separate the path of signal
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Diversity Techniques (15)
Maximum ratio RAKE combining
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Combining Techniques (1)
Combining Techniques
Selection combining (SC)
- Fading path with highest gain used (selecting the strongest signal among
the M diversity branches)
Switched (scanning) combining
- Receiver switches to another branch when ever it experience fading in the
current branch
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Combining Techniques (3)
Selection Combining (SC)
- Selected fading path with highest
gain (maximum SNR)
- For analog signals the quantity of interest might be the SNR improvement in
average SNR
- For digital system, we may be more interested in the probability that the signal
falls below a threshold
- If the probability that one branch is “fade” is p and the fading of the different
branches is in dependent, then the probability that all M branches are faded is pM
and the probability that not all branches are faded is 1-pM
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Combining Techniques (5)
Equal Gain Combining (EGC)
- It is a co-phase combining that brings all phases to a common point and combines
- Combined signal is the sum of the instantaneous envelops of the individual
branches
- It is simple but not optimum, mostly used
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Channel Coding Concept (1)
Errors
- Errors occur due to noise or interference on a communication channel
- Error detection and correction codes are used for bit errors
- Retransmission (ARQ) is used for packets
Channel coding
- Channel codes that are used to detect errors are called error detection codes
- Channel codes that can detect and correct errors are called error correction
codes
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Block Codes (1)
- Block codes are forward error correction (FEC) codes that enable a limited
number of errors to be detected and corrected without retransmission
- Data is broken up into blocks of equal length
- Each block is “mapped” onto a larger block
- Block code is referred to as an (n,k) code where
n : Block length
k : Number of data bits
n-k : Number of checked bits
R = k/n : Code rate
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Block Codes (3)
Block Code Parameters
Distance of a code
- Distance of a code word is the number of elements in which two
codewords Ci and C j
N
d (Ci ,C j ) = ∑ Ci ,l ⊕ C j ,l
l =1
- Minimum distance is the smallest distance for the given set and is
given as
d min = Min{d (Ci ,C j )}
Weigh of a code
- Weight of a codeword is given by the number of nonzero element
in the code word
N
w(Ci ) = ∑ Ci ,l
l =1
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Block Codes (5)
Block Code Parameters (Cont.)
00 ⇒ C1 = 0000
Example - (4,2) code 01 ⇒ C2 = 0101
10 ⇒ C3 = 1010
d (C1 ,C2 ) = 2 11 ⇒ C4 = 1111
d (C1 ,C3 ) = 2 w(C1 ) = 0
d (C1 ,C4 ) = 4 w(C2 ) = 2
d min = 2
d (C2 ,C3 ) = 4 w(C3 ) = 2
d (C2 ,C4 ) = 2 w(C4 ) = 4
d (C3 ,C4 ) = 2
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Block Codes (7)
Properties of Block Codes (Cont.)
Systematic
- For an (n,k) code, the first k bits are identical to the information bits, and
the remaining n-k bits of each code word are linear combinations of the
k information bits
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Convolutional Codes
- Output is provided by looking at a sliding window of input
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Coding Gain (2)
Example of coding gain
1 4 ⎛ 4⎞
≅ ∑ i⎜ ⎟0.01i (1 − 0.01)4−i
4 i =2 ⎝ i ⎠
1 ⎡ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎤
≅ ⎢2⎜ ⎟0.0120.994− 2 + 3⎜ ⎟0.0130.994−3 + 4⎜ ⎟0.0140.994− 4 ⎥
4 ⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎦
1
[
≅ 2(6 )0.0120.99 2 + 3(4 )0.0130.991 + 4(1)0.0140.990
4
]
≅ 2.97 × 10−4 = 0.0297%
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