Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Evaluating soil resilience in long-term cultivation: a study of pre-Columbian

terraces from the Paca Valley, Peru
Melissa Goodman-Elgar*
Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, College Hall, Pillman, WA 99164-4910, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study evaluated the soil properties of pre-Hispanic stone-walled terraces by comparing soil quality
Received 14 February 2008 along terraced catenas in the Paca Valley, a tributary of the Mantaro Valley, Peru. Micromorphological
Received in revised form 31 May 2008 and bulk analyses of terrace soils revealed that despite terracing soil horizonation largely followed the
Accepted 4 June 2008
catena. Upland terraced fields had deeper A-horizons with higher biotic activity than uncultivated
controls, but less fine material and greater carbonate accumulation. Midslope fields were highly variable
Keywords: in depth and soil properties reflecting considerable substrate and anthropogenic variations in this
Agriculture
growing zone. Silts and clay accumulated in valley bottom terraces where pedofeatures indicate an
Andes
Geoarchaeology
ongoing downhill movement of fine material. The distribution of soil separates down Paca hillsides
Soil micromorphology demonstrates that terraces help moderate, rather than control, the erosion of key soil fractions required
Resilience for long-term agricultural productivity. This study illustrates how the loss of fine material is partly
Terraces mitigated by soil consolidation in dense topsoil peds, microaggregates and saprolite. These aggregates
are retained by terraces and contribute to deep soil profiles. Nevertheless, many fields show signs of
degradation, especially from insufficient organic matter amendment. In addition to farming itself, buried
soils and associated artefacts in valley bottom fields indicate mass soil movement, a likely result of
disruption caused by Inca road and terrace construction. The poor soil quality of many upland terraces
also confirms that stone-walled terraces were constructed on mediocre substrates for farming, indicating
a high labour investment for marginal agricultural returns in these areas. Overall, Paca Valley terraces
improve topsoil retention and promote deep soil profiles. However, these fields present quite varied
growing substrates. It is also apparent that over the last millennium, soil depletion from cultivation has
compromised soil quality through loss of fine material and organic matter. Shifts in farming practice
away from pre-Hispanic practices such as long-fallow and middening appear to exacerbate this trend.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction marks a hiatus in terrace construction until recent attempts to

Pre-Columbian Andean peoples developed an elaborate net-
work of stone-walled terrace systems to facilitate intensive agri-
culture in the mountainous uplands. These managed landscapes
emerged as growing populations intensified their landuse practices
and formalized their landholding systems. Early terrace systems
were established by at least 2000 B.C. (Denevan, 2001: p. 173) but
their development is poorly understood. In the central highlands,
agricultural intensification is found by the Early Horizon, 900–200
B.C. (Burger, 1992; Hastorf, 1993a; Whitehead, 1999). Highland
terrace construction is associated with several Andean cultures
notably the Huarpa (Leoni, 2006), Wari (Branch et al., 2007; Wil-
liams, 2002) and the Inca (Branch et al., 2007; D’Altroy, 2002;
Denevan, 2001; Treacy, 1994). The arrival of the Spanish generally
* Tel.: þ1 509 335 4807; fax: þ1 509 335 3999.
E-mail address: mage@wsu.edu
renovate terrace technology.
This study addresses pre-Columbian terrace systems in a central
Andean valley in order to assess the role of stone-walled terraces in
soil conservation and their contribution to the long-term resilience
of farming systems. Soil quality underlies the long-term success of
agricultural strategies. In soil science, resilience concerns ‘‘the ca-
pacity of a soil to recover its functional and structural integrity after
a disturbance’’ (Seybold et al., 1999: p. 225). Soil resilience is
evaluated in terms of vulnerability to disturbance, the rate and the
degree of potential recovery after disturbance. Mountain soils are
particularly vulnerable to erosion disturbance. Agriculture presents
a profound disturbance to soil systems and often leads to regressive
soil processes such as erosion and nutrient depletion (Park, 2006).
Even under traditional Andean farming regimes (Denevan, 2001),
the processes of hand tillage, weeding, cropping and harvest can
degrade soils. Maintenance of soil quality is a dynamic between
landuse management techniques and underlying natural condi-
tions including soil type, climate, and natural vegetation (Herrick,

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.06.003
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
2000). Ideally, stable farming systems will balance soil and eco-
system resilience thresholds with farming technologies that mini-
mize disruption. Terraces are generally seen as a means to promote
the progressive soil conditions that promote soil deepening and
horizonation (e.g. FAO, 1989: pp. 22–29), although terrace con-
struction is also disruptive (Park, 2006: Fig. 2).
This study aimed to evaluate the contribution of terraces to soil
resilience through an assessment of soils’ quality indicators, par-
ticularly plant nutrients and soil structure. Recent research into
Andean farming systems has focused on coastal agriculture (e.g.
Wilson et al., 2002; Huckleberry and Billman, 2003; Nordt et al.,
2004) and the Andean highlands are beginning to see renewed
interest (e.g. Branch et al., 2007). However, little research has been
directed at assessing the role of terraces within the context of
specific soil parameters. A case study was selected with pre-His-
panic terraces that are currently cultivated in order to address
features that contribute to long-term soil resilience. Most terraces
were currently cultivated. This study addressed the contributions to
soil quality of both inherent soil properties and human land man-
agement techniques.
The movement of the fine fraction was a particular focus as silt
and clay are associated retention of crop nutrients (Caravaca et al.,
1999). The mobilization of fine particles by natural processes (e.g.
freeze–thaw, extreme rainfall) and anthropogenic processes (e.g.
clearance, burning, cultivation) is most visible in thin section (see
Courty et al., 1989: pp. 104–137; FitzPatrick, 1993: p. 185). It has also
been suggested that ploughing may also help retain silt and clay in
the subsoil (e.g. Jongerius, 1983), particularly animal-drawn ard
tillage (Lewis, 1998).
Terrace soils frequently display deep profiles which are attrib-
uted to the stabilization provided by terrace walls (e.g. Keeley, 1985;
French and Whitelaw, 1999; Sandor, 1992). However, landuse and
substrate differences impact terrace soil development, even in
similar settings. For instance, although terrace soils in the US
Southwest had deeper A-horizons than uncultivated areas, they
were lighter in colour and lower in organic matter, phosphorus and
Fig. 1. The Paca Valley, Peru showing transect areas (Base image Ó Google Earth).
3073
nitrogen suggesting landuse impacts (Sandor et al., 1986). In the
Grand Canyon, little difference was found between terrace and
uncultivated Mollisols but terraced Aridisols had elevated pH, car-
bonate and CEC values over uncultivated samples suggesting car-
bonate accumulation (Sullivan, 2000).
Research in Peru reveals dramatic substrate and anthropogenic
differences between terrace systems. Rainfed pre-Inca terraces in
the Cusichaca Valley, Peru were situated to take advantage of nat-
ural features (e.g. alluvial fans) with limited soil modification
whereas Inca terraces were elaborate constructions with heavily
modified terrace fills (Keeley, 1985). In the Colca Canyon abandoned
irrigated terrace soils varied between deep, poorly developed
stratified A-horizons and well-developed profiles with prominent
subsoil accumulations of clay, carbonate, and silica (Sandor, 1992;
Sandor and Eash, 1991). The underlying geology is Miocene an-
desite lava, tufa and volcanic breccia. Earthworms observed in the
Ap-horizon did not penetrate subsoils and buried soils were com-
mon. These terraces had high concentrations of organic carbon,
nitrogen, and especially phosphorus reflecting long-term fertiliza-
tion (Dick et al., 1994; Eash and Sandor, 1995; Sandor and Eash,
1995). Colca Canyon terraces are irrigated making the role of ter-
races difficult to isolate. This study controls for this by focusing on
rainfed terraces.
1.1. Case study
Investigations were conducted in a tributary of the Mantaro
Valley, the Paca Valley, in the central Peruvian Andes (Fig. 1). The
topography of the Paca Valley is rugged with alluvial fans, scree and
jagged cliff edges that attest to periodic mass movements. Steep,
irregular topography leads to strong down-cutting and alluvial
deposition along seasonal channels and streams. Terracing is
present on the more stable parts of the hillsides, primarily on
western valley walls.
The dominant parent material in the Mantaro Valley is calcar-
eous limestone. These deposits uplifted and deformed to create the
3074 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
Wankayo–Jauja depression and subsequently formed Quaternary
fluvioglacial deposits (Mégard and Philip, 1976; Mégard, 1987). The
bulk of central Andean shortening concentrates in the Marañon
Thrust and Fold Belt from about 7 to 12 300 trending NW through
the study area. In the Paca Valley, the western valley wall is a ridge
formed by uplift of Jurassic limestone (Pucara Group) (Mégard and
Caldas, n.d. [1996], Paredes, 1970 [1994]). Chucllú and the Paca
ridge are separated by a low saddle of Pleistocene conglomerate
sands with subsurface drainage. The Paca ridge is bisected by sev-
eral deep, intermittent streams that drain to Lake Paca. The valley
floor is tilted upward towards the north and contains Recent
Quaternary fluvioglacial terraces (Paredes, 1994). Lake Paca was
formed either by a karst solution depression in the limestone
(Hansen et al., 1994) or as an oxbow lake from the main Mantaro
River to the south (Wright et al., 1989: p. 84). The lake drains by
underground streams. The eastern valley wall is primarily Pre-
cambrian metamorphic Maraizo-Huaytapallana gneiss. The north-
east section is calcareous limestone intercalated with sandstone,
claystone and sandy conglomerate lavas (Paredes, 1994), and agri-
culture concentrates in this area.
The Mantaro Valley has a semi-arid climate and recent annual
rainfall averaged 730 mm/year, with 92% falling between Septem-
ber and April (Silva et al., 2007). Rains originate over the Amazon to
the east and rainshadow effects leave eastern valley walls drier
than their western counterparts. Wind, elevation and good drain-
age contribute to rapid drying out after rainfall and pronounced
wet–dry effects. Frost is frequent in the dry season, averaging 150
days annually (Schwerdtfeger, 1976a,b). Strong El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) effects result in dramatic inter-annual climate
variation making both drought and floods relatively frequent
(Vuille et al., 2000). Native vegetation in uncultivated land includes
a vast array of annuals, several perennial cacti (e.g. Opuntia), and
rare shrubs and trees (Hastorf, 1993a).
The primary indigenous food crops of the Paca Valley include
tubers, beans, quinoa and Andean maize (Hastorf, 1993a). The many
varieties of Andean tubers prefer organic-rich, well-drained soils
and have variable rooting depths. For instance, ulluco (Ullucus
tuberosus Loz.) produces many tubers which can be up to 15 cm
long (NRC, 1989: p. 112). The nitrogen-fixing lupine tarwi (Lupinus
mutabilis Sweet) tolerates poor soils and drought and is supported
by a short tap root (NRC, 1989: pp. 188–189). Quinoa (Chenopodium
quinoa Willd.) is supported by a tap root with dense rootlets (20–
25 cm) and also tolerates poor soils and drought (NRC, 1989: p. 159).
Andean maize (Zea mays L.) is adapted to a wider range of soils and
is more cold tolerant than other varieties (Brandolini et al., 2000).
However, local farmers report that maize is the most water and
nutrient demanding of the common indigenous crops. Maize forms
elaborate root systems first developing a single primary root with
seminal roots followed by shoot-born roots as the plant develops
(Hochholdinger et al., 2004). Most roots are found to 50 cmbs
(Amos and Walters, 2006). Crop limits make planting rotations and
fallow periods vary with elevation and these present characteristic
growing zones (Hastorf, 1993a). However, climate variations in
prehistory impacted the area available to specific crops, particularly
maize (Seltzer and Hastorf, 1990).
Andean paleoclimate reconstructions are limited by the wide
distribution of studies, few absolute dates and lack of consensus
between ice cores, glacial moraines and pollen cores. Glacial mo-
raines on Mt. Huaytapallana, which overlooks the central Mantaro
Valley, indicate warm conditions after deglaciation except for two
colder periods around A.D. 710 and A.D. 1350 but moraines have
coarse resolution (Seltzer, 1991). Pollen from Lake Paca indicates
cooling with a Chenopodiaceae–Amaranthaceae increase and Aliso
decline followed by a warming trend but this study had only
a single basal date (5305  90 SI-7001) (Hansen et al., 1994). Ice
cores on Mt. Quelccaya and Mt. Huascaran have very high
resolution and show a series of dry periods or dust events between
A.D. 540–980 with wet periods A.D. 602–635 and A.D. 760–1050
(see Thompson et al., 2000). However, these cores are well above
agricultural lands and far from the study area. Despite low reso-
lution palaeoclimatic data, the absence of irrigation features in the
study area indicates sufficient rainfall for agriculture at the time of
terrace construction. Pre-Columbian climate fluctuations impacted
the land area available to different crops, particularly maize (Seltzer
and Hastorf, 1990). However, cold and drought resistant crops such
as tarwi and quinoa could have been cultivated during all major
occupation periods. The range of conditions indicated by climate
reconstructions would subject Paca soils to frequent wet–dry and
freeze–thaw cycles.
The Mantaro Valley is an important agricultural centre but has
no established soil sequence. Saleva et al. (1954) identify a Paca soil
series adjacent to Lake Paca without scientific analyses. In the
southern Mantaro Valley, fallow fields on limestone had neutral pH
in the topsoil with relatively high K, total nitrogen and available
phosphorus but low organic matter (Alegre et al., 1990). The Quil-
cas–Wankayo area of the southern Mantaro Valley has soils similar
to the Paca region comprising moderately deep brown-grey gravely
loams, shallow dark brown sandy loams and erodible deep reddish
brown (clay) loams on limestone, claystone and sandstone (Kauff-
man and Ramos, 1998).
1.2. Cultural setting
By 3000 B.C. incipient agriculturalists settled in the Paca Valley
in small, dispersed settlements (Rick, 1988). Settlement increased
during the Formative Period but population density remained low
(Hastorf et al., 1989: p. 87). During the Early Intermediate Period
(400 B.C.–A.D. 500), the lakeside site of Pancán emerged and be-
came a long-lived centre (Borges, 1988). Chenopod, maize, legumes
and tubers were cultivated by early Pancán residents, possibly in
raised fields adjacent to the lake (Hastorf, 1993a: pp. 167–176). The
Wanka emerged as a local cultural tradition in the Middle Horizon
(A.D. 500–1000) with five new communities in the Paca Valley
(Borges, 1988: p. 45). Subsistence shifted to camelid pastoralism
and valley bottom agriculture (Hastorf et al., 1989; Hastorf, 1990,
1993b). The terrace systems adjacent to these sites may be con-
temporaneous constructions but few diagnostic Wanka I artefacts
were recovered from fields (Goodman-Elgar, 2003). In the sub-
sequent Wanka II phase (A.D. 1000–1438), population increased
and shifted dramatically to concentrate in defensive upland set-
tlements in the Yanamarca Valley. Paca settlement appears reduced
to Pancán and two small hillside settlements (Hastorf, 1993a).
Yanamarca Valley farmers developed a small hydraulic network,
terraces, lynchets and ridged fields (Hastorf, 1990, 1993a). These
fields are now severely eroded and uncultivable. No irrigation
features were found in the Paca Valley suggesting rainfed agricul-
ture throughout the occupied periods.
The Inca conquered the Mantaro Valley by 1450 A.D. and con-
structed a footpath along the western ridge of the Paca Valley
(D’Altroy, 1992). The Inca restructured Wanka II communities to
areas of agricultural productivity and developed terraces in the
Paca uplands (Earle et al., 1987; Goodman-Elgar, 2003). Less than
a century later, the Spanish overthrew the Inca and established
their first colonial capital in Jauja (Fig. 1). The local population was
decimated by disease and relocated to the valley bottom. Upland
terraces may have been briefly abandoned but subsequently
returned to use as population began to recover through the 19th
century (Mallon, 1983). Residents reported that civil unrest in
1980s promoted large-scale out-migration. Regional population has
largely recovered and there are several agricultural communities
within the study area.
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
Changes in farming technology and landuse mirror these cul-
tural trajectories. The main pre-Hispanic agricultural implements
were the chaquitaclla (footplow) and rucana (hoe or mattock) made
of wood and stone (Donkin, 1970; Poma de Ayala, 1987 [1584–
1615]). Stone hoes are widely distributed in Wanka sites (Russell,
1988) and frequently encountered on the surface of Paca fields
(Goodman-Elgar, 2003). Animal traction was introduced by the
Spanish and prompted terrace modification to enable access for
animal teams (Morales, 1978). Upland fields are inaccessible to
traction and continue to be hand-tilled. Mechanized ploughing is
only used in a few valley bottom locations. Pre-Hispanic commu-
nities had substantial camelid herds and a ready source of dung
fertilizer (Sandefur, 2001). Camelid herding declined following
Spanish colonization and the introduction of European animals.
Contemporary farmers add a little organic matter through limited
sheep grazing, middening and burning.
Paca Valley terraces have stone-walled masonry constructed of
unmodified or very roughly cut fieldstone, which is commonly
double walled with gravel fill (Goodman-Elgar, 2003). Walls gen-
erally have larger, rectangular stones at the base (to ca. 1 m long by
30 cm high) with smaller stones in upper courses (to ca. 25 cm by
25 cm). Wall height decreases with elevation and soil depth aver-
aging over 2 m at the footslope to under 1 m in the highest terraces.
Field shape accommodates topography and drainages. Most are
rectangular valley side, sloping field terraces with small sections of
architecturally planned bench terraces at the footslope (Goodman-
Elgar, 2003; see Denevan, 2001: pp. 175–180 for terrace forms).
Long walls are perpendicular to the slope. Many terraces are cur-
rently in poor condition with damaged or missing masonry.
2. Field and lab methods
Field investigations in 1995–1996 concentrated on the western
limestone ridge of the Paca Valley in three parallel east–west
transects, a north–south transect in a saddle between Cerro Ushnu
and Paca (Acolla), and two short transects in Chucllú (Fig. 1). The
western hillslope is almost entirely terraced whereas terracing on
the eastern slope starts at midslope and is discontinuous. Test
trenches were selected along transects that captured catena vari-
ations in elevation, growing conditions and field practices (Fig. 1,
Table 1). Triplicate parallel transects P1, P2 and P3 controlled for
spatial variation between fields in the same growing zone (Good-
man-Elgar, 2007). Trenches were excavated to the B/C horizon or
3 m and profiles were described for Munsell colour, texture,
structure and inclusions. A continuous column of parallel bulk and
block samples was collected from each pit. This collection was
subsampled and the results of 16 test pits from P1, P2, and P3
transects are presented here. P1 transect crossed the valley bottom
to account for both sides of the valley, whereas P2 and P3 are only
on the western side of the valley. Archaeological studies of agri-
cultural fields are generally controlled by comparison to un-
cultivated contexts (e.g. Sullivan, 2000). However, in the Paca
Valley essentially all arable land was under cultivation. Only two
uncultivated profiles (N1and N2) were collected as controls from
Table 1
Field characteristics of test trenches
Growing Zonea Slope position (masl) Depth (cm)
Fertile Lowland Toeslope-valley 3380–3420 110–310
Intensive Hillside I Toeslope-midslope 3415–3510 47–88
Intensive Hillside II Midslope 3495–3560 100–173
Extensive Hillside Midslope-Upland 3545–3595 23–62
High Elevation Upland 3650–3675 25–130
a
Adapted from Hastorf (1993a).
3075
unenclosed land at 3550–3650 masl between P1 and P2 transects
and no suitable controls were identified at lower elevations.
Analyses concentrated on thin sections in order to assess the
distribution of fine material. Bulk analyses were used to further
characterize soil types and define horizons. A subset of 109 thin
sections is summarized here. Thin sections were prepared by air
drying followed by resin impregnation under vacuum. Most slides
were mammoth (51 mm  75 mm) hand-finished, thin sections
made at the McBurney Laboratory, University of Cambridge. The
remainder were large (27 mm  46 mm) machine-finished thin
sections prepared by Spectrum Petrographics (Vancouver, WA,
USA). Thin sections were analyzed on Leica Wild and Leitz Laborlux
microscopes (Bullock et al., 1985; Courty et al., 1989; FitzPatrick,
1993) with digital image capture on Omninet Enterprise version 2.0
software (Buehler, Lake Bluff, IL, USA; Goodman-Elgar, 2003: Ap-
pendix J). Soils were characterized by microscopic analysis of soil
fabric and structure with an emphasis on primary and secondary
carbonates, silt and clay pedofeatures, and other indicators of soil
quality. The microstructure, birefringence-fabric (b-fabric), texture
and accumulation pedofeatures were used to assign soil fabrics.
A subset of parallel bulk samples was analyzed for texture, or-
ganic matter, carbonate, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus
(Table 2). Bulk analyses were conducted at the Department of Ge-
ography, University of Cambridge based on standard protocols
(MAFF, 1986; SSSA, 1996). Soils were air-dried and stored before
analysis, which may impact phosphate and nitrogen results (Hay-
nes and Swift, 1985). Samples were lightly ground and the 2 mm
fraction was used for all bulk analyses. Texture was determined by
dry sieving followed by dispersion in sodium pyrophosphate and
laser particle analysis (Malvern Mastersizer 2000). Determinations
of pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were determined on elec-
trodes. Organic carbon and carbonate were determined by loss-
on-ignition. Essential plant nutrients nitrogen, potassium and
phosphorus (Soon, 1985; Elliott, 1996) were assayed on extracts in
Olsen’s solution.
Carbonized organic remains were collected from test pit exca-
vations for radiocarbon dating. However, high levels of bio-
turbation, buried modern artefacts (plastic, metal) and a lack of
secure contexts under terrace walls conspired against a successful
application of radiocarbon dating and this effort was discontinued.
Terrace wall architecture and artefact distribution were surveyed to
estimate the cultural contexts of Paca terraces (Goodman-Elgar,
2003). The cultural associations of Paca Valley fields are pre-
dominantly Late Intermediate Period to Inca.
3. Results
Seven profiles were investigated in P1 transect, four along the
western valley wall and three up the eastern wall (Table 3). Topsoils
were generally deep while subsoils varied widely but were gener-
ally less developed on the eastern valley wall. Five profiles were
investigated in P2 transect and these had shallower topsoils than P2
and again variable subsoils. P3 transect is represented by seven
profiles and these profiles show the greatest variability in terms of
Landuse Test trenches
Animal or mechanical till, maize, beans, dung, midden P1-2, P2-1, P3-1, P3-2
Hand or animal till, short-term fallow, grains, maize, beans, P1-1, P1-3, P1-5, P2-2,
tubers, rare surface treatment P2-3, P2-4, P3-3
Hand or untilled, tubers or no crop, no surface treatment N2, P3-4, P3-6
Hand or animal tilled, grain or tubers, P1-4, P1-6, P3-5
Hand till, potato or no crop, Some dung N1, P1-7, P2-5, P3-7
3076 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
Table 2
Summary of bulk soil analyses
Analysis No. Method
Organic, inorganic carbon 95 Loss-on-ignition (LOI)
Electrical conductivity 47 Electrode, 1:1 aqueous slurry
Nitrogen-nitrate 66 Electrode, extract in Olsen’s solution
Phosphorus (total) 32 Spectrophotometry, extract in Olsen’s solution
pH 47 Electrode, 1:1 aqueous slurry
Potassium 68 Flame photometry, extract in nitrate solution
Particle size (coarse) 89 Dry sieve
Particle size (fine) 86 Malvern Laser Mastersizer, suspend in
sodium pyrophosphate
soil depth and horizonation. The boundaries between soil horizons
were gradual in the field with considerable evidence for root and
soil faunal bioturbation. Overall, profile position was not a good
indicator of soil depth except for lowest profiles. Buried artefacts,
charcoal and ash suggested buried soils in several low-elevation
fields (Table 3).
Control sample N1 was located on a natural uplift adjacent
a deep dry watercourse at 3650 masl. The surface was cemented
with sparse vegetation, predominantly lichen. The top 30 cm was
consolidated with fine material, a massive structure, very sparse
root, 30% subangular to subrounded pea gravel and Munsell colour
7.5 YR 3/4 (wet). An ice pick was required to excavate it. These
properties suggested an exposed Btk horizon after topsoil loss. This
soil continues to 50 cm but the structure is less compact and pea
gravel increases to 20%. From 50 to 65 cm, there was a shift to
a siltier, more friable soil with gravel 10%. Below 65 cm there is
a dramatic increase in crumbling subangular rock and saprolite
suggesting the B/C horizon.
N2 profile was situated at midslope between two deep drain-
ages in precipitous terrain at 3550 masl. The topsoil supported
sparse drought tolerant plants and large lichens. The topsoil from
0 to 20 cm was compact with low porosity, 20% subangular to
subrounded gravel, fine root, and wet Munsell colour 7.5 YR 4/4
(Fig. 2A). The dense, consolidated texture suggested an A/B-horizon
with the suggestion of topsoil loss. From 21 to 38 cm root and
porosity decreased to a massive structure. After 39 cm there was
a sharp transition to a cemented Bk with a drop in gravel to 5% and
wet Munsell colour 7.5 YR 4/6 (Fig. 2E).
P1-7 is in a comparable slope position and profile depth to N1
but is characterized by carbonate accumulation, which was also
found in several cultivated fields (P1-6, P2-4, P3-3, P2-1). Terraced
upland and midslope fields have significantly deeper topsoils than
the two controls. The controls also had higher clay and silt accu-
mulations in the subsoil, which are only found in lower elevation
positions in cultivated fields. P1-6, P2-4 and P3-5 are all compa-
rable in elevation to control sample N2 but were significantly
shallower and had less silt in the B-horizon. In the case of P1-6, the
subsoil was leached with significant carbonate.
No uncultivated land was identified at lower elevations. The
depths and horizonation of excavated fields at these elevations
were highly varied. Topsoils were all adequate to support Andean
crops while subsoils varied widely. Eastern Paca Valley fields P1-2,
P1-2 and P1-4 had notably poorer, leached soils with poor profile
development.
3.1. Thin sections
Representative topsoil and subsoils thin sections from controls,
upland, midslope and toeslope fields are found in Fig. 2. The sur-
face soils of both natural profiles had subsoil properties making
them poor controls for cultivated topsoils. Topsoil fabrics also
follow the catena such that upland fields have little fine material
(Fig. 3A, B) and many accumulated carbonate (Fig. 3B, C). Midslope
fields are highly variable but generally have loamy topsoils (Fig. 3E,
F) whereas silt and clay accumulate in lower elevation fields
(Fig. 3G, H).
Paca fields display dramatic differences in pedofeatures, par-
ticularly accumulations of clay, carbonate and silt as well as evi-
dence for soil fauna (Fig. 4). Clay in Paca soils was largely
encountered as coats, infillings or nodules (Fig. 4A–C) with rare
domains of high clay integration into the groundmass (Fig. 3G, H).
Clay increased downslope where clay-rich subsoil pedofeatures
covered 10% or more of the thin section in P1-3 transects. Larger
clay accumulations have silt and sesquioxide laminations, which in
an extreme case numbered over 100. Surface rounding, sharp
boundaries with the groundmass, and random orientation of some
clay pedofeatures indicate movement as aggregates (Boggs, 2001:
pp. 74–80; FitzPatrick, 1993: pp. 178–182). These clay-rich horizons
display Vertisol features and low biological activity due to re-
stricted pore space. Compound infillings cemented domains in
several B-horizons (Fig. 4I).
Carbonates were common in cultivated upland topsoils and in
deep subsoils. Two mechanisms for carbonate accumulation were
observed in thin section: primary limestone weathering and sec-
ondary carbonate accumulation. Primary weathering of carbonate
rock was observed as carbonate pendants, porous internal struc-
tures and crystals deformed by dissolution and transformation
(Fig. 4D; Bullock et al., 1985: pp. 58–65, FitzPatrick, 1993: pp. 206–
217). Inherited carbonate features include altered limestone and
inclusions such as shell. Saprolitic limestone was often riddled with
small pores filled with clay whose limpidity and colour suggested in
situ formation from limestone dissolution (Fig. 4E, F; Carroll, 1970;
Atkinson and Smith, 1976). Secondary carbonates were found to
penetrate the parent material as carbonate infillings, hypocoats and
intercalations (Fig. 4G–I; Bal, 1975a,b; Courty et al., 1989: pp. 169–
179; Gile et al., 1965, 1966; Scoffin, 1987). Secondary carbonates
represented both the terminal phase of limestone alteration and
precipitation from carbonate saturated waters.
Fine fraction translocation was observed in silt and clay accu-
mulation in the groundmass and in pedofeatures. Silt pedofeatures
were identified in valley bottom Ap-horizons (Fig. 4J) and as dis-
crete subsoil horizons. Silt accumulation suggests downhill turbu-
lent water flow strong enough to dislodge and transport silt
particles (Nettleton et al., 1994). Both control samples have signif-
icant silt in the subsoils but not in nearby upland fields. Silt
pedofeatures were characteristic of P3 transect. Laminated silt
pedofeatures suggested periodic translocation of silt (Fig. 4K, L).
Bioturbation was identified in all cultivated contexts except
cemented B-horizons (e.g. Btk horizons) by features such as fresh
and mineral-replaced root, cylindrical channels, mite droppings,
partially sorted groundmass, crescentic and vermiform excrement
pedofeatures, biospheriods and preserved fauna (Fig. 4M–O; e.g.
Bal, 1975b; Becze-Deák et al., 1997; Bullock et al., 1985: pp. 133–137;
Courty et al., 1989: pp. 142–146; FitzPatrick, 1993: pp. 133, 136–
142). Faunal bioturbation was much higher in cultivated than
control samples. Roots frequently extended well into the subsoil
where they are commonly carbonate- or sesquioxide-replaced.
3.2. Physical and chemical results
Bulk soil analyses aimed to substantiate and augment thin
section observations. Texture determination was intended to bridge
two- and three-dimensional differences in soil fraction represen-
tation (Bullock et al., 1985). Particle size analysis indicated a sandy
texture (Table 3, Table 4). In comparison to thin section observa-
tions, bulk texture determinations under-represented the fine
fraction beyond expected differences between two- and three-di-
mensional results. This indicates that the protocol followed here
did not effectively disperse aggregates to defluocculate clays
Table 3
Summary of thin section observations and bulk analyses

Sample Thin section analyses Bulk analyses

Profile Sample # Munsell Microstructure b-Fabric Gravel Sand Silt Clay Clay Saprolite Clay Crystalline Sesquioxide Sesquioxide Sesquioxide Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) OM CaCO3 pH EC N K Artefacts
colour (wet) (%) (%) (%) coats infilling clay nodules features hypo/coats infilling nodules (sieve) (laser) (laser) (%) (%) (ms/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) and other
(area) (area) (area) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) features
from thin
sections
and field
N1 A Vughy Stipple/crystallitic 9 17 14      94.78 3.14 1.49 3.73 15.58 – – 159.67 485.25
B, C 7.5 YR 3/4 Vughy Stipple/crystallitic 7 16 20       93.95 3.69 1.73 4.35 13.17 8.5 87 – –
blocky crack
D, E 7.5 YR 3/3 Blocky vughy Stipple/crystallitic 2 16 24       94.40 3.40 1.60 4.34 7.02 8.5 74 533.40 428.84
F–H 7.5 YR 3/4 Blocky vughy Stipple/crystallitic 6 17 20       90.03 4.64 2.44 4.65 4.04 8.2 124 110.17 596.02
reticulate
I, J 7.5 YR 3/4 Vughy crack Stipple/crystallitic 8 24 33       91.43 5.58 2.32 3.58 7.92 – – 585.25 473.61 Planer
reticulate voids
N2 A 7.5 YR 4/4 Granular crumb Mosaic parallel/ 17 15 21       92.20 5.08 2.16 5.34 12.25 8.2 77 – –
crystallitic
B 7.5 YR 4/4 Granular crumb blocky Mosaic parallel 2 11 30      92.50 4.19 2.41 3.89 3.65 – – 368.02 451.74
reticulate
crystallitic
C–E 7.5 YR 4/6 Spongy blocky Stipple parallel 8 20 28       91.89 4.75 2.81 3.78 3.05 8.0 47 228.84 596.02
reticulate
F, G 7.5 YR Blocky vughy Stipple parallel 10 13 26       92.90 4.16 2.36 – – 7.9 66 228.84 587.84
4/6 - 5/8 reticulate
H, I 7.5 YR Blocky vughy Parallel reticulate 3 15 33      – – – 3.58 3.41 – – – –
4/6 - 5/8
P1-1 A Spongy crumb Stipple poro 5 14 15     92.73 4.69 1.56 4.99 1.62 – – – 222.45
B–D Spongy blocky Stipple parallel 15 11 20         93.95 3.70 1.55 4.41 1.86 – – 267.90 Many
ceramics,
bone, ash
E Blocky Stipple poro 23 14 12     95.23 2.64 1.36 6.48 2.70 – – – 243.02 Bone,
charcoal
P1-2 A 7.5 YR 3/3 92.53 4.41 1.21 5.61 10.43 8.3 61.0 –
B 7.5 YR 3/4 Microag. crumb Mosaic reticulate 45 16 8    95.55 2.84 0.96 3.75 3.93 8.0 43 –
C, D 7.5 YR 3/4 97.00 2.02 0.56 – – 8.3 70.0 365.1 208.46
E, F 7.5 YR 3/5 95.40 3.05 0.85 5.13 19.25 – – – – Many
ceramics,
charcoal
over
cobbles
P1-3 A Spongy vughy Mosaic reticulate 10 21 9       94.43 3.29 1.46 4.44 11.59 – – – 234.87 Bone,
charcoal
B–D 10 YR 4/6 Channel Reticulate 3 19 13    94.88 2.75 1.30 3.92 2.09 7.9 27 196.55 157.22
E 10 YR 4/6 Channel Reticulate 1 18 14      95.08 2.41 1.09 4.02 2.89 – – – 183.22
P1-4 A 5 YR 5/4 * Crumb Stipple reticulate 30 8 10     94.90 2.74 0.91 6.32 2.27 – – 493.18 219.20 Ceramic,
parallel lithics,
charcoal,
dung
P1-5 A Spongy Stipple 32 19 10     72.20 22.61 4.36 5.58 1.45 – – 1038.50 185.29
B 7.5 YR 4/6 Spongy crumb Stipple reticulate 57 7 6      85.50 11.38 2.64 4.32 2.12 5.3 17 – –
parallel
C–E 7.5 YR Vughy Mosaic/crystallitic 16 14 14         93.33 4.99 1.41 5.08 2.07 5.5 8 278.47 61.39
4/6-5/8 blocky platy
F Blocky platy Mosaic/crystallitic 48 5 3        95.00 3.70 0.93 – – – – – –
P1-6 A 7.5 YR 4/3 Crumb vughy Mosaic/crystallitic 45 8 6      94.88 2.61 0.96 6.18 26.22 8.6 62 312.77 131.32 Charcoal
B, C 7.5 YR 4/4 Crumb spongy Mosaic/crystallitic 23 13 10      94.81 2.56 1.06 5.91 23.22 8.5 62 278.47 186.33
P1-7 A 7.5 YR 4/6 Granular crumb Mosaic/crystallitic 25 15 12     91.78 5.41 2.49 5.06 19.44 8.5 78 460.62 552.70
B–D 7.5 YR 4/6 Granular crumb Mosaic/ 25 15 16      94.16 3.61 2.02 5.24 20.25 8.6 62 – 318.78 Seed,
crystallitic/ charcoal
reticulate
E–I 7.5 YR 4/4 Spongy blocky Mosaic/ 20 17 15      92.81 4.52 2.04 5.38 19.84 8.7 63 229.47 219.47
crystallitic/
reticulate
(continued on next page)
Table 3 (continued)

Sample Thin section analyses Bulk analyses

Profile Sample # Munsell Microstructure b-Fabric Gravel Sand Silt Clay Clay Saprolite Clay Crystalline Sesquioxide Sesquioxide Sesquioxide Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) OM CaCO3 pH EC N K Artefacts
colour (wet) (%) (%) (%) coats infilling clay nodules features hypo/coats infilling nodules (sieve) (laser) (laser) (%) (%) (ms/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) and other
(area) (area) (area) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) features
from thin
sections
and field
P2-1 A Granular crumb Mosaic/crystallitic 18 17 15    91.78 4.83 1.40 5.62 10.94 – – 672.21 –
B 5 YR 4/4 Spongy channel Mosaic/crystallitic 13 16 20       – – – 4.59 10.10 8.4 50 – 177.03 Charcoal
C Spongy crumb Mosaic/crystallitic 18 23 13       89.93 6.40 2.45 4.39 16.96 – – 257.73 360.67 Ceramic
D Spongy channel Mosaic/crystallitic 17 18 10       92.85 4.01 1.93 – – 8.5 55 267.90 507.53 Bone
I 5 YR 4/4 Spongy channel Mosaic(2)/ 12 17 10      92.63 4.20 2.20 – – – – – 389.06 Ceramics
crystallitic
N Massive vughy Stipple/ 4 17 26     90.65 5.97 2.43 3.36 25.75 – – – 255.52 Ceramics
mosaic
S Spongy channel Stipple/ 12 9 23      80.93 13.35 4.70 – – – – – – Ceramics,
mosaic/ charcoal
crystallitic
P2-2 A 7.5 YR 4/4 94.50 3.76 0.96 4.86 21.20 8.1 58 413.28 208.46
B 7.5 YR 4/4 Spongy crumb Mosaic(2)/ 12 18 15       93.65 4.30 1.22 4.51 17.77 8.4 50 478.80 –
crystallitic
C Spongy crack Mosaic(2)/ 50 9 7      94.65 3.40 1.07 4.43 15.65 – – 456.44 220.29
crystallitic
P2-3 A Granular crumb Reticulate stipple 35 11 13      94.93 3.35 1.07 5.82 1.92 – – – –
B–D 5 YR 3/4 Blocky spongy Reticulate stipple 30 9 19        93.96 4.03 1.66 4.88 1.75 7.2 61 – 552.80
P2-4 A 7.5 YR 4/4 87.68 8.48 2.59 3.83 52.39 8.6 50 343.43 169.87
B 92.60 5.22 1.58 5.41 38.85 – – – –
C 7.5 YR 3/4 Granular crumb Reticulate/ 28 7 14        93.45 4.29 1.21 5.36 35.17 8.4 57 332.87 109.73
crystallitic/stipple
P2-5 A 7.5 YR 4/3 94.00 3.98 1.12 5.08 18.64 8.4 72 454.88 190.50
B, C 7.5 YR Crumb Stipple/crystallitic/ 20 13 16     94.35 2.90 0.74 5.23 17.10 8.4 48 236.10 246.59
4/3-3/4 mosaic
P3-1 A Granular Stipple mosaic/ 25 12 26        94.63 3.63 0.97 6.72 11.18 – – 509.22 290.77 Ceramic
crystallitic
B, C 7.5 YR 3/4 Spongy chamber Stipple mosaic/ 20 13 19        95.73 2.56 0.99 5.19 14.88 8.2 69 533.40 293.08 Lithics,
crystallitic ceramics,
charcoal,
bone
E–F 7.5 YR 4/3 Granular blocky Stipple mosaic/ 15 22 18       96.23 2.08 0.79 4.89 9.03 – – 364.49 141.95 Lithics,
crystallitic many
ceramics,
charcoal,
bone
G–L 5 YR 4/4 Blocky crumb Stipple mosaic/ 16 17 21        94.33 2.85 1.77 4.31 4.60 8.1 45 320.56 308.20
crystallitic
P3-2 A 7.5 YR 4/4 Blocky spongy Mosaic 17 19 20       95.98 2.27 1.06 – – 7.7 81 – 463.29
vertical channel reticulate
parallel
B 7.5 YR 4/6 Spongy channel Mosaic 39 9 23       94.78 2.90 1.73 – – 8.1 51 – –
reticulate
parallel
C 7.5 YR 4/6 Spongy channel Mosaic/crystallitic 13 18 12       – – – 3.99 5.49 7.9 50 – –
E–H 7.5 YR 4/6 Channel blocky Mosaic/crystallitic 44 9 14        94.45 2.84 1.56 3.42 6.58 7.8 60 566.83 274.78
L Vugh massive Stipple reticulate 4 13 32        93.45 3.14 2.26 3.56 3.81 – – 403.80 218.13
parallel
P3-3 A 95.78 2.40 0.87 6.68 4.69 – – 974.90324.69
B 5 YR 3/4 Crumb Stipple/crystallitic 10 20 28       95.43 2.54 1.08 6.10 5.17 7.8 77 – –
C 7.5 YR 4/4 Blocky Stipple/crystallitic 35 24 13       – – – 5.38 6.20 8.1 110 464.10 155.76
D Granular crumb Reticulate 24 16 19   – – – 4.30 7.62 – – 291.84 – Abundant
faunal
features
P3-4 A 7.5 YR 4/4 Granular crumb Reticulate/ 7 24 18    – – – 6.73 12.26 8.1 77 291.84 246.59
crystallitic
B Granular crumb Reticulate parallel/ 22 25 15       – – – 5.59 8.00 – – 210.92 92.61
crystallitic
C–F 5 YR 3/4 Crack crumb Reticulate/ 36 10 15        – – – 6.72 3.33 7.9 49 201.36 131.32
crystallitic
G, H 5 YR 4/6 Spongy vughy Reticulate parallel 10 22 25        95.83 1.97 1.56 4.38 3.67 8.0 30 159.67 188.41
I–K Spongy channel Reticulate parallel/ 8 18 26        95.08 2.49 1.91 4.50 5.22 – – 129.59 214.89
crystallitic
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086 3079

242.41 342.57 (van Wambeke, 1974; Gee and Bauder, 1996) demonstrating the
Ash
relative stability of aggregates.
174.98
119.94

90.85

335.42 386.37
188.41

Field determinations of topsoil pH ranged from 6.7 to 8.6 and

–

laboratory pH determinations ranged from 5.2 to 8.8, and averaged

1100.00
1069.68
704.58

422.98

7.9. Outliers clustered in the same profiles. Electrical conductivity

28

determinations ranged from 8 to 124 mS/cm, with slightly higher

–

average EC in the topsoil (62 mS/cm) than the subsoil (55 mS/cm). To
6.6
80

55
33

35

test for ion release 18 parallel samples were suspended 3 h in

–

–
1.62 3.90 2.63

aqueous slurry and EC increased by an average of 9 mS/cm. Electrical

5.15 3.25 5.2

5.51 18.33 8.2

5.82 8.2
6.58 3.26 6.1
6.47 3.42 –

4.73 15.00 –

conductivity and pH do not covary with elevation or growing zone.

EC distribution is more variable than pH but low EC corresponds to
4.78

low pH (Fig. 5). Overall, the Paca soils are calcareous with a low free
ion concentration regardless of elevation.
The carbonate concentration ranged between 1.5 and 52.4%
0.82
1.06
1.32
1.93
3.17
1.19
–

making averages of limited use. The distribution of carbonate var-

94.43
3.06
2.93
3.22

2.21

2.16

ied widely both between profiles and within individual profiles.

–

Although the uncultivated N1 and N2 profiles and upland fields had

carbonate accumulations, the range was tighter in the controls than
95.23
94.95
93.88

95.53

95.65


in cultivated fields. Upland fields had significantly more carbonate

–

than lowland fields, especially in topsoil.

Paca soils had low to moderate organic matter (OM) with


a range of 2.5–7.1%. Topsoil OM averaged 5.4% and the B-horizon











averaged 4.6%. Valley bottom maize fields had lower organic matter
concentrations than upland tuber potatoes fields. Again the range
of OM was narrower in uncultivated controls than in the cultivated



fields. The nutrient indicators nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

did not covary tightly with OM, elevation or clay as observed in thin
section. Nitrogen concentrated in topsoil across all Paca transects as








seen in the elevated A-horizon average (487 mg/L) compared to the

B-horizon average (310 mg/L). However, there were also significant




fluctuations in nitrogen distribution between horizons within






Gravel, sand and silt percentages are estimates of slide areas based on point counting different domains across the slide.

profiles, particularly in P3 transect and N1. The cultivated fields had

a higher range, with a few highly fields having very high values.








The average concentration of potassium (K) was 307.25 mg/L

from a range of 61–600 mg/L (where 600 mg/L was the maximum


detectable). Wide fluctuations within certain profiles demonstrate




K mobility. The lowest topsoil K was in fallow field P3-7 (90.9 mg/L)



which had a subsoil average of 386.37 mg/L. Conversely, fallow P3-



 


Crystalline features include all secondary carbonate features (i.e. infilling, pendants, hypocoats).

4 had 247.6 mg/L K in topsoil but the soil immediately underlying

29






had a K concentration of 92.6 mg/L.

Notes: B-fabrics separated by a slash (/) are discrete fabrics as are numbers in parenthesis.

A subset of samples was assayed for phosphorus-phosphate (P)

45
21
18

14
18
9

10

from P3 transect and the controls. The phosphorus range of 2.9–

Reticulate parallel 23

22

20
19
17
18

21

318.3 mg/L spans both high and low extremes of limits for agri-
culture (MAFF, 1986). The average of 63.3 mg/L is skewed by rare
high values. P concentrated in the valley bottom fields of P3 tran-
sect. Soil profile designations were determined by comparing thin
section analysis to bulk analyses results (Table 3; Douglas and
23

23
13

13
15

Thompson, 1985). Mass soil movement is suggested in N1 profile by

crystallitic/parallel

crystallitic/parallel
Mosaic/crystallitic
Reticulate parallel
Reticulate parallel

a pronounced lack of topsoil. Clay and silt accumulated densely

Mosaic parallel/
Stipple parallel

lower in the profile. N2 profile displayed weak topsoil development

Granular

also suggesting topsoil loss. Subsoils of both natural profiles had

Mosaic/

low porosity from concentrated infillings.

The parallel transects show comparable field conditions in the
uplands but increasingly variable soil properties moving down-
slope. In P1 transect, carbonate accumulated in the western up-
Blocky spongy
Vughy blocky

lands with little profile development. Clay accumulation is seen in

7.5 YR 4/6
Granular
Granular

Granular
Granular

western midslope profile subsoils whereas valley bottom profiles

crumb

are well developed with significant subsoil accumulations and

relatively higher clay and silt throughout the profile. Dense Wanka
7.5 YR 4/3
7.5 YR 4/4

7.5 YR 4/4

II artefact finds in P1-1 subsoil indicate a buried A-horizon and

5 YR 3/4

5 YR 4/4

suggest mass soil movement. The eastern fields had significant

D–F

depletion features not identified elsewhere.

The P2 uplands are characterized by carbonate accumulation
C–D
A–C

and little profile development but clay accumulation appears at

A

A
B

3550 masl. Midslope fields do not have significant silt or clay ac-
P3-5

P3-6

P3-7

cumulation in the subsoils and P2-2 is dominated by carbonates.

0
3080 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
Fig. 2. Thin sections of representative topsoil and subsoils from control, upland, midslope and toeslope fields. (A) Control profile topsoil (N2A), (B) upland field topsoil (P3-7A), (C)
midelevation field topsoil (P1-5A), (D) toeslope field topsoil (P2-1A), (E) control profile subsoil (N2G), (F) upslope field subsoil (P3-7D), (G) midslope subsoil (P1-5E), (H) toeslope
subsoil (P2-1I).
The valley bottom field P2-1 was significantly deeper than in P1
transect and demonstrated carbonate accumulation in the subsoil
and buried Wanka II artefacts.
In P3, the uppermost field demonstrated topsoil carbonate ac-
cumulation but clay also accumulated in the subsoil. Below this
level the subsoils accumulate silt and clay. The depth of midslope
profiles is highly variable suggesting karst substrate undulations.
The basal sample of shallow profile P3-3 had abundant soil faunal
features suggestive of a buried A-horizon. The valley bottom pro-
files are well developed with considerable clay accumulation in the
subsoil. Clusters of artefacts in the subsoil of P3-1 also suggest
buried soil. Soil depth and horizonation in P2 and P3 undulated
along the catena and did not mirror slope position. These un-
dulations suggest substrate variations, such as limestone dissolu-
tion, and cannot be directly related to anthropogenic causes.
3.3. Discussion
These results suggest that both inherent and anthropogenic
processes contribute to the soil patterns in the Paca Valley. These
include mass soil movement and its stabilization, topsoil depletion,
clay and silt translocation, aggregate formation, bioturbation and
carbonate accumulation. The two uncultivated samples both show
evidence of topsoil loss whereas all terraces’ samples had com-
paratively deep A-horizons, confirming the stabilizing effects of
terraces. However, soil depth alone does not indicate fertility. Many
topsoils had low levels of OM and fine material suggesting poor
growing conditions and some were abandoned at the time of this
study.
The analyses performed here confirm that the terraced fields
in the Paca Valley represent a mosaic of different growing envi-
ronments as noted elsewhere in the Andean highlands (Zim-
merer, 1999). The pH and EC data indicate that most soils are
alkaline and have moderate total nutrient status. Peaks in pH,
carbonate and EC covary suggesting that the majority of free
cations are calcium. The upper and lower pH of this range are
limiting to agriculture (Wild, 1993: p. 178). Paca pH is generally
higher than in the southern Mantaro Valley (range: 6.9–7.3;
Alegre et al., 1990) and considerably higher than in other Andean
regions suggesting important landuse and substrate influences
(e.g. Eash and Sandor, 1995; Pestalozzi, 2000; Sandor and Eash,
1995; Sarmiento, 2000). EC averages are low and compare well
with fallow soils in Bolivia (average 47.9  23.0 mS/cm; Pestalozzi,
2000).
Carbonates in upland soils reflect proximity to exposed lime-
stone bedrock above the terraces, poor soil formation and poor
retention of fines. Clay and silts accumulate in subsoils from mid-
slope and increase moving down valley from P1 to P3 transect,
which suggests the ongoing translocation of fines in the valley
system. Comparison of control to cultivated upland fields suggests
loss of fine material suggesting anthropogenic influence from ter-
race walls, tillage and possibly amendment. However, the high silt
and clay concentrations in the controls indicate that the parent soil
had more silt and clay in the upper elevations than in cultivated
fields suggesting loss of fine material. Silt and clay pedofeatures in
low-elevation fields probably reflect natural fine particle trans-
location that has been augmented by agriculture. Laminated silt
pedofeatures suggest periodic disruption, which is likely from till-
age and harvesting of tubers. This is further suggested by
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086 3081

Fig. 3. Topsoil microfabrics. (A, B) Upland topsoil b-fabric with little fine material (P1-5A) (ppl, xpl), (C, D) upland carbonate topsoil b-fabric (P3-5A) (ppl, xpl), (E, F) midslope loamy
topsoil b-fabric (P2-3A) (ppl, xpl), (G, H) toeslope topsoil b-fabric (P1-1A) xpl, ppl.

comparing cultivated upland tuber fields to the controls, which
indicates silt loss from cultivated fields.
Potential buried soils were identified in the field by buried ar-
tefacts and changes in soil structure. Buried soil is suggested in P1-1
by concentrations of pre-Columbian ceramics, bone, ash and char-
coal. Increased OM between 69 and 83 cm further suggests a buried
soil, although microstructure and pedofeatures indicate B-horizon
formation. Field finds for P1-2 include charcoal and ceramics and
soil chemistry revealed an increase in OM over the topsoil. In
contrast, artefacts in P2-1 and P3-1 are widely distributed through
the subsoils and soil data do not provide strong A-horizon evi-
dence. Microstructure and b-fabric changes in P3-3 suggest
3082 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086

Fig. 4. Characteristic pedofeatures. Clay features: (A) laminated silty clay topsoil infilling (P1-1A) (ppl), (B) laminated clay nodule with rounded edges (pseudosand) (P2-4C) (ppl),
(C) rounded clay nodules showing laminations in disturbed orientations (pseudosands) (P3-8E) (ppl). Primary carbonate weathering: (D) limestone dissolution and alteration
showing the incorporation of adjacent groundmass peds within thick calcite infillings (P3-1A) (xpl), (E, F) saprolitic rock with clay accumulation in pores (P1-1A) (ppl, xpl).
Secondary carbonate formation: (G) bladed calcite coat (N1A) (xpl), (H) Calcite hypocoat (P2-5B) (xpl), (I) complex infillings with carbonate over clay cementing peds (N1-Jb) (xpl).
Silt pedofeatures: (J) thin silty accumulations in upper subsoil (P2-1C) (ppl), (K, L) size sorted silt accumulations in lower subsoil (P2-1I) (ppl, ppl). Faunal bioturbation features: (M)
organic-enriched excrement pedofeaures (P3-5B) (ppl), (N) Biospheriod carbonate excrement pedofeature (P3-5B) (xpl), (O) partly sorted groundmass (P2-3D) (ppl).
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
Table 4
Bulk particle size fraction ranges
Sand
Fraction V. coarse (1–2000 mm) Coarse (500–1000 mm) Medium (250–500 mm)
Low (%) 7.25 7.93 6.65
High (%) 44.60 39.12 25.03
a possible buried soil but this is not indicated by OM or artefacts.
Overall, artefacts are strongly suggestive of buried soils in the lower
elevations. Thin sections and geochemistry indicate preserved A-
horizon properties to support artefactual evidence in P1 transect
and suggest an additional buried soil at P3-3 which was not visible
in the field.
The concentration of OM and plant nutrients was relatively low
by international standards (i.e. MAFF, 1986; Landon, 1991). Low OM
suggests that cultivation losses are not counterbalanced by ade-
quate inputs leading to depletion. Nitrogen was variable but suffi-
cient in topsoil not to regularly limit agriculture. Potassium was
distributed more irregularly with evidence of poor retention.
Phosphorus distribution was highly irregular in the limited assays
performed here but may be limiting for agriculture in several
contexts (e.g. P2-2, P3-7). In deep profiles, cemented B-horizons
retain higher nutrient concentrations indicating a nutrient pool
below the root zone. In several instances peaks of nitrogen, po-
tassium or phosphorus in the absence of high OM suggest the in-
expert use of chemical fertilizers. This represents a shift from
traditional long-fallow practices. Elevation differences in nutrient
concentration may also reflect demands of different crops, maize in
the valleys and potatoes in the uplands.
Gradual horizon boundaries suggest colluviation and bio-
turbation. In contrast to the Colca Canyon where undisturbed
subsoils were common (Eash and Sandor, 1995; Sandor and Eash,
1995), in Paca bioturbation limits the depth of cemented horizons
by aerating soils, mixing sediment and digesting soil components.
This provides a mechanism for the exchange of nutrients in these
soils, which contributes to their vitality.
The effects of terraces on controlling fine fraction movement are
less clear from this study. Little clay was identified in high elevation
topsoils but increases downslope where subsoil accumulations are
also common suggesting decalcification followed by clay eluviation
(MacKeague, 1983). Silty laminations in subsoil infillings (Fig. 6)
may suggest tillage effects (see Macphail et al., 1990) but such as-
sociations can be problematic (Carter and Davidson, 1998) and
there are no experimental results for the Andes to support this. If
these do represent tillage pedofeatures, they may have been aug-
mented by animal traction over the last 500 years as footplows
generate large clods and minimal structural disruption (Schjel-
lerup, 1986). In contrast, in situ laminated clay pedofeatures in
valley bottom ploughzones indicate continuous translocation of
Fig. 5. Electrical conductivity versus pH for all samples.
3083
Silt Clay
Fine (125–250 mm) V. fine (63–125 mm) All (2–63 mm) All (<2 mm)
6.08 4.08 1.61 0.53
28.13 31.12 22.16 4.7
fine material downslope. The accumulation of clay in subsoil pro-
vides a moisture retention mechanism in these rainfed fields
(Buytaert et al., 2002; Sandor et al., 1990: p. 74) and probably active
soil fauna.
Stable microaggregates (pseudosands) and saprolite protect
some fine material from erosion in the Paca Valley. Stable soil
aggregates may be bound by ferrous compounds (van Wambeke,
1974), salts (Aubert, 1983), clays and organic matter (Six et al.,
2000). Carbonates and clay were most visible in thin section.
Upland topsoil peds were generally smaller, denser and less ac-
commodated than peds at lower elevation probably as a result of
more frequent freeze–thaw cycles and low clay concentration. The
presence of microaggregates demonstrates that Paca soils have
a capacity to sequester nutrients, which promotes soil resilience.
Clay in saprolitic rock provides a continual source of cation
buffering as limestone weathers rapidly at high elevation pro-
ducing residual clay (Fig. 4H, I; Atkinson and Smith, 1976). Dense
peds, stable microaggregates and saprolite appear to act as nu-
trient sinks which are released slowly through weathering and
low-intensity ploughing. Microaggregate formation appears to be
multicausal from anthropogenic and natural practices and cannot
be directly attributed to terracing. However, terraces clearly sta-
bilize the aggregates themselves and prevent their downhill
movement.
Carbonate accumulation represents a limiting factor for agri-
cultural productivity in many Paca soils, which was often noted by
contemporary residents. Carbonate accumulation was derived from
in situ limestone dissolution and pedogenic carbonate accumula-
tion. These carbonate sources were eventually drawn into the
parent material and diluted it to make carbonate soil.
4. Conclusions
This study focused on soil quality of rainfed pre-Hispanic ter-
races that are in active use to assess the role of terraces in long-term
agriculture. Compared to uncultivated lands, Paca terraces stabilize
sands and aggregates which preserve topsoil and contribute to soil
resilience. Yet, buried artefacts and soils also show dramatic
changes to the Paca landscape. Buried Wanka II ceramics in valley
bottom positions indicate mass soil movement during the late pre-
Columbian periods. The most likely cause is the documented ex-
pansion of Inca agriculture and road building (D’Altroy, 1992;
Goodman-Elgar, 2003). These buried soils demonstrate the detri-
mental short-term impacts of terrace construction despite their
potential long-term contributions to soil resilience (Park, 2006).
The construction of footpaths has also been shown to augment
erosion in the Andes (e.g. Harden, 1993).
The low organic matter, moderate plant nutrients and little
available clay in upland fields compared to controls indicate that
they are poor agricultural substrates. Many showed no sign of re-
cent cultivation and appear abandoned. These fields are highly
vulnerable to degradation and clearly show the impacts of overuse.
Local farmers indicate that precipitated fallow times has been
shortened by several years, which limits the soil’s ability to recover
after cultivation. A dearth of OM in the uplands was also apparent
from this study. These terraces therefore appear situated on poor
agricultural substrates that require high maintenance to remain
productive. The juxtaposition of these terraces along an Inca road
3084 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086

Fig. 6. Horizonation of Paca transects (elevation is scaled, the distance between sample points is not representative).
 M. Goodman-Elgar / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3072–3086
indicates that agricultural productivity was not necessarily the
driving force for their construction. Constructing these fields re-
quired high labour investment in difficult terrain for marginal ag-
ricultural returns. The Inka had access to labourers from conquered
territories and a grand surplus of goods enabling this kind of dis-
play (see D’Altroy, 2002) and such practices may have formed part
of their territorial conquest strategy.
Midslope fields also show signs of overuse, particularly through
relatively low OM and plant nutrients. The erratic distribution of N,
K and P demonstrate that contemporary efforts to use chemical
fertilizers are not adequately compensating for nutrient losses
through overuse and erosion. Little organic fertilizer is currently
applied to fields resulting in a loss of soil quality and the potential
for progressive degradation. In pre-Hispanic times, soil depletion
was probably offset to a greater degree by grazing camelids on crop
stubble (Denevan, 2001: pp. 35–36) and middening household
waste, which is suggested by artefact scatters within the Paca field
systems (Goodman-Elgar, 2003). The long-fallow and organic re-
placement practices typical of traditional Andean agriculture
combine to favour a dynamic of soil quality maintenance whereas
contemporary practices are pushing this soil system towards
depletion.
Inherent soil properties also contribute to soil resilience in the
Paca Valley. These soils are prone to stable aggregate and saprolite
formation which sequesters nutrients in larger aggregates that re-
sist erosion. Terraces stabilize these aggregates and enhance topsoil
retention contributing to soil quality. However, these mechanisms
provide soil replenishment at a slow rate as nutrient release is
derived from slow aggregate weathering. Under contemporary
farming practices, this slow release cannot compensate for nutrient
losses through cultivation resulting in depletion of some fields.
Another inherent quality of importance for agriculture is the
presence of well-developed Bt horizons. Subsoil clay accumulation
contributes to water retention and contributes to plant and soil
fauna growth in this semi-arid environment.
Overall, both inherent soil conditions and terracing contribute
to the resilience of rainfed agriculture in the Paca Valley. The long
farming history in this region indicates that soils and farming
practices are relatively resilient. However, this resilience is fragile
and represents a balance between management and overuse. The
disused upland fields in the Paca Valley, and the larger abandoned
agricultural systems in the neighbouring Yanamarca Valley, attri-
bute to the long-term outcomes of mismanagement in the Andes.
Evidence for large-scale landscape disruption and construction on
poor substrates in Inca times also suggests that pre-Hispanic ter-
racing has a wide range of impacts, some of which may be un-
intentional. The role of terraces in soil stabilization provides an
important advantage to upland farming in the Andes but cannot
compensate for poor substrates and farming practices making even
terraced fields vulnerable to overuse.
Acknowledgements
Fieldwork was conducted under permissions from the Instituto
Nacional de Cultura, Peru. Andrés Moya Castro and colleagues
provided field assistance. Dr. Charles A.I. French and Dr. Steve
Boreham provided technical support. Julie Boreham (McBurney
Laboratory, Cambridge) and Spectrum Petrographics (Vancouver,
WA) manufactured thin sections. Funding was provided in part by
the McBurney Laboratory, Jesus College Cambridge, British Feder-
ation of Women Graduates, University of Cambridge Board of
Graduate Studies, American Friends of Cambridge University and
the Anthony Wilkin Fund. Many thanks are offered to these in-
dividuals and institutions for their support. This paper benefitted
from the helpful comments of four anonymous reviewers.
Remaining errors are the responsibility of the author.
3085
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