John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Investigating divisibility

Factorize the expression P(n) = nx – n for x ∈{2,3,4,5} Determine if the

expression is always divisible by the corresponding x. If divisible use
mathematical induction to prove your results by showing whether
P(k+1) – P(k) is always divisible by x.

Using appropriate technology, explore more cases, summarize your results

and make a conjecture for when nx- n is divisible by x.

For when x=2

P(n) = n2 – n
= n(n-1)

By substituting some values into this equation, we can see if the result is divisible
by 2, the corresponding x.

For n=2
P(n) = n2 – n
P(2) = 22– 2
P(2) = 4–2 = 2

For n=13

P(n) = n2 – n
P(13) = 132 – 13
P(13) = 169-13=156

For n=15

P(n) = n2 – n
P(15) = 152 – 15
P(15) = 225-15= 210

The result is divisible by 2 for all the above cases, by factorizing the equation, we
get:

P (n) = n2 − n
= n(n-1)

Since n and n-1 will always be consecutive numbers for when n is an integer, one
will always be an even number. and any number that has an even number as one
of it’s factor will always be even, and thus divisible by 2.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Using mathematical induction to find P(k+1) - P(k), and prove divisibility true for
all n for x=2:

P(n) = n2 − n

for n = 1 ,
P (1) = 12 − 1 = 0

for n = k ,
P(k) = k2 − k

for n = k + 1 ,
P(k +1) = (k +1)2 − (k +1)
P (k +1) = k2 + 2k + 1 − k − 1
P (k +1) = k2 + k

P(k +1) − P(k) = k2 + k − (k2 − k)

P( k +1) − P ( k ) = 2k

Thus, P(n) = n2 − n is always divisible by 2 by principle of mathematical

induction.

For when x=3

P(n) = n3-n
= n (n2-1)
= n (n+1) (n-1)

By substituting some values into this equation, we can see if the result is divisible
by 3, the corresponding x.

For n=2

P(n) = n3-n
P(2) = 23-2
P(2) = 8-2= 6

For n=13

P(n) = n3-n
P(13) = 133-13
P(13) = 2197-13 =2184
2184/3 =728

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

For n=-2

P(n) = n3-n
P(-2) = -23-(-2)
P(n) = -8+2= -6
-6/3 =-2

The result of the equation is divisible by 3 in all the above cases, by factorizing
the equation, we get:

P(n) = n3-n
= n (n2-1)
= n (n+1) (n-1)

Since n, n+1, and n-1 Will always be three consecutive integers, one of them will
always be a multiple of 3, and any number that has a multiple of 3 as it’s factor
will always be a multiple of 3, and thus, will always be divisible by 3.

Using mathematical induction to find P(k+1) - P(k), and prove divisibility true for
all n for x=3:

P(n) = n3 − n

for n = 1 ,
P (1) = 13 − 1 = 0

for n = k ,
P (k) = k3 − k

for n = k + 1 ,
P ( k + 1) = ( k + 1)3 − ( k + 1)
P ( k + 1) = k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1
P ( k + 1) = k3 + 3k2 + 2k

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = k3 + 3k2 + 2k − (k3 − k)
P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 3k2 + 3k
P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 3(k2 + k)

Thus, P(n) = n3 − n is always divisible by 3 by principle of mathematical

induction.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

For when x=4

P(n) = n4-n

By substituting some values into this equation, we can see if the result is divisible
by 4, the corresponding x.

For n=2

P(n) = n4-n
P(2) = 24-2
P(2) = 16-2= 14
14/4=3.5

Since in the above case, the result of the equation is not divisible by 4, it is NOT
TRUE that the result is always divisible by the corresponding x.

For when x=5:

P(n) = n5-n

By substituting some values into this equation, we can see if the result is divisible
by 5, the corresponding x.

For n=2

P(n) = n5-n
P(2) = 25-2
P(2) = 32-2= 30
30/5=6

For n=13

P(n) = n5-n
P(13) = 135-13
P(13) = 371293-13 =371280
371280/5 =74256

For n=-2

P(n) = n5-n
P(-2) = -25-(-2)
P(n) = -32+2= -30
-30/5 =-6

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

The result of the equation is divisible by 5 in all the above cases, by factorizing
the equation, we get:

P(n) = n5-n
= n(n4-1)
= n (n2-1) (n2+1)
=n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)

Assuming n to be 5m (a multiple of 5), 5m+1, 5m+2, 5m+3, or 5m+4, that is, any
integer expressed in terms of 5m+a, (where a is 1,2,3 or 4, since if a=5, 5m+5 is
still a multiple of 5):

5m:
P(n) =n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)
P(5m) = 5m (5m-1) (5m+1) (5m2 +1)

5m+1:
P(n) =n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)
P(5m+1) = 5m+1 (5m+1-1) (5m+1 +1) (5m+1 2 +1)
= 5m+1 (5m) (5m+2) ((5m+1 )2 +1)
= 5m+1 5(m) (5m+2) ((5m+1 )2 +1)

5m+2
P(n) =n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)
P(5m+2) = 5m+2 (5m+2-1) (5m+2 +1) ((5m+2 )2 +1)
= 5m+2 (5m+1) (5m+3) ((25m2 +20m+4)+1)
= 5m+2 (5m+1) (5m+3) (25m2 +20m+5)
= 5m+2 (5m+1) (5m+3) 5(5m2 +4m+1)

5m+3
P(n) =n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)
P(5m+3) = 5m+3 (5m+3-1) (5m+3 +1) ((5m+3 )2 +1)
= 5m+3 (5m+2) (5m+4) (25m2+30m+10)
= 5m+3 (5m+2) (5m+4) 5 (5m2+6m+2)

5m+4:
P(n) =n (n-1) (n+1) (n2 +1)
P(5m+4) = 5m+4 (5m+4-1) (5m+4 +1) ((5m+4 )2 +1)
= 5m+4 (5m+3) (5m+5) ((5m+4 )2 +1)
= 5m+4 (5m+3) 5(m+1) ((5m+4 )2 +1)

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

In all of the above cases, at least one of the factors will be a multiple of 5, thus,
the product of the equation (that which a multiple of 5 is a factor) will always be a
multiple of 5, and thus, divisible by 5.

Using mathematical induction to find P(k+1) - P(k), and prove divisibility true for
all n for x=5:

P (n) = n5 − n

for n = 1 ,
P (1) = 15 − 1 = 0

for n = k ,
P(k)=k5−k

for n = k + 1 ,
P ( k + 1) = ( k + 1)5 − ( k + 1)
P ( k + 1) = k5 + 5k4 + 10k3 + 10k2 + 5k + 1 − k − 1
P ( k + 1) = k5 + 5k4 + 10k3 + 10k2 + 4k

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = k5 + 5k4 + 10k3 + 10k2 + 4k − (k5 − k)

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 5k4 + 10k3 + 10k2 + 5k
P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 5(k4 + 2k3 + 2k2 + k)

Thus, P (n) = n5 − n, is always divisible by 5 by principle of mathematical

induction.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Using a spreadsheet program, different values of n were inputted along the top
row, and various values of X were inserted into the left column, the table then
generates the result of (nx-n)/ x in the table, and integer results are highlighted
automatically. the value of 2, 3, 4, and 5 were chosen to to tepresent the number
groups of odd, even, prime and non prime numbers, 1 is not chosen as it will
always generate a result of 0.

From the table, we can see that the value will be an always be an integer when the
x value is a prime number, and when the n value is an whole integer, as 7, 11, and
101 have all generated integer results from (nx-n)/ x

Negative, irrational, and rational non integers were also tested as X values, but
(nx-n)/ x was not an integer (i.e P(n) is not divisible by x)

To further enhance the validity of my statements (P(n)=nx-n is divisible by x when

x is a prime number) , I will use mathematical induction to prove it is true for two
more primes numbers as x.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

For when x = 7

P (n) = n7 − n
= n (n6 − 1)

for n = 1 ,
P (1) = 17 − 1 = 0

for n = k ,
P ( k ) = k 7− k

for n = k + 1 ,
P ( k + 1) = ( k + 1) 7− ( k + 1)
P ( k + 1) = k 7 + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k + 1 − k − 1
P ( k + 1) = k 7 + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 6k

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = k 7 + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 6k − (k 7 − k)

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 7k6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k
P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 7( k 6 + 3k 5 + 5k 4 + 5k 3 + 3k 2 + k)

P ( n ) = n 7 − n is always divisible by 7

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

For when x = 11

P ( n ) = n11 − n
= n (n10 − 1)

for n = 1 ,
P (1) = 111 − 1 = 0

for n = k ,
P ( k ) = k 11 − k

for n = k + 1 ,
P ( k + 1) = ( k + 1) 11− ( k + 1)

=k11+11k10 + 55k9+165k 8+330k 7 +462k 6 + 462k 5 + 330k 4 +

165k 3 + 55k 2 + 11k + 1 − k − 1
=k 11 + 11k 10 + 55k 9 + 165k 8 + 330k 7 + 462k 6 + 462k 5 + 330k
4 + 165k 3 + 55k 2 + 10k

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = k 11 + 11k 10 + 55k 9 + 165k 8 + 330k 7 + 462k 6 + 462k 5 +

330k 4 + 165k 3 + 55k 2 + 10k − (k 11 − k)

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 11k 10 + 55k 9 + 165k 8 + 330k 7 + 462k 6 + 462k 5 + 330k 4 +

165k 3 + 55k 2 + 11k

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 11 (k 10 + 5k 9 + 15k 8 + 30k 7 + 42k 6 + 42k 5 + 30k 4 + 15k 3

+ 5k 2 + k)

P ( n ) = n11 − n is always divisible by 11

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 John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

2. a)Explain how to obtain the entries in Pascal’s Triangle, and using appropriate
technology, (b)generate the first 15 rows. (c)State the relationship between the
expression P(k+1)-P(k) and Pascal’s triangle. Reconsider your conjecture and revise if
necessary.
(d) Write an expression for the xth row of the Pascal’s triangle. You will have noticed that :

Determine when k is a multiple of x

a) Pascal’s triangle starts with the number 1 in row 0 (the first row)

In row 1, the entries are generated by adding the numbers in the row above to it’s
direct left and right, since there is only one entry in the first row, the values for the
numbers next to the number 1 are taken to be 0, as are all values outside the
triangle. Here, a= 0+1, b=0+1

0 1 0
0 a b 0

Thus, row one is:

0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 a b c 0

In row 2, the numbers are generated in the same way, by adding the two terms
above it to the left and right. here, a=0+1, b=1+1, c=0+1, giving us:

0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 2 1 0
The rows afterwards are also generated in the same manner, Using the 5th and 6th
row as an example:

a b c d e
f g h i j k
where:
f=a+0=a , g=a+b, h=b+c, i=c+d, j=d+e, k=e+0=e

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Notice that the first and the last term of each row will always be 1, as there is only
the number 1 above them, and 1+0 will always by 1.

The terms in the triangle can also be expressed as combinations, using the nCr
function, where the nth term (starting from the left) in the row x is xCr , otherwise
expressed as :

with the notation ! meaning factorial, for example:

7!=7(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

The function of nCr is available in the spreadsheet software that i am using. Thus,
using this function, i can generate the entries in the program.

the column on the left is the row number of pascal’s triangle (x) and the top row
the entry number (n).

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Displayed in the traditional staggered manner:

(c)from the expansion of P(k+1)- P(k) when P(n)=n7 -n, we get:

P ( k + 1) − P ( k ) = 7k6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k

The coefficients of k in descending order of the power of k are:

7,21,35,35, 21, 7

Comparing it with the 7th row of the pascal triangle,

1,7,21,35,35, 21, 7, 1

we can see that the terms are the same, with the exception of the terminal 1s. This
is due to the fact that both use of nCr in generating the expansion of P(k+1) with
the binomial theorem , and the generation of the entries in the triangle.

Terms in pascal’s triangle, for row x: xC0 ,xC1, xC2, .........., xCx

Terms in the binomial expansion of P(k+1)- P(k):

P(k+1)- P(k) = xC1 kx-1 +xC2 kx-2 +.....+ xCx-1 k1
xC1,xC2,........... xCx-1

Hence, for any value of x and n, the coefficient of the k terms in P(k+1)- P(k) and
the corresponding row of x (excluding the first and last terms), will always match
each other.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

(d)the terms in the xth row of Pascal’s triangle can be expressed with the equation:

xCr

With x being the row number and r being the position of the term in that row, this
can also be written as

for example, for the 1st term of the 1st row:

thus,

Where K is the term in pascal’s triangle and k∈N

(e) k is not necessarily a multiple of x, for instance, when x=4 and r=2, 4C2
becomes 6, and 6 is not a multiple of 4.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

The triangle in the spread sheet above is generated from the combination function,
thus, by dividing the values in the triangle by it’s corresponding row number, we
can see when x will be an integer, that is, multiple of k.

In this table, the integers are highlighted when the whole row is integers, with the
exception of the first and last term, since they will never be integers as it is the
inverse of x.

We can see that k is a multiple of x when x is a 1,2,3,5,7,11and 13, x ∈[0,15]

As these values are all prime numbers, we can assume that k is a multiple of x
when x is a prime number.

From the results above, we can make a conjecture that :

If x is a prime number, xCr will be a multiple of x .

3. Make conclusions regarding the last result in part 2, and the form of proof by
induction used in this assingment. Refine your conjecture if necessary, and prove it

The conjecture from section 1 states:

P(n)=n x - n is divisible by x when x is a prime number.
The conjecture from section 2 states:
If x is a prime number, xCr will be a multiple of x .

We can use the long form of the combination function to explain the conjecture
from section 2.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

In the expanded equation, we can see that r ≠ 0, as the denominator will become 0
and we cannot divide by zero; and r≠ x, since (x-r) will become 0, making the
denominator 0, and we cannot divide by 0. Thus, only when x>r will there be a
result to this equation.

To prove when xCr will be a multiple of x, we must first prove when x will be a
factor of xCr .

If

Is a multiple of x, then it can be written as:

where m is an integer.

By dividing both sides by x, we get:

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

that is:

Meaning that if :

Is an integer, x will be a factor of :

this can be written as:

if all terms in the denominator can be cancelled out by the numerator, it will be an
integer. That is, if all the terms in the numerator has a factor of itself in the
numerator.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

Just as the multiples of 4 is found every 4 numbers, the multiples of r could be

found every rth term.

Since there are r-1 terms in the numerator of ,

and the terms in the denominator are all smaller than r, i.e, r-1, r-2, there will be
at least one factor in the terms of the denominator for every numerator, thus all
terms smaller than r in the denominator can be cancelled out.

This leaves r to be cancelled out from the denominator, although is not a multiple
of r (x is a prime number), there must be at least one of the terms from (x-1) to (x-
r+1) that which is a multiple of r, thus, the term r in the denominator can be
cancelled out as well, leaving us with an integer.

when x is a prime number, it cannot be further reduced by the denominator since it

can only be divided by itself and 1, thus, when x is a prime number, it will always

be the factor of . and thus, will always be a multiple

of x and divisible by x.

The form of proof by induction in this assignment, that is P(k+1) – P(k), will
always give us coefficients of k that correspond to the terms of the Pascal’s
triangle for that x value for any value of x and r.

Since If x is a prime number, xCr will be a multiple of x, in pascal’s triangle, and

the terms in the triangle matches the co-efficients of k in P(k+1) – P(k), it means
that all the coefficients in P(k+1) – P(k) will be divisible by x if x is a prime
number, and thus, P(k+1) – P(k) will also be divisible by x should it be a prime
number. Since:

x-5m=(5m)n, where m and n are both integers, x will also be a multiple of 5

x=(n+1)(5m)

P(n) will always be divisible by x when it is a prime number.

As a conclusion, i will prove the divisibility of xCr by induction:

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

For when r=1

For r=y
As explained at the start of this section, this will always be divisible by x when x

is a prime number.

For r=y+1

as xCy is divisible by a prime x, xCy+1will also be divisible by a prime x as well,

Thus, we the conjecture is that:

If x is a prime number, then xCr for positive integers x and r will be a

Divisible by x.

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John Ching- 12D-Mathamatics HL IA 1

4. State the converse of your conjecture. describe how you would prove
whether or not the converse holds

My conjecture is:
If x is a prime number, then xCr for positive integers x and r will be a
Divisible by x.

Thus the converse of that would be:

If xCr for positive integers x and r are Divisible by x, then x is a prime
number.

By finding a number that which xCr for positive integers x and r are Divisible
by x, and x is not a prime number, I can disprove the statement.

for instance, when x=8 (4x2, not a prime number), n=8

8C3=56
56/8=7
Thus, the converse of my conjecture is disproved with this exception. Thus,
the conjecture:
If xCr for positive integers x and r are Divisible by x, and x is not a
prime number

is not valid.

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