TOP 10 PEOPLE (cont.

(6) Napoleon Bonaparte (Emperor of France):

 Napoleon Bonaparte, born in 1769 on the Italian Corsica, France annexed it, he went to
French school. Became an officer, was a fiery Jacobin, became brigadier general for saving
Toulon from the British.
 In 1795, France was still fighting with Britain and Austria. The invasion of Italy deprived
Austria of Lombardy, so Napoleon crushed Austria and Sardinia, the Treaty of Campio
Formio took Austria out of the war. He knew he couldn`t cross the English Channel and
attack Britain, so he tried to cut off its trade by capturing Egypt (who they traded with) from
the Ottomans.
o Admiral Horatio Nelson- destroyed the French fleet at Abukir 1798, and drove the
French army back, cut them off from France. This was the first West European
assault on the Ottoman Empire.
 The Second Coalition formed between Russia, Austria, Ottomans, and Britain against
France.
 Abbe Sieyes wrote the “What is the Third Estate” pamphlet that said the Third Estate
wanted recognition, a Director in the Directory, he wanted an executive power independent
of the whims of electoral politics. A gov`t based on “confidence from below, power from
above.” Napoleon left Egypt and joined Sieyes in France 1799, and on 19 Brumaire, the
coup was a success. Napoleon pushed Sieyes aside, issued the Constitution of the Year
VIII, a complicated system of checks and balances with universal male suffrage,
disregarded democracy and made there be three consuls, he was the First Consul, had all
the power
 The Consulate ended the revolution in France, most goals of it were achieved by 1799,
hereditary privilege was gone, peasants were okay, got new land and no more feudal rights
against them, the classes were okay with how they were so they approved Napoleon`s
constitution right away.
 Treaty of Luneville - French internal instability often was due to war, Napoleon got public
confidence by making peace with enemies. Second Coalition broke up, and the Treaty of
Luneville in 1801 took Austria out of the war.
 Treat of Amiens in 1802 Took Britain out of the war, brought peace to Europe.
 Napoleon makes peace at home by using generosity, flattery, and bribery to win over
enemies. Gave general amnesty and jobs to political faction people if they were loyal to
him. Radical men from the Reign of Terror , or people who wanted constitutional monarchy
and had fled, or high officials under Louis had high offices.
 Attacks the Jacobins by using the excuse of a plot on his life (by royalists, actually), to
execute the Bourbon (getting rid of monarchial relations!) duke of Enghien, who was really
innocent, but to keep from restoring the Bourbon monarchy, and put an end to royalist
plots.
  Pope Pius VII and napoleon made the Concordat of the Catholic Church: refractory clergy
and those who accepted the revolution to resign, and be replaced. State would pay the
priests, and the church would not raise any questions about confiscated lands during the
revolution.
 Organic articles of 1802- The government issued without asking the church, established
supremacy of state over church.
 Napoleon became consul for life, made a new constitution: The Civil Code of 1804, also
called the Napoleonic Code. Safeguarded property, oldest son no longer got all the
inheritance, one set of laws for all of France.
 Britain declared war on France in 1803. William Pitt the younger was the prime minister of
England in 1804, began to make the Third Coalition with Russia and Austria. Had naval
supremacy. Admiral Lord Nelson- He combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of
Trafalgar to beat the French and end idea of French invasion of Britain.
o The Treaty of Pressburg: beat Austria, won major concessions from Austria
o Berlin Decrees forbidded his allies from importing British goods. 1807 He defeated
the Russians at Friedland and occupied East Prussia. Napoleon was now the
master of all Germany.
 Treaty of Tilsit which confirmed France`s gains, Prussia lost half its territory (would`ve lost it
all if it wasn`t for Alexander. Prussia openly, and Russia secretly, became allies with
Napoleon.
o The Contintental System`s goal was to cause domestic unrest and drive Britain
from the war in order to prevent resistance in his conquered lands. Milan Decree of
1807 was to stop neutral nations from trading with Britain also. But the naval power
and smuggling of the British kept them alive, and so just the economy of the rest of
Europe was hurt.
 He deposed the Spanish Bourbons and placed his brother Joseph on the throne which
invoked guerilla rebellion against him.
 Now, Russia didn`t like the continental system or the liberalism of France, so they withdrew
from the system, and France invaded, however Tsar Alexander retreated towards Moscow,
burning everything on the way so that France could not use any resources. This was called
the scorched-earth policy. Consequently, the harsh winter was too much for the French
troops and they had to retreat.
 Napoleon`s enemies used this to their advantage! Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and
Sweden joined in the Grand Alliance and he was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, was
exiled, and banished to Elba. HOWEVER, he escaped in 1815 and was welcomed back to
France, but his last bid for power in the Hundred Days was crushed at Waterloo in Belgium.
The British finally sent him to St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he later died.

(7) Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861): (Italian Unification)

 King Charles Albert of Piedmont spread a conservative constitution and twice

unsuccessfully fought Austria. Victor Emmanuel, his son, became the new monarchy who
 chose Cavour as prime minister. He rejected republicanism and was a conservative but
became a liberal and believed in no Romantic ideals.
 Cavour’s Policy- Cavour believed if Italians proved they to be efficient and economically
progressive, the great powers might decide that Italy could govern itself. He promoted free
trade, railway construction, expansion of credit, and agricultural improvement. He started
the Nationalist Society, which established chapters in other Italian states to press for
unification under the leadership of Piedmont. He believed that only a French intervention
could defeat Austria and unite Italy.
 French Sympathies- In 1855, Piedmont sent 10,000 troops to help France and Britain
capture Sebastopol of the Crimean War. At the Paris conference Cavour raised the Italian
question, but gained no diplomatic reward, but impressed everyone. January 1858, an
Italian named Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate napoleon III. Napoleon then saw
Piedmont as a potential ally against Austria. In July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III met at
Plonbieres in southern France. A formal treat in December 1858 confirmed their agreement
to provoke a war in Italy that would permit them to defeat Austria.
 War with Austria- On June 4, the Austrians was defeated at Magenta, and on June 24 at
Solferino. On July 11, Napoleon concluded peace with Austria, which Piedmont received
Lombardy but Venetia remained under Austrian control. Later, Parma, Modena, Tuscany,
and the Romagna voted to unite with Piedmont.
 Garibaldi’s Campaign- garibaldi landed in Sicily with more than 1,000 troops who had been
outfitted in the north and capture Palermo and prepared to attack the mainland. He
controlled the city and kingdom of Naples, but Cavour rushed Piedmonts troops out to
confront Garibaldi. On the way, they conquered the rest of Papal States and defeat
garibaldi’s republicanism. In late 1860, Naples and Sicily voted to join the Italian kingdom;
Piedmont surrendered Savoy and Nice, where much of the population spoke French, to
France.
 The New Italian State-In March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy.
Three months later Cavour died. North and South Italy were incompatible. The south was
rural, poor, and back ward, which the north was industrializing. The constitution provided
for a conservative constitution monarchy. Parliament consisted of two houses: a senate
appointed by the king and a chamber of deputies elected on a narrow franchise.
“Transformismo” developed which was bribery, favors, or seat in the cabinet “transformed”
political opponents into government supporters. Venetia and Rome was returned in 1866
for Italy’s alliance with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian war.

(9) Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898): (German Unification)

 Otto von Bismarck came from a Junker stock. During the 1840s, he was elected to the
provincial diet, where he was a reactionary he disturbed even the king. He served as
Prussian representative to the German Confederation. And later became Prussian
ambassador and was later appointed as prime minister.
 He had mellowed into a conservative. In politics, he was a pragmatist who put more trust in
power and action than in ideas. Upon becoming Prime minister in 1862, he moved against
the liberal parliament. Taxes became collected and spent despite the parliamentary refusal
to vote them.
 The Danish War (1864) - Bismarck pursued a “kleindeutsch” (small German) solution to
unification and exclude Austria. The kings of Denmark had longed ruled these two northern
duchies (Schleswig-Holstein). In 1863, the Danish parliament moved to incorporate both
duchies into Denmark. A war aroused resulting in Danish defeat, which increased
Bismarck’s personal prestige and strengthened his political hand. In August 1865, Austria
and Prussia negotiated the Convention of Gastein, which put Austria in charge of Holstein
and Prussia in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Schleswig. Bismarck then
gained Russian support. IN April 1866, Bismarck promised Italy Venetia if it attacked Austria
in support of Prussia when war broke out, which Bismarck provoked his war.
 The Austro-Prussian War (1866) - On June 1, 1866, Austria appealed to the German
Confederation to intervene in the dispute. The Seven weeks’ war led to decisive defeat of
Austria at Koniggratz in Bohemia. The Treaty of Prague was lenient toward Austria, with
only lost Venetia, and surrendered it to Napoleon, who surrendered it to Italy. The treaty
permanently excluded the Austrian Habsburgs from German affairs. Prussia had thus
established itself as the only major power among the German states.
 The North German Confederation- under Prussian leadership, all Germany north of the
Main River now formed the North German Confederation. A legislature consisted of two
houses: a federal council, ”Bundesrat” composed of members appointed by the
government of the states and a lower house “Reichstag” chosen by universal male suffrage.
The constitution of the North German Confederation became the constitution of the
German Empire, possessed some of the appearances, but none of the substance, of
liberalism. Germany was a military monarchy. In 1866, Prussian Parliament retroactively
approved the military budget that it had rejected earlier. Bismarck had crushed the Prussian
liberals by making the monarchy and the army the most popular institution in the country.
 The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871)- Bismarck now wanted to
complete unification by bringing the states of southern Germany into the newly establish
confederation. In 1868, a military coup replaced Isabella II of Spain and the Spaniards
chose Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Catholic cousin of William I of Prussia.
Bismarck knew that France would object strongly to a Hohenzollern Spain. France sent
Count Vincent Benedetti to consult with William I. On July 12, Leopold’s father renounced
his son’s candidacy for the Spanish throne, fearing the issue would cause war between
Prussia and France. On July 13, the French government instructed Benedetti to ask William
for assurances he would tolerate no future Spanish candidacy for Leopold. Later that day
the king sent Bismarck to say the peaceful resolution of the controversy, which had
disappointed the chancellor, who desperately wanted a way with France to complete
unification. Bismarck released an edited version of the dispatch. The revised Ems telegram
 made it appear that William had insulted the French ambassador. The French declared war
on July 19. The southern German states joined Prussia against France, whose defeat was
not long in coming. On September 1, at the battle of Sedan, the Germans not only beat the
French army but also captured Napoleon III. Ten days earlier, the German Empire had been
proclaimed. The German princes requested William to accept the title of German emperor.

(10) Nicolaus Copernicus

 A Polish astronomer who published “On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres”- described
as “ a revolution making rather than a revolutionary text”

 Ptolemy –A Greek mathematical astronomy (150 C.E.) who released his work called
Almagest. Several mathematical calculations relating to astronomy which known as
Ptolemaic systems ware developed from that based on the assumption the earth to be the
center of the universe.

 Geocentrism- A belief that the earth was the center of the universe. Assume a series of
concentric spheres such as moon, sun and other planets move around the earth and the
earth is the center

 Divine Comedy-A high religious poem written by Italian called Dante discuss sin and virtue

 Ptolemaic model- accounted for motions of planets through epicycles. The planet moved
uniformly about a small cycle called epicycle and the center of the epicycle moved
uniformly about a larger circle called deferent while the earth is at or near the center.

 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres-Copernicus published the De Revolutionibus

Orbium Caelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) in 1543. In the preface, he
addressed to Pope Paul III to explain his reasoning behind his theory of the earth moved
around the sun and the consequences. He adopted many elements of the Ptolemaic model
but transferred them in heliocentric model which assume the sun is the center of universe

 Heliocentric model is the sun-centered model. The epicycles were smaller; the farther the
planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it. The major impact was
to provide a way of confronting the difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic astronomy and achieve
new intelligibility in astronomy in rejecting Aristotle’s cosmology.

TOP 10 EVENTS (cont.)

(4) Witch-Hunts:

 Witch-Hunts and Panic-between 1400-1700, 70,000 to 100,000 people were sentenced to

death for witchcraft. Witches were believed that they could fly and be in direct relationships
 with the devil, devouring children. Reformation took away the traditional defenses against
such forces therefore allowing people to develop something else
 Who Were the Witches? - 80% were women who were singled and over 40. First group of
victims were widows, second were midwives, then healers and herbalists. Possession of
magical powers made one important in the society and often old, widowed women.
 Influence of the Clergy- theologians reasoned that the witches had to come either from God
or the devil. The church sought to supplant folk magic with church magic, the princes
sought to supplant customary laws with Roman law. To identify, try, and execute witches
was a demo of absolute spiritual and political authority over a village
 End of the Witch-Hunts- emergence of a more scientific point of view, advances in
medicine, availability of lawyers. Trials became dysfunctional and threatened anarchy.
(5) Agricultural Revolution:
 Revolution in Agriculture- Smaller supplies of larger demand raised grain prices. Prices rose
faster than urban wages and brought no appreciable advantage to the small peasant
producer. The rise in grain prices benefited landowners and those wealthier peasants who
had surplus grain to sell. Landlords in Western Europe began a series of innovations in
farm production that is The Agricultural Revolution.
 New Crops and New Methods- Dutch landlords and farmers devised better ways to build
dikes and to drain land. They also experimented with new crops, such as clover and turnips
that would increase supply of animal fodder and restore the soil. Cornelius Vermuyden, a
Dutch engineer, was hired by English landlords to drain thousands of acres of land around
Cambridge.
o Jethro Tull- conducted experiments himself and financed the experiments of others.
Rejection of manure as fertilizer was wrong. Using iron plows to turn n the earth
more deeply and planting wheat by a drill rather than by just casting seeds was
right.
o Charles “Turnip” Townsend institutes crop rotation, using wheat turnips barley and
clover. This new system replaced the fallow field with one sown with a crop that
both restored nutrients to soil and supplied animal fodder. The fodder attracted
animals and assured a year round supply of meant and later quantity of manure as
fertilizer for the grain crops.
o Robert Bakewell- pioneered new methods of animal breeding that produced more
and better animals and more milk and meat.
o Arthur Young- edited the Annals of Agriculture
 Enclosure Replaces Open-Field Method- Open field was farmers that still farmed most of
the soil. The two or three field systems of rotation and animals that grazed on the common
land in the summer and on the stubble of the harvest in winter. By the second half of the
18th century. The rising price of wheat encouraged landlords to enclose their lands to
increase production. The enclosures were intended to use land more rationally and to
 achieve greater commercial profits. Enclosures displayed the introduction of the
entrepreneurial or capitalistic attitude of the urban merchant into the countryside.
 Limited Improvements in Eastern Europe- New procedures benefited the ruling classes
because better agriculture increased their incomes and assured a larger food supply,
which discouraged social unrest.
o In Prussia, Austria, Poland, and Russia, the chief method of increasing production
was to bring previously untilled lands under the plow. The great landlords sought to
squeeze more labor from their serfs, rather than greater productivity from the soil.
The only significant nutritional gain they achieved was the introduction of maize
and potato.
 Expansion of Population-Beginning in the second quarter of the eighteenth century, the
population began to increase steadily. In 1700, The population excluding the European
province of the Ottoman Empire, was between 100 million and 120 million people, by the
1800 the population had risen to almost 1960 million and by 1850 to 260 million.
o Death rate declined fewer wars, epidemics, hygiene and sanitation improved. On a
single acre, a peasant family could grow enough potatoes to feed itself for an entire
year this more certain food supply enabled more children to survive to adulthood
and raise children of their own. Thus, contributed to the population expansion. New
demands were therefore created for food, goods, jobs, and services.

(6) First Industrial Revolution:

 The achievement of sustained economic growth

 Revolution in Consumption-Inventions of the Industrial Revolution increased the supply of
consumer goods. The key to the change in consumption is the expanding of various
domestic markets in Europe. People became persuaded that they needed or wanted new
consumer goods.
o Josiah Wedgwood- first attempted to find customers among the royal family and
the aristocracy. Once he had gained their business with luxury goods, then he
produced a less expensive version of the chinaware for middle-class customers. He
used advertised and sent salespeople all over Britain with samples and catalogs of
his wares.
o Fashion publication made all levels of society aware of new styles.
 Industrial Leadership of Great Britain-Great Britain was the home of the Industrial
Revolution. London was the center of a world of fashion and taste to which hundreds of
thousands of British citizens were exposed each year.
o Britain was also the single largest free-trade area in Europe. Taxation in Britain was
heavy, but was efficiently and fairly collected. British taxes received legal approval
through Parliament, will all social classes and regions paying the same taxes.
o British society was mobile by the standards of time. People ho had money or could
earn money could rise socially and enjoy their riches, receive social recognition,
and exert political influence.
 New Methods of Textile Production-Earliest industrial change took place not in cities, but in
the countryside. Domestic (putting out) system of textile production (agents of urban textile
merchants took wool or other unfinished fibers to the homes of peasants, who spun it into
thread. The agent then transported the thread to other peasant, who wove it into the
finished product. Then, the merchant sold the wares.
o Spinning Jenny- John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which increased the
productivity of the weavers. The spinners did not have the equipment to produce as
much thread as the weavers. Therefore, James Hargreaves invented the spinning
jenny. This machine allowed 16 spindles of thread to be spun, but by the close of
the century, it could operate 120 spindles.
o Water Frame- Richard Arkwrights’s water frame that was a water powered device
designed to permit the production of a purely cotton fabric, rather than a cotton
fabric containing linen fiver for durability. Many factories sprang up in the country
side near streams that provided the necessary water power.
o Edmund Cartwright- invented the power loom for machine weaving.
o Steam engine- James Watt perfected to run textile machinery could factories easily
be located in or near urban centers.
 Steam Engine- This machine provided for the first time in human history a steady and
essentially unlimited source off inanimate power. The steam engine was driven by burning
coal and provided a portable source of industrial power that did not fail or falter as the
seasons of the year changed.
o Thomas Newcomen in the early eighteenth century had invented the first practical
engine to use steam power. The steam that had been induced into the cylinder
condensed, and caused the piston to fall. During the 1760s, James Watt gradually
understood that separating the condenser from the piston and the cylinder would
achieve much greater efficiency. Matthew Boulton and watt consulted with John
Wilkinson to drill the precise metal cylinders Watt’s design required. The Watt steam
engine found its first commercial application pumping water from mines .Boulton
eventually persuaded Watt to make modification and improvements that allowed
the engines to be used not only for pumping, but also for running cotton mills.
 Iron Production-Charcoal rather than coke was used to smelt the ore. Until the perfection of
the steam engine, furnaces could not achieve high enough blasts. The demand for iron
was limited. These three factors held back the production of iron.
o Henry Cort- introduced a new puddling process a new method for smelting and
stiffing molten ore. The process allows the removal of more slag (impurities that
bubbled to the top of the molten metal) and thus production of purer iron.
Developed a rolling mill that continuously shaped the still-molten metal into forms.
 The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women-Women
worked in and often were permitted to assemble the grain left over after the general
harvest, managed industries. Men displaced the work of women in the field. Women came
 to be viewed as opponents of agricultural improvement. Most women spinners were put
out of work and those women who did move into the factory labor force performed less
skilled work than men. The women became involved with cottage industries, but it paid so
poorly, the women who did this work might become prostitutes or engage in other criminal
activity, and thousands became domestic servants.
o Pricilla Wakefield- believed the kinds of employment open to women had narrowed.
Wakefield called for new occupations for women.
o Women’s works became associated with the home rather than with places where
men worked. The laboring life of most women was removed from the new
technologies in farming, transportation, and manufacturing. They also worked to
supplement a husband’s income. Men were paid much more than women.

(7) Urbanization:

 The percentage of the European population living in urban areas had risen from just over
five percent to just over nine percent.
 Growth of Capitals and Ports-Cites growing most vigorously were capitals and ports which
reflect the success of monarchical state building during those years and the consequent
growing of bureaucracies, armies, courts, and other groups who lived in the capitals. The
growth of port cities reflects the expansion of European overseas trade.
 Emergence of New cities and the growth of Small towns-The rate of growth of existing
large cities declined, new cities emerged, and existing smaller cities grew. “an urban
growth from below” general overall population increase. The early stages of the Industrial
Revolution occurred in the countryside and promoted the growth of smaller towns and
cities located near factories. Cities grew as a result of the new prosperity of European
agriculture.
 Urban Classes- The urbane rich were often visibly segregated from the urban poor.
Aristocrats and upper middle class lived in fashionable town houses. The poorest town
dwellers usually congregated along the rivers. Small merchants and artisans lived above
their shops.
o Pure water was rare, animals roamed the streets. Cities of Europe emphasize both
the striking grace and beauty of the dwellings of the wealthy and the dirt, filth that
filled the streets.
o In the city, poverty was more visible in the form of crime, prostitution, begging, etc.
“gin age”- when consumption of the liquor blinded and killed many poor people.
Public executions took place, the breaking of men and women on instruments of
torture in Paris, and the public floggings in Russia.
 Upper Class-Small group of nobles, large merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy and
government officials. They constituted a self- appointed and self-electing oligarchy that
governed the city through its corporation or city council.
 Middle Class-The prosperous: merchants, trades people, bankers, and professional people.
Most dynamic element of the urban population and was called the bourgeoisie. They lived
 in the cities and towns and their sources of income had little of nothing to do with land.
They all benefited from expanding trade and commerce. The middle class normally
supported reform, change, and economic growth. They wanted more rational regulations
for trade and commerce.
o During the 18th century, nobles increasingly embraced the commercial sprit
associated with the middle class by improving their estates and investing in cities.
The bourgeoisie was not rising to challenge the nobility, but rather seeking to
increase their existing political power and social prestige.
 Artisans-Shopkeepers, artisans, and wage earners were the single largest group in any city.
They could buy more goods than ever before to the extent their incomes permitted, many
of them sought to copy the domestic consumption of the middle class. Their lives centered
on their work. The guild preserved the jobs and skills of their members. The guilds still
determined who could pursue a craft. The artisan could receive social benefits from the
guilds.
 Urban Riot-If the artisan class felt that what was economically “just” had been offended,
artisans frequently manifested their displeasure by rioting, especially the price of bread. If a
merchant sold bread for an unjust price, Artisan leaders would confiscate the bread or
grain and sell it for what the urban crowd considered to be a fair price.
o Lord George Gordon had raised the specter of an imaginary Catholic plot after the
government relieved military recruits from having to take specifically anti-Catholic
oaths.
o In the riots, violence was normally directed against property rather than people. The
urban riots increasing involved political ends. “Crowd” was often the tool of the
upper classes. The aristocratic Parelment often urged crowd action in its disputes
with the monarchy. Riots against local oligarchy, government incited mobs to attack
English sympathizers of the French Revolution.

(8) Enlightenment:

 Immanuel Kant- flourished in the expanding of the printing press culture and who took lead
in the new attitudes towards the world and literature. Kant believed that he created a
compromise between empiricists and rationalists. He criticized the European Empires for
dehumanize people whose appearance and culture differed from them. He had a major
influence on German philosophy, mostly in analytic and continental philosophy.
 Deism- Hoped the wide acceptance of their faith would end rivalry among religious
fanaticism,conflict and persecution

o John Toland, Christianity Not Mysterious promoted religion as a natural and

rational, rather than a supernatural and mystical phenomenon.

o Existence of God
 o Belief in life after death, when rewards and punishments would be meted out
according to the virtue of the lives people led on this earth

 Baron de Montesquieu- French lawyer, a noble of the robe and a member of a provincial
parlement saw the needs of reform.
o Spirit of the Laws concluded that no single set of political laws could apply to all
peoples at all times and in all places. The good political life depended on
relationship among many political variables.
o Division of power if government where there are executive, legislative and judicial
powers
 Adam Smith- Professor of Glasgow University believed economic liberty was the foundation
of a natural economic system.

o Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith
and advocated the economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic
system. It urged the mercantile system of England –including the navigation acts
governing colonial trade, the bounties the government gave to favored merchants
and industries, most tariffs, trading monopolies and domestics regulation of labor to
be abolished.

o Mercantilism believed the earth’s resources were limited and scarce, so one nation
could acquire wealth only at the expenses of others

o Wealth of Nations was book that detailed the limited role for the government in
economic life. The state should provide schools, armies, certain commercial
ventures. It embraced the four-stage theory of economic development.

 Jean-Jacques Rousseau-Isolated; hated the world and society in which he lived.Blamed the
much evil of the world on uneven distribution of property

o The Social Contract declared “all men are born free, but everywhere they are in
chains”. Society is more important than individual members and constituted a
justification for radical direct democracy and for collective action against individual
citizens

 Denis Diderot- Writer of the encyclopedia

o The Encyclopedia was one of the greatest monuments of the enlightenment and
print culture. It showed the enlightenment’s determination to probe life on earth
rather than the religious realm. It’s a collective plea for freedom of expression and
included the most advanced critical ideas of the time on religion, government and
philosophy. The articles on politics, ethics and society ignored divine law and
concentrated on humanity and its immediate well-being.

 Marquis Cesare Beccaria-An Italian aristocrat and philosopher hoped to end human cruelty
by discovering social laws and making people aware of them.
 o On Crimes and Punishment applied critical analysis to the problem of making
punishments both effective and just.Marquis wanted the laws of monarchs and
legislatures conformed to the rational laws of nature. The purpose of law was not to
impose the will of god or perfection but to secure the greatest good or happiness
for the greatest number of human beings

 Baruch Spinoza-Spinoza’s near pantheistic position( the idea that God is not a distinct
personality but that everything in the universe is) drew God and nature too intimately into a
single divine substance led both Jews and Protestants to criticize him as atheist.

o Ethics was the most famous works of Spinoza. It closely identified God and nature,
or the spiritual and material worlds, that contemporaries condemned it.

 Moses Mendelssohn- the leading Jewish philosopher in 18th century and known as the
Jewish Socrates. Mendelssohn argued a Jew could combine loyalty to Judaism with
adherence to rational, enlightenment values.

o Jerusalem, On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism, the most influential work of

Mendelssohn; argued bother of extensive religious toleration and for maintaining
the religious distinction of Jewish communities. Mendelssohn urged the religious
diversity within a nation did not harm loyalty to the government. He presented
Judaism as one of many religious paths revealed by God.

(9) Scientific Revolution:

 Many false starts; separated studies and multiple countries

 Involve isolated brilliant scientific minds as well artisans and craftspeople in constructing
new instruments for experiment

 Second half of the 17th century; formal societies and academies pursuit natural
philosophies informally

 The end of 17th century, Standard of accessing the validity of knowledge developed

 Authority and application of scientific knowledge became the defining characteristic of

modern western civilization

 Medicine, chemistry, natural history and astronomy were the new knowledge emerged.

 Nicolaus Copernicus- A Polish astronomer who published “On the revolutions of the
heavenly spheres”- described as “ a revolution making rather than a revolutionary text”

o Ptolemy –A Greek mathematical astronomy (150 C.E.) who released his work called
Almagest. Several mathematical calculations relating to astronomy which known as
Ptolemaic systems ware developed from that based on the assumption the earth to
be the center of the universe.
 o Geocentrism- A belief that the earth was the center of the universe. Assume a series
of concentric spheres such as moon, sun and other planets move around the earth
and the earth is the center

o Divine Comedy-A high religious poem written by Italian called Dante discuss sin
and virtue

o Ptolemaic model- accounted for motions of planets through epicycles. The planet
moved uniformly about a small cycle called epicycle and the center of the epicycle
moved uniformly about a larger circle called deferent while the earth is at or near
the center.

o On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres-Copernicus published the De

Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) in
1543. In the preface, he addressed to Pope Paul III to explain his reasoning behind
his theory of the earth moved around the sun and the consequences. He adopted
many elements of the Ptolemaic model but transferred them in heliocentric model
which assume the sun is the center of universe

o Heliocentric model is the sun-centered model. The epicycles were smaller; the
farther the planets were from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it. The
major impact was to provide a way of confronting the difficulties inherent in
Ptolemaic astronomy and achieve new intelligibility in astronomy in rejecting
Aristotle’s cosmology.

 Tycho Brahe- Danish astronomer suggested planets like Venus and Mercury revolve
around the sun. The moon revolved around the earth. Constructed scientific instruments
that can observe planets in naked-eyes

o Geocentric system

 Johannes Kepler-A German astronomer, Assistant of Tycho; deeply influenced by

Renaissance neoplatonism and advocate of heliocentric model. Set first astronomical
model that portray motion elliptically instead of circularly.

o The New Astronomy- Published in 1609 by Kepler; it combined the views of

Copernicus’s the sun-centered universe and Braches’ empirical data to describe
planet motions

o Renaissance Neo-Platonism- Neo-Platonism was not just a revival of Plato's ideas; it

is all based on Plotinus' created synthesis, which incorporated the works and
teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras and other Greek philosophers. Neo-
Platonism is generally a religious philosophy. Neo-Platonism is a form of idealistic
monism (universe is really just one thing though it has many appearances and
diversities or theories) and combines elements of Polytheism (worship many gods)

(10) The Paris Commune:

 Monarchists dominated the new national Assembly elected in February. The assembly
gave executive power to Adolphe Thiers, who had been active in French politics since 1830.
He negotiated a settlement with Prussia (Treaty of Frankfurt) which was officially ratified on
May 23.
 Parisians elected a new municipal government, called the Paris Commune, which was
formally proclaimed on 1871, The Commune intended to administer Paris separately from
the rest of France. In April, National Assembly surrounded Paris with an army. The army
bombarded the city, broke through the city’s defenses, and killed about 20,000 inhabitants
while the communards shot scores of hostages. The commune wanted not a worker’s
state, but a nation of relatively independent, radically democratic enclaves.
`TOP 10 COMPARE AND CONTRAST:

(1) Protestant Reformation vs. Catholic/Counter Reformation:

Protestant Reformation

 Martin Luther- Luther had different thoughts than the Catholic Church. He wrote the “65
theses” and nailed on the church door in Wittenberg, Germany. The theses was criticism
toward the church and church policies, such as indulgences cannot prevent you from
going to hell or a Pope forgiving your sins because only God can forgive one’s sins.
Therefore, a new religion named Protestantism was created.

o Luther received a Papal Bull, which say she had sixty days to recant his theses or he
would be excommunicated. He doesn’t obey this command. At the Diet of Worms
he is declared guilty of heretic and betrayal against religion. His friends to keep him
safe changed his identity and hid him in the Wartburg Castle. There, he translated
the bible from Latin and Greek to German. Allowing more people, to read the bible
and be a believer in Christ.
o Luther believed that faith without charitable service to one’s neighbor was dead.
Also, he believed that the church’s conditioning of salvation on good works left
many Christians only counting their merits and demerits, unable to act selflessly
and struggling to maintain inner peace of mind.
 Sale of Indulgence- an aid that forgave a sin that was executed.
o The church sold “letters of indulgence” which made good on the works of
satisfaction owed by penitent.
o Pope Clement VI- proclaimed the existence of “treasury of merit: an infinite reservoir
of good works in the church’s possession that could be dispensed at the pope’s
discretion.
o Pope Sixtus IV- extended indulgences to the non-regretted sins of all Christians in
purgatory, the place where souls remained until they erased their sins.
o Pope Leo X- revived a plenary Jubilee Indulgence that had first been issued by
Pope Julius II, the proceeds of which were to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.
o Jubilee Indulgence- promised forgiveness of all outstanding sins upon the
completion of certain acts.
o Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz- was much in need of revenues because of the large
debts he had incurred to gain a papal dispensation to hold three ecclesiastical
appointments at one and the same time.
 Ulrich Zwingli/Swiss Reformation- He also opposed to the sale of indulgences and to
religious superstition. He became a people’s priest in Zurich and engineered the Swiss
 Reformation. Whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor
practiced was the test.
o Marburg Colloquy- Philip of Hesse sought to unite Swiss and German Protestant in
a mutual defense act. But, Luther’s and Zwingli’s differences spoiled his efforts.
o Zwingli- a symbolic interpretation of Christ’s words. Christ was spiritually, not bodily
present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist
o Luther- Christ’s human nature was such that he shared the properties of his divine
nature. Christ was both spiritual and bodily
o Heinrich Bullinger- Zwingli’s protégé and later son-in-law, became the new leader
of the Swiss reformation and guided its development into an established religion
 Anabaptists-“Schleitheim Confession” a document that distinguished the Anabaptists not
only by their practice of adult baptism, but also by their antiviolence, refusal to swear oaths,
and non-participation in the offices of secular government. Anabaptists physically
separated from established society, and was the close connection between religious and
civic life in 16- century, that made political authorities this as threat to basic social bonds.
 Spiritualists-Believed the only religious authority was the Spirit of God, which spoke not in
some past revelation but here and now in the heart and mind of every listening individual.
 Antitrinitarians-Exponents of a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion.
 John Calvin/Calvinism-Calvin’s theology as justification by faith was from Luther’s. Calvinist
denied the existence of human free will. Calvin’s theological work “institutes of the Christian
Religion” He believed that for true believers, fate was recognized that of the world and all
who live it was determined or left in god’s hands for eternity regardless of all else. Calvinist
found consoling, presumptive evidence that they were among God’s elect. Calvinists turned
their energies to transforming society spiritually and morally.
o Calvin joined with reformer from the city of Bern, Guilame Farel. They proposed to
govern Geneva’s moral life and were suspected in trying to make a new papacy. He
was then exiled to Strasbourg. There he became pastor to French exiles, wrote
biblical commentaries, produced a second edition to his Institutes of the Christian
reform and he learned from a Strasbourg reformer, Martin Bucer, how to achieve
his goals.
o The diet of Augsburg, the assembly of Protestant and Catholic representatives
called to address the growing religious division with in the empire in the wake of the
Reformation’s success. Charles V demanded that all Lutherans to revert to
Catholicism. Lutherans response was to create a defensive alliance called the
Schmalkaldic League as its banner the Augsburg Confession which was a
statement of Protestant beliefs that were spurned by the emperor at the Diet of
 Augsburg. Protestant confession is known as Schmalkaldic Articles. Under the
Christian III, Lutheranism became the official state religion.

English Reformation

 King Henry VIII- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the chief minister of King Henry VIII, and Sir
Thomas More guided royal opposition to incipient English Protestantism.
o King Henry VIII- married to Catherine of Aragon. He wanted a male heir and all he
gave her was a girl. He had an affair with Anne Boleyn. But the pope Clement VII
and emperor Charles V would not allow divorce.
o Cardinal Wolsey was placed in charge of securing the royal annulment. When he
failed, he was dismissed in disgrace
o Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell became the king’s closest advisers.
o Reformation Parliament- The parliament convened for what would be a seven year
session that was titled “Reformation Parliament.” Whenever fundamental changes
are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through parliament.
Parliament published official grievances against the church. Then, Henry wedded
Anne and then Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for all English
subjects. At of the supremacy declared Henry “only supreme head in earth of the
Church of England.”
o Ten articles of 1536- made only mild concessions to Protestant tenets.
o Six articles of 1539- reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the
laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provide private masses, ordered the
continuation of oral confession

Catholic Reformation

 Ignatius of Loyola-Ignatius had is first religious called and undertook the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. He was then committed to religious life and he embarked on a program of
disciplined writings and study in Span and in Paris, France. He gained followers, the
Spanish missionary Francis Xavier among them. He with his companions founded the
Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits were known for leading structured lives and for their self-
discipline, commitment to the pope, and missionary work. They profound belief in
education.
 The Council of Trent- Trent was strictly under the pope’s control. Voting was limited to high
levels of clergy, university theologians, lower clergy, and the laity did not share in the
council’s decision. The council’s most important reforms concerned internal church
discipline. Trent strengthened the authority of local bishops so they could effectively
discipline popular religious practices. To train priests, Trent called for a seminary in every
diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional Scholastic education of the clergy,
 role of the good works in salvation, the authority of tradition, seven sacraments,
transubstantiations, the withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity, clerical celibacy,
purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images, and indulgences.
o Rulers initially resisted Trent’s reform decrees, in fear of a revival of papal political
power and new confessional conflicts within their lands just as the political
authorities took the Anabaptists separation toward society as a threat

(2) Galileo vs. Isaac Newton:

Galileo Galilei

 An Italian Mathematician and believed what was real and lasting was mathematically
measurable. He is a natural philosopher turned telescope on the heavens. His philosophy
was criticized by the Roman Catholic Church.
 Starry Messenger (1610)- Galileo used rhetorical skills to advocate Copernican
interpretation of the heavens based on physical observation of Venus.
 Letters on Sunspots (1613)- Another Galileo’s publication which used rhetorical skills to
advocate Copernican interpretation of the heavens based on physical observation of Venus
 The Case of Galileo-condemnation of Galileo by the Catholic Church in 1633.Copernicus'
disagreement with the literal word of the Bible and the biblical interpretations of the Church
Fathers. Council of Trent announced that only the church was allowed had the authority to
interpret the Bible. Galileo was condemned, required to renounce his views, and under
house arrest (instead of execution).
o Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina published own views about how scripture
should be interpreted
o Pope Urban VIII: Galileo's acquaintance who gave him permission
o Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems discussed the Copernican system
o Pope John Paul II formally ordered the reassessment of the Galileo case in 20th
cent.
Isaac Newton
 Englishman and wrote the The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (in Latin
Principia Mathematica) 1687

 Theory of universal gravitation is Newton’s finding stated that “ the force of gravity towards
the whole planet dud arise from and was compounded of the forces of gravity towards all
its parts, and towards every one part was in the inverse proportion of the squares of the
distances from the part.

 Mechanism was an idea to explain the world in terms of mechanical metaphors. The
universe is not an animated being but a mechanism
  Empiricism - Newton’s reasoning of planets and all physical objects in the universe moved
through mutual attraction, or gravity. Stated One must observe phenomena before
attempting to explain them

o Francis Bacon, the father of empiricism and writer to champion innovation and
change. He believed human knowledge should produce useful results rather than
words. He urged philosophers to have their own confidence in themselves and
examined the evidence of their sense before constructing logical speculations

 Opponent of Rene Descartes; Newton opposes Rene Descartes’ rationalism and believed
in empiricism. One must observe phenomena before attempting to explain them

 Rene Descartes- He developed a scientific method that relied on deduction. He rejected

scholastics philosophy and education found on a mathematical model.

o Discourse on Method was published by Rene Descartes; it doubted everything

except those which he could have clear and distinct ideas.

o Work appeared in French rather than Latin (why?) because he wanted to have a
wide circulation and application.

(3) Hobbes vs. Locke:

Thomas Hobbes

 Political philosopher
 Leviathan, 1651 was a publication of Hobbes which provided a rigorous philosophical
justification for a strong central political authority.
 Human reasoning penetrated to no deeper reality or wisdom than those physical
sensations. Human beings exist only to meet the needs of daily life, not for higher spiritual
ends or for any larger moral purpose. Human beings in their natural state are inclined to a:
perpetual and restless desire: for power. All people want and in their natural state possess
a natural right to everything
 People are self-centered creatures who lack a master. He thought that rulers should be
absolute and unlimited in their power. Absolute authority might be lodged in either a
monarch or a legislative body, but once that person or body had been granted authority,
there existed no argument for appeal.
 He rejected the idea of divine right and refused to recognize the authority of either god or
the church as standing beside or above his secular sovereign.

John Locke

 Political thinker; family had puritan sympathies.

 A major source of criticism of absolutism and provided a foundation for later liberal political
philosophy in both Europe and America

 He wrote two treatises on government that were eventually published in the 1690
 o First treatise of government- he rejected arguments for absolute government that
based political authority on the patriarchal model of fathers ruling over a family.
After publication of this treatise, no major political philosopher again appealed to
the patriarchal model.

o Second Treatise of Government- an argument for a government that must

necessarily be both responsible for and responsive to the concerns of the governed.
Natural human states as one of perfect freedom and equality. Everyone had natural
rights of life.

 Human beings in their natural state as creatures of reason and basic goodwill rather than
of uncontrolled passion and selfishness.

 To Locke, government exists to protest the best achievements and liberty of the state of
nature. His government is one of limited authority. Relationships between rulers and the
governed is that of trust, and if the rulers betray that trust, the governed have the right to
replace them.

 “Letter Concerning Toleration”- each individual was required to work out his or her own
religious salvation and these efforts might lead various people to join different religious
groups. Government existed by its very nature to preserve property not to make religious
decision for its citizens. Thus established a powerful foundation for the future extension of
toleration, religious liberty, and the separation of church and state.

 Essay Concerning Human understanding- portrayed a person’s mind at birth as a blank

tablet whose content would be determined by sense experience.

 Reason and revelation were compatible and together could sustain a moderate religious
faith that would avoid religious conflict.

(4) Rousseau vs. Hobbes:

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

 Isolated; hated the world and society in which he lived. Blamed the much evil of the world
on uneven distribution of property

o The Social Contract declared “all men are born free, but everywhere they are in
chains”. Society is more important than individual members and constituted a
justification for radical direct democracy and for collective action against individual
citizens

Thomas Hobbes

 Political philosopher
 Leviathan, 1651 was a publication of Hobbes which provided a rigorous philosophical
justification for a strong central political authority.
  Human reasoning penetrated to no deeper reality or wisdom than those physical
sensations. Human beings exist only to meet the needs of daily life, not for higher spiritual
ends or for any larger moral purpose. Human beings in their natural state are inclined to a:
perpetual and restless desire: for power. All people want and in their natural state possess
a natural right to everything
 People are self-centered creatures who lack a master. He thought that rulers should be
absolute and unlimited in their power. Absolute authority might be lodged in either a
monarch or a legislative body, but once that person or body had been granted authority,
there existed no argument for appeal.
 He rejected the idea of divine right and refused to recognize the authority of either god or
the church as standing beside or above his secular sovereign.

(5) French Revolution vs. the Russian Revolution;

French Revolution

 Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)-The French monarchy emerged from the Seven Years’ War
being defeated, deeply in debt, and unable thereafter to put its finances on a sound basis.
o The problem lay with the inability of the royal government to tap the nation’s wealth
through taxes to service and repay the debt. For 25 years after the Seven years’ War,
a standoff occurred between the monarchy and the aristocracy, as one royal
minister after another attempted to devise new tax schemes that would tap the
wealth of the nobility, but both the Parlement of Paris and provincial parlements
opposed.
 Louis XV (1715-1774) - Louis appointed Rene Maupeou (1714-1792) to be chancellor. He
closes down the parlements and exiled their members to different parts of the country. The
death of Louis XV gave reign to Lousix XVI who attempts to regain what he conceived to be
popular support, dismisses Maupeou, restored all the parlements, and confirmed their old
powers,.
 Louis XVI (1774-1792)-Parlements spoke for aristocratic interests, but appeared to have
public support. Monarchy was unable to rally public opinion to its side because it had lost
much of its moral authority.
 Jacques Necker (1732-1804)- a Swiss banker, the new royal director-general of finances,
produced a public report in 1781 that suggested the situation was not as bad as had been
feared. He argues that if the expenditures for the American war were removed, the budget
was in surplus
o By 1781, as a result of the aid to America, its debt was larger, and its sources of
revenues were unchanged.
o Necker’s report revealed that a large portion of royal expenditures went to income
for aristocrats and other royal court favorites. Thus, made it more difficult for
government officials to claim a real need to raise new taxes.
 Estates General-
 o First Estate- the clergy, Second Estate- the nobility, and Third Estate- everyone else
in the kingdom, although its representatives were drawn primarily from wealthy
members of the commercial and professional middle classes.
o Abbe Sieyes (1748-1836) a priest who comment “what is the third estate?
Everything. What has it been in the political order up to the present? Nothing. What
does it ask? To become something.”
o Debate over organization and voting came to the result with each estate having an
equal number of representatives, but in September 1788, the parlement of Paris
ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted by each estate count
as one vote rather than each person of the estates. Thus, making the vote to First
and Second Estate dominance.
o IN December 1788, the royal council announced that Third estate would elect twice
as many representatives as either the nobles or the clergy. The council assumed
that liberal nobles and clergy shared the same important interests and reform goals
as the Third estate.
o Cahiers de Doleances( lists of grievances) registered by the local electors to be
presented to the king. The documents criticized government waste, indirect taxes,
church taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the aristocracy.
They called for periodic meetings of the estates General, more equitable taxes,
more local control of administration, unifies weights and measures to facilitate trade
and commerce, and a free press.
o The cahiers drawn up before May 1789 indicate that the three estates could have
cooperated to reach these goals.
 National Assembly-

o June 1, the Third Estate invited the clergy and the nobles to join them in organizing
a new legislative body. And some priests. On June 17, the body declared itself the
National Assembly, on June 19 by a narrow margin, the Second estate voted to join
the Assembly.
o Louis XVI decided to reassert role in the proceedings. He intended to call a “Royal
Session” of the Estates General for June 23 and closed the room where the National
Assembly had been gathering. On June 20, The national Assembly moved from the
room they been locked out from to a nearby indoor tennis court. There, the
members took an oath to continue to sit until they had given France a constitution.
This action was the famous “Tennis Court Oath.” Louis XVI ordered the National
Assembly to desist.
o On June 27, the king lost control of the events around him formally requested the
First and Second estates to meet with the National Assembly, where voting would
occur by head rather than by order. Now, the monarchy could govern only in
cooperation with the National Assembly.
 o The National Assembly, which renamed itself the “National Constitituent Assembly”
because of its intention to write a new constitution, was composed of a majority of
liberal goals for the administrative, constitutional, and economic reform of the
country.
 Bastille-

o Louis XVI again attempted to regain the political initiative by mustering royal troops
neat Versailles and Paris. On July 11, without consulting with the Assembly leaders,
Louis abruptly dismissed Necker. Both of these actions marked the beginning of a
steady, but consistently poorly executed, royal attempt to undermine the Assembly
and halt the revolution.
o The second factor, the populace of Paris numbered more than 600,000 people.
Throughout the winter and spring of 1789 high prices for bread had produced riots.
Those Parisians who had elected representatives to the Third estate had continued
to meet after the elections. By June they were organizing a citizen militia and
colleting arms. They intended to protect the Assembly and the revolution it had
begun.
o On July 14, large crowds of Parisians marched to the Bastille to get weapons for the
militia. Through miscalculations and ineptitude by the governor of the fortress, the
troops in the Bastille fired into the crowd, killing ninety-eight people and wounding
many others.
o Only July 15, the militia of Paris, called the “national guard” offered its command to a
young liberal aristocrat, Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834). He gave the guard a new
symbol: the red and blue stripes form the colors of the coat of arms of Paris,
separated by the white stripes of the royal flag. The emblem became the
revolutionary cockade (badge) and eventually the tricolor flag of revolutionary
France.
o The attack on the Bastille marked the first of many crucial Journees (days on which
the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution).
o Louis XVI personally visited Paris, where he wore the revolutionary cockade and
realized the organized electors as the legitimate government of the city the National
Guard and that he lacked the military support to turn back the revolution. The
citizens of Paris had established themselves as an independent political force with
which other political groups might ally for their own purposes.
 Great Fear-

o The Great Fear saw the burning of “chateaux” the destruction of legal records and
documents and refusal to pay feudal des.
o The peasants were reclaiming rights and property they had lost through
administrative tightening of the collection of feudal dues during the past century as
well as venting their anger against the injustices of rural life. Their targets were both
aristocratic and ecclesiastical landlords.
 o On the night of August 4 , 1789, aristocrats in the National Constituent Assembly
attempted to halt the spreading disorder in the countryside. Several liberal nobles
and clerics rose in the Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, dues and tithes.
Theses nobles and clerics gave up what they had already lost and what they could
not have regained without civil war in the rural areas.
o After the night of August 4, all French citizens were subject to the same and equal
laws. The sale of government offices was also abolished. The dramatic session of
the Assembly effectively abolished the major social institutions of the Old Regime
and created an unforeseen situation that requited a cast legal and social
reconstruction of the nation.
o A deep economic downturn had struck France in 1787-1788. Food prices increase,
wages not kept up with the rise in prices, many people suffer from hunger.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen-

o On August 27, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
This declaration drew on the political language of the Enlightenment and the
Declaration of Tights that the state of Virginia had adopted in June 1776. The
French declaration proclaimed that all men were “born and remain free and equal
in rights.” The natural rights so proclaimed were “liberty, property, security, and
resistance to oppression.” The Government existed to protest these rights. All
citizens were to be equal before the law and were to be “equally admissible to all
public dignities, offices, and employments, according to their capacity, and with no
other distinction than that of their virtues and talent.” There were to be due process
of law and presumption of innocence until proven guilty. Freedom of religion was
affirmed. Taxation was to be apportioned equally according to the salary. Property
constituted “an inviolable and sacred right.”
o Two most powerful, universal political ideas of the declaration were civic equality
and popular sovereignty. The first would challenge the legal and social inequities of
European life, and the second would assert that governments must be responsible
to the governed.
o Summer of 1789, many politically active and informed Frenchwomen hoped the
guarantees of the declaration would be extended to them, rather than just the men.
 Parisian Women’s March-

o Louis XVI stalled before ratifying both the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen and the aristocratic renunciation of feudalism. Plus, the bread remained
scarce and expensive.
o On October 5, 7,000 Parisian women armed with pikes, guns, swords, and knives
marched to Versailles demanding more bread. Intimidated, the king agreed to
sanction the decrees of the Assembly. On October 6, 1789, His carriage followed the
crowd into the city, where he and his family settled in the old palace of the Tuileries
in the heart of Paris. The National Constituent Assembly also soon moved to Paris.
 National Constituent Assembly reorganizes France-In Constitution of 1791, the National
Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy (in administration, rationalism;
in economics, unregulated freedom; and in religion anticlericalism). The major political
authority of the nation would be a unicameral Legislative Assembly, in which all laws would
originate.

o Active- men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages could
vote. They choose electors, who voted for the member of the legislature. Women
could neither vote nor hold office.
o The accumulation of wealth from land and commercial property would open the
path to political authority.
o Departements- generally equal size named after rivers, mountains, and other
geographical features. The departments were subdivided into districts, cantons,
and communes.
 End of Monarchy, a Second Revolution-

o Ever since the original gathering of the estates General, deputies from the third
Estate had organized themselves into clubs composed of politically like-minded
person. Jacobin, a group that met in a former Dominican priory dedicated to St.
Jacques in Paris. They pressed for republic rather than a constitutional monarchy.
o Girondists (many of them came from the department of the Gironde in southwest
France) assumed leadership of the Assembly. They passed one measure ordering
the émigrés to return or suffer the loss of their property and another requiring the
refractory clergy to support the Civil Constitution or lose their state pensions.
o On April 20, 1792, The Girondists led the Legislative Assembly to declare war on
Austria. Final defeat of France at Waterloo in June 1815.
o Pauline Leon led a group of women to petition the Legislative Assembly for the right
to bear arms and to fight to protect the revolution. These demands to serve, voiced
in the universal language of citizenship, illustrated how the rhetoric of the revolution
could be used to challenge traditional social roles and the concept of separate
social spheres for men and women. Once the war began, some Frenchwomen did
enlist in the army and served with distinction.
o Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian forces, issued a manifesto
threatening to destroy Paris if the French royal family were harmed.
o Paris commune was a committee of representatives from the sections of the city.. it
became an independent political force casting itself in the role of the protector of
the gains of the revolution against both internal and external enemies.
o The Tuleries palace was invaded on August 1, by a large crowd who forced Louis
Xvi and Marie Antoinette to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly. The crowd
fought with the royal Swiss guards. The royal family was then imprisoned in
comfortable quarters, but the king was allowed to perform none of his political
functions.
 The September Massacre-The Paris Commune summarily executed or murdered about
1,200 people who were in the city jails.
 Convention-

o As its first act, the Convention declared France a republic- a nation governed by an
elected assembly without a monarch.
o Sans-culottes “with out breeches” were shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and in
a few cases factory workers. They believe all people have a right to subsistence,
and they resented most forms of social inequality. This attitude made them
intensely hostile to the aristocracy and the political leaders the revolution. They
simply wanted to share political powers, social prestige and economic security with
the aristocracy. They believed the people should make the decision of government
to an extent as great as possible.
o Jacobin, republicans who sought representative government. They favored an
unregulated economy. Once the Convention began to deliberate, these Jacobins,
known as the Mountain because their seats were high up in the assembly hall,
worked with the sans-culottes to carry the revolution forward and to win the war.
o In December 1792, Louis XVU was put on trial as mere “Citizen Capet,” the original
medieval name of the royal family. Many convicted Louis of conspiring against the
liberty of the people and the security of the state. Was condemned to death by a
smaller majority, he was beheaded on January 21, 1793.
o The Girondists had led the country into the war, but had been unable either to win it
or to suppress the enemies of the revolution at home.
 The Reign of Terror-

o By April 1793, the Jacobins began to direct the French government; the nation was
at war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland. The
governments of these nations allied to become the First Coalition, which attempt to
protect their social, political systems, and economic interests against the
aggression of the revolution.
o The actions to protect the revolution and silence dissent came to be known as the
Reign of Terror.
o The Committee of Public Safety to carry out the executive duties of the government.
The members were all revolutionary leaders who were convinced republicans who
had long opposed the more vacillating policies of the Girondists. They saw their
task as saving the revolution from mortal enemies at home and abroad.
o Main problem was the wages of the war. The sans-culottes invaded the Convention
and successfully wiped out the Girodist members and gave the Mountain complete
control.
o Lazare Carnot, a member of the Committee of Public Safety in charge of the
military, began a mobilization for victory by issuing a Levee en Masse (a military
 requisition on the entire population, conscripting males into the army and directing
economic production to military purpose.
o In Republic of Virtue, civic virtue largely understood in terms of Rousseau’s Social
Contract (the sacrifice of one’s self and one’s interest for the good of the republic)
would replace selfish aristocratic and monarchical corruption. The core value of the
republic of virtue was the upholding of the public over the private good or the
championing of the general will over individual interests.
o Maximilien Robespierre embodied this republic by terror. He had emerged as the
dominant figure on the Committee of Public safety, favored a republic. To him, the
republic of virtue meant whole-hearted support of the republican government, the
renunciation of selfish gains from political life, and the assault on foreign and
domestic enemies of the revolution.
o Pauline Leon and Claire Lacombe found the society of Revolutionary Republican
women. The women of the society also demanded the right to wear the
revolutionary cockade that male citizens usually wore in their hats.
o Convention’s attempt to De-Christianize France. There were twelve months of thirty
days each. Every tenth day was a holiday. In November 1793, the convention
decreed the cathedral of Notre dame in Paris to be “temple of reason.” Churches
were desecrated, torn down, or used as barns or warehouses.
o The mandate of these tribunals was to try the enemies of the republic, but the
definition was an “enemy” shifted as the months passed. Those whom the tribunal
condemned in Paris were beheaded on the guillotine, a recently invented
instrument of efficient and supposedly humane execution. At the Nantes several
hundred people were simply tied to rafts and drowned in the river Loire.
 The End of the Terror-

o Jacques Danton who had provided heroic national leadership in the dark days of
September 1792 and who had later served briefly on the Committee of Public Safety
before Robespierre joined the group. Robespierre exterminated the leadership of
both groups that might have threatened his position. He secured passage of the
Law of 22 Prairial, which permitted the revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects
without hearing substation evidence them
o Robespierre considered the worship of “reason” too abstract for most citizens,
replaced it with the “Cult of the Supreme Being.”
o Robespierre was arrested for his ill-tempered speeches in the Convention, declaring
that other leaders of the government were conspiring against him and the
revolution. No member of the Convention felt sage.
The Russian Revolution
 The March Revolution in Russian was the result of the collapse of the monarchy’s ability to
govern. Nicholas II was weak and incompetent and suspected of being under the
domination of his German wife and insidious peasant faith healer Rasputin. Whom a group
 of Russian noblemen assassinated in 1916. In 1915, the tsar took personal command of the
armies on the German front, which kept him away from the capital. In his absence corrupt
and incompetent ministers increasingly discredited the government even in the eyes of
conservative monarchists
 The Provisional Government-In early march 1917, strikes and worker demonstrations
erupted in Petrograd as Saint Petersburg had been renamed. The ill-disciplined troops in
the city refused to fire on the demonstrators. The tsar abdicated on March 15. The
government of Russia fell into the hands of members of the Duma, who soon formed a
provisional government composed chiefly of Constitutional democrats (Cadets) with
western sympathies. At the same time, various socialist groups including both Social
revolutionaries and Social Democrats of the Menshevik wing began to organize soviets,
councils of workers and soldiers. Initially, they allowed the provisional government to
function without actually supporting it. The Mensheviks believed that Russia had to have a
bourgeois stage of development before it could have a revolution of the working class.
o In this climate, the provisional government decided to remain loyal to Russia’s
alliances and continue the war. The collapse of the last Russian offensive in the
summer of 1917 sealed its fate. Disillusionment with the war, shortages of food and
other necessities at home, and the peasants’ demands for land reform undermined
the government. This occurred even after the moderate socialist Alexander
Kerensky became prime minister.
 Lenin and the Bolsheviks-The Germans in their most successful attempt at subversion had
rushed the brilliant Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin in a sealed train from his exile in Switzerland
across Germany to Petrograd. Lenin saw the opportunity to achieve the political alliance of
workers and peasants he had discussed before the war. He hammered away on the theme
of peace, bread, and land. The failure of the summer offensive encouraged them to attempt
a coup, but the effort was a failure. Lenin fled to Finland, and his chief collaborator Leon
Trotsky was imprisoned.
o The failure of a right-wing countercoup gave the Bolsheviks another chance.
Trotsky, released from prison, led the powerful Petrograd soviet. Lenin returned in
October, insisted to his doubting colleagues that the time was ripe to take power,
and by the extraordinary force of his personality persuaded them to act. Trotsky
organized the coup that took place and concluded with an armed assault on the
provisional government. The Bolsheviks, almost as much to their own astonishment
as to that of the rest of the world, had come to rule Russia.
 The Communist Dictatorship- In selecting a Constituent Assembly, the Social
Revolutionaries won a large majority over the Bolsheviks. The Red Army halted the
assembly. The Bolsheviks turned the land over to peasant proprietors Factory workers were
in charge of their own; state controlled bank, rejected the debt of the tsarist government
and property of the church
 o The Bolshevik government took Russia out of the war; signed an armistice with
Germany and accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where Russia surrenders
Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and Ukraine. They'd pay for war insurance
o Lenin believed the war would lead to communist revolutions and knew Bolsheviks
had to rule. The new government met resistance; Civil war occurred between Red
Russians (supporting revolution and controlled by the Bolsheviks) and White
Russians (opposed revolution).
o Bolsheviks took a step by murdering the tsar and family, with officers fighting the
o Revolution. Aid from Allies helped the Red Army win firm control
(6) Peter the Great vs. Catherine the Great:
Peter the Great
 He and sickly brother Ivan V came to power on the shoulders of the streltsy. Tsar had to be
secure from the streltsy and the boyars' jealousy and greed. Peter built a new military and
also made sustained attacks on the boyars and their attachment to traditional Russian
cultures and westernized Russia. He set up colleges, influenced by Sweden, to oversee
matters such as the collection of taxes, foreign relations, war, and economic affairs. He
created a table of ranks which equated a person’s social position and privileges with his
rank in the bureaucracy or the military, rather than with his lineage among the traditional
landed nobility. Peter founded St. Petersburg, which symbolized a new western orientation
of Russia and Peter’s determination to hold his position on the Baltic Coast
Catherine the Great
 Catherine the Great of Russia adopted limited administrative reforms and put most local
offices in the hands of nobles rather than creating a royal bureaucracy. In this manner, her
crown was strengthened by making convenient friends with her nobles. Suppressed
internal barriers to trade and encouraged economic growth. Catherine the Great
successfully won several military victories and expanded the territory to the Gulf of Baltic

(7) Christian Humanists vs. the Reformation:

Christian Humanists

 Humanism was a new philosophy that really defined the Renaissance. It was the scholarly
study of Latin and Greek classics and of ancient Church Fathers, both for its sake and in
hope of reviving respected ancient norms and values. Most humanist were actually
religious, but the beliefs of church and of the humanists had was the humanists believed
that this life was important and should be enjoyed while the church did not, and felt that
people should focus on awaiting the afterlife instead.
 Four aspects of humanism :
1. Ad migration and emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
2. Philosophy of enjoying this life, instead of just waiting for the next one.
3. The glorification of humans and belief that individuals are can do anything
4. The belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention
  Francesco Petrarch- “father of humanism” left legal possessions to pursue letters and
poetry, spent most life around Avignon, later years served for family in Milan.
o He wrote “Letters to the ancient dead” (personally to Cicero, Livy, Vergil and
Horace), Latin epic poem “Africa, biographies of famous Roman men “Lives of
Illustrious men”
o His most famous work was a collection of love sonnets to Laura, a married women
who he admired
o Classical and Christian values existed in his works and he wrote to defend the
personal immortality of the soul against Aristotelians.
 Date Alghien’s “Vita Nuova” and “Divine Comedy” form, with Petrarch’s sonnets formed the
cornerstones of Italian vernacular literature.
 Giovanni Boccaccio- wrote the “decameron”- a story of 100 tales told by 3 men and 7
women in a retreat away from the Black Death in Florentine. He also assembled an
encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology
 Baldassare Castiglione- writer who is best known for his novel, “The Courtier” , which is in
the form of a conversation between the sophisticated men and women of a court in Urbino,
became a manual of proper behavior for gentlemen and ladies for centuries to come.
 Marsilio Ficino- was a member of a new, later group of humanists called the Neoplatonists,
who believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of Plato and other philosophers as
opposed to leading the “active life” the civic humanists lead. Ficino believed that Plato’s
ideas showed the dignity and immortality of the human soul.
o Platonism- flattering view of human nature distinguished between eternal sphere of
being and perishable bond in which humans actually lived

The Reformation

 Martin Luther- Luther had different thoughts than the Catholic Church. He wrote the “65
theses” and nailed on the church door in Wittenberg, Germany. The theses was criticism
toward the church and church policies, such as indulgences cannot prevent you from
going to hell or a Pope forgiving your sins because only God can forgive one’s sins.
Therefore, a new religion named Protestantism was created.

o Luther received a Papal Bull, which say she had sixty days to recant his theses or he
would be excommunicated. He doesn’t obey this command. At the Diet of Worms
he is declared guilty of heretic and betrayal against religion. His friends to keep him
safe changed his identity and hid him in the Wartburg Castle. There, he translated
the bible from Latin and Greek to German. Allowing more people, to read the bible
and be a believer in Christ.
o Luther believed that faith without charitable service to one’s neighbor was dead.
Also, he believed that the church’s conditioning of salvation on good works left
many Christians only counting their merits and demerits, unable to act selflessly
and struggling to maintain inner peace of mind.
 Sale of Indulgence- an aid that forgave a sin that was executed.
o The church sold “letters of indulgence” which made good on the works of
satisfaction owed by penitent.
o Pope Clement VI- proclaimed the existence of “treasury of merit: an infinite reservoir
of good works in the church’s possession that could be dispensed at the pope’s
discretion.
o Pope Sixtus IV- extended indulgences to the non-regretted sins of all Christians in
purgatory, the place where souls remained until they erased their sins.
o Pope Leo X- revived a plenary Jubilee Indulgence that had first been issued by
Pope Julius II, the proceeds of which were to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.
o Jubilee Indulgence- promised forgiveness of all outstanding sins upon the
completion of certain acts.
o Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz- was much in need of revenues because of the large
debts he had incurred to gain a papal dispensation to hold three ecclesiastical
appointments at one and the same time.
 Ulrich Zwingli/Swiss Reformation- He also opposed to the sale of indulgences and to
religious superstition. He became a people’s priest in Zurich and engineered the Swiss
Reformation. Whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor
practiced was the test.
o Marburg Colloquy- Philip of Hesse sought to unite Swiss and German Protestant in
a mutual defense act. But, Luther’s and Zwingli’s differences spoiled his efforts.
o Zwingli- a symbolic interpretation of Christ’s words. Christ was spiritually, not bodily
present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist
o Luther- Christ’s human nature was such that he shared the properties of his divine
nature. Christ was both spiritual and bodily
o Heinrich Bullinger- Zwingli’s protégé and later son-in-law, became the new leader
of the Swiss reformation and guided its development into an established religion
 Anabaptists-“Schleitheim Confession” a document that distinguished the Anabaptists not
only by their practice of adult baptism, but also by their antiviolence, refusal to swear oaths,
and non-participation in the offices of secular government. Anabaptists physically
separated from established society, and was the close connection between religious and
civic life in 16- century, that made political authorities this as threat to basic social bonds.
 Spiritualists-Believed the only religious authority was the Spirit of God, which spoke not in
some past revelation but here and now in the heart and mind of every listening individual.
 Antitrinitarians-Exponents of a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion.
 John Calvin/Calvinism-Calvin’s theology as justification by faith was from Luther’s. Calvinist
denied the existence of human free will. Calvin’s theological work “institutes of the Christian
 Religion” He believed that for true believers, fate was recognized that of the world and all
who live it was determined or left in god’s hands for eternity regardless of all else. Calvinist
found consoling, presumptive evidence that they were among God’s elect. Calvinists turned
their energies to transforming society spiritually and morally.
o Calvin joined with reformer from the city of Bern, Guilame Farel. They proposed to
govern Geneva’s moral life and were suspected in trying to make a new papacy. He
was then exiled to Strasbourg. There he became pastor to French exiles, wrote
biblical commentaries, produced a second edition to his Institutes of the Christian
reform and he learned from a Strasbourg reformer, Martin Bucer, how to achieve
his goals.
o The diet of Augsburg, the assembly of Protestant and Catholic representatives
called to address the growing religious division with in the empire in the wake of the
Reformation’s success. Charles V demanded that all Lutherans to revert to
Catholicism. Lutherans response was to create a defensive alliance called the
Schmalkaldic League as its banner the Augsburg Confession which was a
statement of Protestant beliefs that were spurned by the emperor at the Diet of
Augsburg. Protestant confession is known as Schmalkaldic Articles. Under the
Christian III, Lutheranism became the official state religion.

English Reformation

 King Henry VIII- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the chief minister of King Henry VIII, and Sir
Thomas More guided royal opposition to incipient English Protestantism.
o King Henry VIII- married to Catherine of Aragon. He wanted a male heir and all he
gave her was a girl. He had an affair with Anne Boleyn. But the pope Clement VII
and emperor Charles V would not allow divorce.
o Cardinal Wolsey was placed in charge of securing the royal annulment. When he
failed, he was dismissed in disgrace
o Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell became the king’s closest advisers.
o Reformation Parliament- The parliament convened for what would be a seven year
session that was titled “Reformation Parliament.” Whenever fundamental changes
are made in religion, the monarch must consult with and work through parliament.
Parliament published official grievances against the church. Then, Henry wedded
Anne and then Parliament made the king the highest court of appeal for all English
subjects. At of the supremacy declared Henry “only supreme head in earth of the
Church of England.”
o Ten articles of 1536- made only mild concessions to Protestant tenets.
 o Six articles of 1539- reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to the
laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provide private masses, ordered the
continuation of oral confession

Catholic Reformation

 Ignatius of Loyola-Ignatius had is first religious called and undertook the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. He was then committed to religious life and he embarked on a program of
disciplined writings and study in Span and in Paris, France. He gained followers, the
Spanish missionary Francis Xavier among them. He with his companions founded the
Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits were known for leading structured lives and for their self-
discipline, commitment to the pope, and missionary work. They profound belief in
education.
 The Council of Trent- Trent was strictly under the pope’s control. Voting was limited to high
levels of clergy, university theologians, lower clergy, and the laity did not share in the
council’s decision. The council’s most important reforms concerned internal church
discipline. Trent strengthened the authority of local bishops so they could effectively
discipline popular religious practices. To train priests, Trent called for a seminary in every
diocese. The Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional Scholastic education of the clergy,
role of the good works in salvation, the authority of tradition, seven sacraments,
transubstantiations, the withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity, clerical celibacy,
purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images, and indulgences.
o Rulers initially resisted Trent’s reform decrees, in fear of a revival of papal political
power and new confessional conflicts within their lands just as the political
authorities took the Anabaptists separation toward society as a threat

(8) Renaissance Art vs. Modern Art:

Renaissance Art

 New perspective on life is prominent in painting and sculpture of High Renaissance, when art
reached its full maturity. Renaissance art embraced the natural world and human emotions.
Artists gave their works a rational order-perfect symmetry and proportionality reflecting a
belief in harmony of universe
o Oil paints, use of shading enhance naturalness “Chiaroscuro” and adjustment of size
of figures to give a feeling of continuity in the painting (linear perspective). Result, a
space of reality and more natural, and 3-D canvas filled with life and energy
 Giotto “father of Renaissance painting” signaled the direction he painted a more natural world
 Masaccio and Donatello portrayed the world around them literally and naturally
 Leonardo da Vinci- Leonardo exhibited the Renaissance ideal of the universal person. He
conducted scientific experimentation, dissected corpse to learn anatomy, self-taught botanist.
His skill of conveying inner moods through complex facial expression
 o Most famous painting “Mona Lisa”
 Raphael-most famous for “school of Athens”, which depicts Plato and Aristotle surrounded by
significant philosophers and scientists. Raphael was a man of great kindness painter of
sensitivity and was loved as much as a person as for his works
 Michelangelo-
o “eighteen-foot sculpture of David” = harmony, symmetry, proportion, and serving the
entire glorification of the human form.
o Frescoes in Vatican’s Sistine Chapel= originality and perfection
o His later works were more complex and illustrate personal challenge. They marked,
artistically and philosophically exemplifies movement in reaction to High Renaissance
which was a new style of mannerism.
o Mannerism- allowed more freedom, more strange/abnormal images opposed to
simplicity and symmetry. Work of art done according to an acquired style
o “Tintoretto”, “last supper” and El Greco are mannerism supreme representative

Modern Art

 Impressionism- Started in Paris. 1. Depicted modern life (social life, leisure activities of middle
class), 2. Fascination with light, color, and the representation through painting itself of
momentary, unfocused, visual experience whether of social life or of landscape.
o Edward Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissaro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas
showed Parisians attending cafes, concerts, picnics, parties.
o The locations of the events allowed different classes to mix socially in the same
leisure activity. Folies-Bergere was a café/concert hall like this, showed in A Bar at the
Folies-Bergere by Manet- a barmaid holding liquor, in front of a mirror that shows the
activities going on before her.
 Post-Impressionism- A generation of younger artists who tried to relate the achievements of
impressionism to earlier artistic traditions, they continued the previous impressionist
movement.
o Georges Seurat- French painter who read scientific works on light, color, and vision,
and developed a technique called pointillism where the artist applied small dots to
the canvas, allowing the viewer`s eye to individually interpret the shade of the color. A
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of the Grande Jette- Implied social commentary
through the figures` resemblance to mannequins, mechanical, bored.
o Paul Cezanne- Brought form and solidity back into still life and landscapes.
o Paul Gauguin- Painted people living in the South Pacific.
 Cubism- First used to describe Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque`s paintings. 1907 They
rejected the idea of painting to make a window into the artistic portrayal of the world. Instead
they wanted it to create its own realm of art with no purpose beyond itself. Often the art was
only two dimensions, with flatness of surface and including as many different perspectives,
angles, or views of the object as possible. New positions, a new sense of dislocation.
 o Braque- Violin and Palette (1909-1910)- Various shapes seem to flow into other
shapes, the violin appears from one perspective, but not in others.
(9) Romanticism verses Realism

Romanticism

 Romanticism -A new intellectual movement in reaction against much of the Enlightenment.

They believed imagination should be used to understand the world, and urged revival of
Christianity. They liked art, literature, and architecture of the medieval times. Phenomena
and mystic things interested them, not empirical observation, data, etc.
 Neoclassical writes then used the word to define literature they considered unreal,
sentimental, or excessively fanciful.
 English romantics believed poetry was enhanced by freely following the creative impulse of
the mind. They regarded the mind as a passive receptor and poetry as a mechanical
exercise of “wit” following prescribed rules.
 William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge- Together published Lyrical Ballads. It
described the loss of poetic vision in French society, and the loss of imagination in the
minds of children.
o He had lost what he believed all human beings lose in necessary process of
maturation: their childlike vision and closeness to spiritual reality. Wordsworth held
a theory of the soul’s preexistence in a celestial state before its creation. The child
being closer in time to its eternal origin and undistracted by worldly experience
recollects the supernatural world much more easily. Aging and urban living corrupt
and deaden the imagination, making one’s inner feelings and the beauty of nature
less important.
 Lord Byron– Wasn’t admired among other romanticists but outside of England he was
considered to have embodied the point of the French Revolution, within he was not trusted
and wasn`t given much sympathy.
o Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage: he created a brooding, melancholy Romantic hero.
o Don Juan:  he acknowledges nature’s cruelty as well as its beauty.
 German Romantic Writers-
o Friedrich Schlegel, Lucinde: a novel that attacked the prejudices against women,
including the notion that they’re only capable of being lovers and domestics, and
o Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, The Sorrows of Young Werther: a love story
depicting sentimentalism.
 Romantic Art
o Cult of Middle Ages– political turmoil or industrial development would not challenge
the superiority of the church.
o Neo-Gothic– it was the revival of medieval artwork that often involved Christianity.
 o Nature and Sublime– subjects from nature that aroused strong emotions such as
fear, dread, and awe, and raise questions about how much we control our lives.
o Methodism – came about in eighteenth century as a revolt against deism and
nationalism. Preached in the countryside, in nature. Methodism stressed inward,
heartfelt religion and the possibility of Chrstian perfection in this life. It was
supposed to be an emotional experience, much unlike the rationalism in Deism.
 New Directions in the Continental Religion – After the Thermidorian Reaction, a strong
Roman Catholic Revival happened in France. Romantics believed God was immanent in
nature. Religion is based on emotion and how the teaching of Christianity brought about
that emotion.

Realism

 The realist movement showed the hypocrisy, brutality, and dullness of bourgeois life. Realist
and naturalist writers put science into their art, the harshness realities of life. It was the
opposite of emotionally and nature-based romanticism.
 Charles Dickens, Honore de Balzac- wrote about the cruelty of industrial life and money-
based society. George Eliot detailed her characters.
o They all portrayed humans as subject to passions, materialism, and the evils of
society.
 Flaubert and Zola- Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)- Madame Bovary- A story about a woman
desperately in search of love and marriage who eventually failed and died. It was the first
realistic novel.
o Emile Zola (1840-1902)- He wanted to write a novel based on observations of
characters and their actions (like an experiment). Published 20 novels about
alcoholism, prostitution, adultery, labor strife, etc, hoping to uncover the ugly parts of
life.
 Ibsen and Shaw- Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) Norwegian playwright, put realism into domestic
life presentations. A Doll`s House (1879) His famous play about a woman Nora, who leaves
her narrow-minded husband. Ghosts (1881) About a woman who must deal with a son sick
with syphilis from his dad. The Master Builder- About an architect who kills himself trying to
impress a woman. He attacked sentimentality overall.
o George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)- Irish writer, defended Ibsens` work, against
romanticism. Mrs. Warren`s Profession- prostitution. He scorned the romantic ideals
of love and war in Arms and the Man, and Man and Superman. Attacked Christianity
in Androcles and the Lion.

(10) Congress of Vienna vs. Treaty of Versailles

Congress of Vienna
  When Napoleon was defeated, the coalition began to want different things. The British
foreign secretary, Robert Stweart, Viscount Castereagh helped make eventual agreement.
Even before they had gone to Paris, he had arranged the Treaty of Chaumont which
restored the Bourbons to the French throne and contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792
(smaller borders).
 Made the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia that would last for 20
years to preserve the settlement they would make.
 Territorial Adjustments- at the Congress of Vienna 1814, they biggest problem was France,
to keep it from dominating Europe as no one country should be able to do so. They
restored the Bourbon monarchy in France, they strengthened the states around France`s
borders to serve as barriers to French expansion. Made the kingdom of Holland. Austria got
control of north Italy. Germany was left as is, no longer the Holy Roman Empire.
 Alexander I of Russia wanted all of Poland, Prussia was willing to give it to him in return for
all of Saxony. Austria, however, didn`t want to give any of Poland, didn`t want Prussia to
gain power, or see Russia go deeper into Europe. This was conflict that France solved
(Talleyrand, who was no rep for France at Vienna). He suggested that a possible secret
alliance between Britain and Austria and France might make Alexander reconsidered, and
so Alexander said he was okay wit ha smaller Poland, and Prussia got part of Saxony. So
now France was in the Congress of Vienna too.
 The Hundred Days- Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, the French army was still loyal to
him and many preferred him over the Bourbon rule. The Congress of Vienna seemed to be
dissolving, so Napoleon ran to France, regained power, and promised to be peaceful in
foreign matters, but was not trusted so Wellington with help of the Prussians defeated
Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium in June 18, 1815. He was exiled to St. Helena in the
Atlantic for the rest of his life.
 It scared the great powers and made peace settlement harder for France. A Holy Alliance
was proposed but only Austria and Prussia signed. It became a symbol of extreme political
reaction.
 The Quadruple Alliance was renewed November 1815, it was to keep power over France
basically and prevent another Napoleonic nightmare.

Treaty of Versailles

 The Settlement at Paris- Wilson spoke for the U.S, David Lloyd George for Britain, Georges
Clemenceau for France, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando for Italy made up the Big Four.
 Obstacles the Peacemakers Faced- The negotiators at Paris represented constitutional,
generally democratic governments, and public opinion had become a mighty force.
Wilson’s idealism came into conflict with the more practical war aims of the victorious
powers and with many of the secret treaties that had been made before and during the
war. Germany would pay for the war and Russia promised control of Constantinople to
 recognize the French claim to Alsace-Lorraine and Egypt ; Romania would have
Transylvania.
o Some agreements conflicted with Anglo-French agreement to divide the Near East
between them. France also tried to weaken German to preserve superiority, Italy
kept Italia irredenta, Britain looked to imperial interests, and the US insisted on sea
freedom, Monroe Doctrine
o The Allies had landed armies to overthrow the Bolshevik regime, as communist
governments were established. Traditional interests governed policies of other
Allies; France was worried about Germany after uprisings by "Spartacus group"
 The Peace- The Paris settlement consisted of five separate treaties between the victors and
the defeated powers. “Open covenants openly arrived at” soon gave way to closed sessions
in which Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George made arrangements that seemed cynical
to outsiders. The notion of “a peace without victors” became a mockery when the Soviet
Union and Germany were excluded from the peace conference. Germany was excluded
from the peace treaty, but compelled to sign. Self-determination was violated,, and angered
diplomats from small nations
 The League of Nations-The league was to be not an international government, but a body
of sovereign states that agreed to pursue common policies and to consult in the common
interest, especially when war threatened. Wilson but faith in the League of Nations that was
a part of a peace treaty. It was a body of sovereign states that agreed to pursue policies
and to consult in the common interests Members would submit differences among
themselves to the League Council. It did not have armed forces but required consent of all
nations Britain, France, Italy, US, and Japan. This would bound its members to territorial
integrity to ensure security
 Colonies- The covenant dealt with colonial areas where mandates were placed under the
"tutelage" of one of the great powers under supervision & encouraged to advance toward
independence. Wilson used territorial settlements, violating his principles, to gain states in
his league
 Germany-France received Alsace-Lorraine and right to work at ccoal mines of the Saar. The
treaty also provided that Britain and the US would help France if Germany attacked it.
 The East- Germany lost Silesia and Prussia was separated from Germany. Austro-
Hungarian Empire became many states. Magyars were left with a smaller HUngary.
Southern Slavs were united with the Kingdom of Serbs. Romania was enlarged and Russia
lost vast west territory.
 Reparations- The most debated part of the peace settlement was with reparations for
German damage. Britain was worried to pay debt to the US but eager for Germany to pay
the full cost w/pensions. An agreement never specified an amount, only annually. Allies
inserted the war guilt clause to justify the payments. Germans believed they had lost
territory and were not solely responsible. Scheidmann, prime minister, accepted w/o
 negotiation. Social Democrats & Catholic Center Party formed a new government that
could accept the Treaty of Versailles
 Evaluating the Peace- France began to object to the Paris settlement that tied their security
to promises of aid from Anglo-Saxon countries. The US and England thought it violated
liberal aims that the Western leaders declared. The treaty had promoted national interests
of the winning nations and violated principles of national self-determination by leaving
minorities out
 The Economic Consequences of the Peace- Keynes, was a British economist that criticized
the treaty. He criticized the reparations and economic aspects of the peace. He argued the
Treaty of Versailles was unworkable; calling it the Carthaginian peace, thinking it would
bring economic ruin and war unless it was ended. Wilson's political mistakes helped
prevent American ratification of the treaty. US was out of the League of Nations and not
bound to defend France; protect itself
 Divisive New Boundaries and Tariff Walls-The Elimination of Austro-Hungarian effort was
economically a disaster that separated material from manufacturing areas and producers.
Germans fled cheated and the high moral principles the Allies proclaimed fell short of them
 Failure to Accept Reality-The League of Nations excluded Germany and Russia. It was left
to France to defend new arrangements. They weren't strong enough to protect states of
Germany revived. The Treaty of Versailles was not conciliatory enough to remove the desire
for revision, or harsh enough to make another war impossible. Attention to Germany, unity
among victors, leadership, would be needed so Germany would stay disarmed but none
were fulfilled
MAJOR WARS AND OUTCOMES

(1) 100 Years War (1337-1453)

 The French and the English fought over territory and the right of the English king to the
French throne.
 Edward III of England said he had the right to the French throne because he owned land
there.
 English Channel, was fought over between the two countries
 England and France fought in France, with England winning most of the early battles even
though the French had an advantage.
 Internal problems- caused by peasant revolts and the plague also (Black Death)
 Joan of Arc led the French to victory over the English; 

(2) The French Wars of Religion

 Competition to be heir Spanish Habsburg lands between Bourbons (south and west),
Montmorency-Chatillons (center), and Guises (eastern France).
 Aristocrats and townspeople joined Calvinist churches, who were against the Guise-
dominated French monarchy. Huguenots (French Protestants). Theodore Beza converted
Jeanne d’Albert, mother of future Henry IV. The prince of Condé converted by his wife.
Condé and Coligny merged with French Huguenot churches.
 Catherine de Medici’s and the Guises- Catherine became regent for her son, Charles IX.
She sought allies among Protestants so Guises wouldn’t have as much power. Issued
January Edict that granted Protestants freedom to worship outside towns. When the duke
of Guise massacred a Protestant congregation at Vassy in Champagne, this began the
French wars of religion. Condé hesitated, which placed the king and his mother under
Guise control.
 Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye- Duke of Guise assassinated, Condé killed and Coligny in
charge of Huguenots. This peace ended the third war, the crown granted Huguenots
religious freedoms within their territories and the right to fortify their cities. Catherine tried
balancing this by tilting towards the bourbon faction and the Huguenots. Catherine plotted
with Guises against Protestants in secret.
 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre- Supported by Catherine, and Coligny struck down by
her and the Guises. August 24, 1572, Coligny and Huguenots defeated in Paris. No more
contest between Guise and Bourbon factions.
 Edict of Nantes- formal religious settlement recognized minority religious rights within what
was to remain an officially Catholic country. This granted Huguenots freedom of public
 worship, the right of assembly, admission to public ffices and universities, and permission
to maintain fortified towns. They had to stay within their own towns and territories though.
 Henry III- Sought middle course between Catholics and Huguenots. Peace of Beauliu in
May 1576 granted Huguenots complete religious and civil freedom, but Catholic League
forced him to take it back. In the Day of Barricades, Henry III led a surprise attack on the
Catholic League and he fled to Paris. Catholic League reacted with fury and the king allied
with the Protestant Henry of Navarre, who succeeded the French throne when Henry III
was killed. Henry IV abandoned Protestant faith and believed in the traditional and majority
religion (“Paris is worth a Mass”).  Catholic League dispersed because the country was fully
Catholic now, and the wars of religion ended.

(3)The Revolt in the Netherlands

 Spanish military success in southern Europe by Philip II of Spain made him try to dominate
the Netherlands.
 Cardinal Granvell- hoped to check Protestant gains by internal church reforms. Planned to
break down the traditional local autonomy of the 17 Netherland provinces by stages and
establish a centralized royal government in Madrid.
 William of Orange (renamed from William of Nassu)-member of the council of state,
opposed Spanish overlords. Known as “the Silent,” he placed political autonomy and well
being of Netherlands above religious creeds. Port city of Brill by the “Sea Beggars” (group of
anti-Spanish criminals, mostly Englishmen), enlisted by William of Orange. They captured
Brill and spread rebellions against Alba, Alba ceded by Don Luis de Requesters. In the end,
he was assassinated and succeeded by his son Maurice
 Duke of Alba- led army towards Milan under Philip’s orders, created of time called Council
of Troubles (or Council of Blood to Netherlanders) reigned over the land. Rule for 6 years.
During this time new taxes from the Spanish were forced on to the Netherlands for the
suppression of its own revolt.
 Pacification of Ghent-Requesters died, and Spanish mercenaries ran amok and left 7,000
people dead in the streets, this is named the Spanish Fury. Catholic southern provinces
came together with the Protestant north, unified, to oppose Spain on November 8, 1576.
This unification defeated Don Jon, head of Spanish land forces, he signed the Perpetual
Edict that provided the removal of all Spanish troops in the Netherlands.
 Don Jon revived Spanish power in the south, where the Union of Brussels was broken. that
joined Southern provinces made Union of Arras, which made peace with Spain, and
northern provinces made Union of Utrecht.
 Philip declared not a fit ruler, and Alencon (Catherine de Medicis youngest son) took over
and was soon deposed. Philip II meddled with French and English affairs, Philips great
Armada was defeated in the English Channel. These new fronts extended Spain’s
resources, which helped the Netherlands. Twelve Years’ Truce gave northern provinces
 independence and was peace between Spain and France/England. Peace of Wesphelia
gave full recognition.

(4) The Thirty Years War

 Germany-Germany had independent secular principalities, ecclesiastical principalities,

numerous free cities, and knights ruling small areas from castles. The Peace of Augsburg
had given each of them significant sovereignty within its own borders. Germany had
always been Europe’s highway for merchants and traders going north, south, east, and
west.
 Religious division-Populations were about equally divided between Catholics and
Protestants. The peace of Augsburg had attempted to freeze the territorial holding of the
Lutherans and the Catholics. Lutherans were far more successful in securing their right to
worship that Catholic. A religious strife in the empire between liberal and conservative
Lutherans and between Lutherans and the growing numbers of Calvinists.
 Calvinism and the Palatinate-Frederick II became Elector palatine and made Calvinism the
official religion of his domain. The Lutherans came to fear the Calvinists. Palatine Calvinists
seemed to threaten the Peace of Augsburg.
 Maximilian of Bavaria and the Catholic League-From Bavaria, the Jesuits launched
successful missions throughout the empire. Maximilian I, organized a Catholic league to
counter a new Protestant alliance that had been formed in the same year under the
leadership of Frederick IV. When the league fielded a great army under the command of
Count Johann con Tilly, both internally and internationally, for the worst of the religious
wars, the Thirty years’ war.

Four Period of War

 The Bohemian Period-

o War broke out due to heir to the imperial throne. Ferdinand was determined to
restore the traditional faith to the eastern Habsburg lands. Ferdinand became the
king of Bohemia and then revoked the religious freedoms of Bohemian Protestant.
o “defenestration of Prague”
o Spain sent troops to Ferdinand which had begun as a revolt of the protestant
nobility against an unpopular king of Bohemia escalated into an international war.
o Ferdinand’s army under Frederick V’s troops had subdued and re-Catholicized
Bohemia, and conquered the palatinate.
 The Danish Period

o Lutheran king Christian Iv of Denmark was eager to extend Danish influence over
coastal towns of the North Sea. Entering germany with his army, but was quickly
humiliated by maximilan and forced to retreat into Denmark.
 o Wallenstein had so broken Protestant resistance that Ferdinand could assure the
“edict of restitution”, reasserting the Catholic safeguards of the Peace of Augsburg. It
reaffirmed the illegality of Calvinism and it ordered the return of all church lands the
Lutherans had acquired and an equal unrealistic goal despite its legal basis. The
new edict struck panic in the hears of Protestant and Hapsburg opponents
everywhere
 The Swedish Period

o Gustavus Adolphus II of Sweden became the new leader of Protestant forces within
the empire, he was controlled by the French minister Cardinal Richelieu and the
Dutch. The Swedish king won a smashing victory at Breitenfeld, one that reversed
the course of the war so dramatically that it has been regarded as the most decisive
engagement of the long conflict
o The military genius of Gustavus Adolphuus. The Swedish king brought new mobility
to warfare and both infantry and his cavalry employ fire and charge tactics.
o Gustavus Adolphus died at the battle of Lutzen- a costly engagement for both sides
that created a brief standstill.
o The peace of Prague, the German protestant states reached a compromise with
Ferdinand. France and the Netherlands, continued to support a Sweden. Desiring to
maximize their investment in the war, they refused to join the agreement.
 The Treaty of Westphalia

o First general peace in Europe after a war unprecedented for its number of warring
parties.
o the treaty rescinded edict of Restitution and the Peace of Augsburg. It said ruler of a
land determines the official religion of the land. Gave the Calvinists their legal
recognition. The independence of Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of
the Netherlands. The treaty broadened the legal status of Protestantism, the pope
opposed it altogether but he had no power to prevent it.
o France and Spain remained at war outside the empire, when French victories
forced the humiliating treaty of the Pyrenees on the Spanish. Therefore, France
became Europe’s dominant power

(5) The English Civil War

 King Charles I and the Royalists Versus Oliver Cromwell and the Parliamentarians.
 The reason for this war was because there were many political differences between
Charles and his subjects. Charles tried to take over some divisions of Parilament after his
crushing defeat in 1645, but he had failed thanks to Oliver Cromwell’s army.
 There were three parts to this war. The first war took place in the years 1642 to 1646 and the
second war was from 1648 to 1649. These two wars were between the supporters of the
 long parliament and the supporters of Charles. The third war was in 1649 to 1651 between
Charles and the Rump Parliament.
 This war ended with the execution of Charles, and he was known as a public criminal.
Oliver Cromwell took over with a republic and the House of Commons wanted to disband
Oliver’s 50,000 soldiered army, but instead Cromwell took the liberty of disbanding the
Parliament instead. Cromwell had died in 1658, and as soon as he was gone, the English
quickly got together and restored the Anglican Church and the monarchy.

(6) The Glorious Revolution

 James II became king and demanded the repeal of the Test Act. Parliament refused so he
dissolved it and appointed Catholics to high positions in the court and the army. He issued
another Declaration of Indulgence that suspended all religious tests and permitted free
worship. 
 English hoped James would be succeeded by Mary, his protestant eldest daughter. She
was wife of William III of Orange also. Instead, James II’s Catholic second wife gave birth to
a son, and there was now a male heir to the throne.
 Those on Parliament opposed to his son invited William to invade England to preserve the
Anglican Church and parliamentary government. William arrived without opposition by the
English people, and James fled to France. Parliament proclaimed William III and Mary II as
the new monarchs, completing the bloodless “Glorious Revolution.”
 They recognized a Bill of Rights that limited powers of monarchy and guaranteed civil
liberties of the English privileged classes prohibited Roman Catholics from occupying the
English throne.
 The Toleration Act permitted worship by all Protestants and outlawed only Roman Catholics
and those who denied the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.
 Act of Settlemen- Provided for the English crown to go to the Protestant House of Hanover
in Germany if Anne (2nd daughter of James II and heir to William III) died without issue.
When Anne died, the Elector of Hanover became King George I of Great Britain.

(7) War of Jenkins Ear

 In mid 18th century, the West Indies became a place of trade rivalry and illegal smuggling.
Spanish government began to maintain coastal patrols that boarded and searched English
vessels to look for contraband.
 1731, there was a fight during one boarding operation, the Spaniards cut off the ear of an
English captain named Robert Jenkins. No importance until 1738, when he appeared in
front of British Parliament, showing his ear as evidence of Spanish atrocities to British
merchants in the West Indies.
 Britain went to war with Spain, declared by Sir Robert Walpole, the British prime minster.
(8) The War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

 Frederick II seized the Austrian province of Silesia in eastern Germany. This shattered the
Pragmatic Sanction and upset the continental balance of power.
 Maria Theresa’s great  achievement was not the reconquest of Silesia, but the preservation
of the Habsburg Empire as a major political power. She recognized Hungary as the most
important of her crowns and promised Magyar nobility local autonomy.
 War over Austrian succession and the British—Spanish commercial conflict united through
the French involvement. The court aristocrats compelled Cardinal Fleury (first minister of
Louis XV) to support Prussian aggression against Austria, the traditional enemy of France.
Aid to Prussia d a new, united state in Germany, which endangered France. The French
against Austria brought Great Britain into the continental war. France supported Spain
against Britain, which resulted in divided military and economic sources. France couldn’t
bring strength to the colonial struggle, and it lost the struggle for the future against Great
Britain.
 War ended in a stalemate in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Prussia retained
Silesia, Spain renewed Britain’s privilege from the Treat of Utrecht to import slaves into the
Spanish colonies.

(9) The Seven Years War (1756-1763)

 Frederick II invaded Saxony to start the war. He thought of this invasion to be a strike
against a conspiracy by Saxony, Austria, and France to destroy Prussian power. The
invasion created the alliance that Frederick feared. In 1757, France and Austria made a new
alliance dedicated to the destruction of Prussia, along with Sweden Russia, and many other
small German states, Britain furnished considerable financial aid, and Empress Elizabeth of
Russia died, He made peace with Prussia, which relieved Frederick of one enemy. Treaty of
Hubertusburg ended continental conflict with no changes in prewar borders. Selisia still
Prussian.
 William Pitt: Became secretary of state in charge of the war in 1757, he regarded German
conflict as a way to divert French resources from colonial struggle. North America was his
main concern.
 Treaty of Paris in 1763: Bute took place of Pitt. Britain received Canada, Ohio River valley,
and eastern half of Mississippi River valley. Prussia took Silesia from Austria and had turned
the Holy Roman Empire into an empty shell. Habsburg power depended on Hungarian
domains. France no longer great power, Spanish Empire intact but with British wanting to
penetrate its markets. Great Britain as a world power.

(10) American Revolution

  Britain and the American colonies; the American battle for independence from Britain;
1776-1783; the American colonies; the colonists felt they were being unfairly taxed and
otherwise treated, and that their needs were not met in a timely fashion, for their news took
several months to reach their supreme deciding ruler; the declaration of independence
was signed on July 4th, 1776, thus declaring the colonies a separate nation from the mother
country of Britain; proved at least some usefulness for Enlightenment

(11) The French Revolution

 Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)-The French monarchy emerged from the Seven Years’ War
being defeated, deeply in debt, and unable thereafter to put its finances on a sound basis.
o The problem lay with the inability of the royal government to tap the nation’s wealth
through taxes to service and repay the debt. For 25 years after the Seven years’
War, a standoff occurred between the monarchy and the aristocracy, as one royal
minister after another attempted to devise new tax schemes that would tap the
wealth of the nobility, but both the Parlement of Paris and provincial parlements
opposed.
 Louis XV (1715-1774) - Louis appointed Rene Maupeou (1714-1792) to be chancellor. He
closes down the parlements and exiled their members to different parts of the country. The
death of Louis XV gave reign to Lousix XVI who attempts to regain what he conceived to be
popular support, dismisses Maupeou, restored all the parlements, and confirmed their old
powers,.
 Louis XVI (1774-1792)-Parlements spoke for aristocratic interests, but appeared to have
public support. Monarchy was unable to rally public opinion to its side because it had lost
much of its moral authority.
 Jacques Necker (1732-1804)- a Swiss banker, the new royal director-general of finances,
produced a public report in 1781 that suggested the situation was not as bad as had been
feared. He argues that if the expenditures for the American war were removed, the budget
was in surplus
o By 1781, as a result of the aid to America, its debt was larger, and its sources of
revenues were unchanged.
o Necker’s report revealed that a large portion of royal expenditures went to income
for aristocrats and other royal court favorites. Thus, made it more difficult for
government officials to claim a real need to raise new taxes.
 Estates General-

o First Estate- the clergy, Second Estate- the nobility, and Third Estate- everyone else
in the kingdom, although its representatives were drawn primarily from wealthy
members of the commercial and professional middle classes.
o Abbe Sieyes (1748-1836) a priest who comment “what is the third estate?
Everything. What has it been in the political order up to the present? Nothing. What
does it ask? To become something.”
 o Debate over organization and voting came to the result with each estate having an
equal number of representatives, but in September 1788, the parlement of Paris
ruled that voting in the Estates General should be conducted by each estate count
as one vote rather than each person of the estates. Thus, making the vote to First
and Second Estate dominance.
o IN December 1788, the royal council announced that Third estate would elect twice
as many representatives as either the nobles or the clergy. The council assumed
that liberal nobles and clergy shared the same important interests and reform goals
as the Third estate.
o Cahiers de Doleances( lists of grievances) registered by the local electors to be
presented to the king. The documents criticized government waste, indirect taxes,
church taxes, church taxes and corruption, and the hunting rights of the
aristocracy. They called for periodic meetings of the estates General, more
equitable taxes, more local control of administration, unifies weights and measures
to facilitate trade and commerce, and a free press.
o The cahiers drawn up before May 1789 indicate that the three estates could have
cooperated to reach these goals.
 National Assembly-

o June 1, the Third Estate invited the clergy and the nobles to join them in organizing
a new legislative body. And some priests. On June 17, the body declared itself the
National Assembly, on June 19 by a narrow margin, the Second estate voted to join
the Assembly.
o Louis XVI decided to reassert role in the proceedings. He intended to call a “Royal
Session” of the Estates General for June 23 and closed the room where the
National Assembly had been gathering. On June 20, The national Assembly moved
from the room they been locked out from to a nearby indoor tennis court. There, the
members took an oath to continue to sit until they had given France a constitution.
This action was the famous “Tennis Court Oath.” Louis XVI ordered the National
Assembly to desist.
o On June 27, the king lost control of the events around him formally requested the
First and Second estates to meet with the National Assembly, where voting would
occur by head rather than by order. Now, the monarchy could govern only in
cooperation with the National Assembly.
o The National Assembly, which renamed itself the “National Constitituent Assembly”
because of its intention to write a new constitution, was composed of a majority of
liberal goals for the administrative, constitutional, and economic reform of the
country.
 Bastille-

o Louis XVI again attempted to regain the political initiative by mustering royal troops
neat Versailles and Paris. On July 11, without consulting with the Assembly leaders,
 Louis abruptly dismissed Necker. Both of these actions marked the beginning of a
steady, but consistently poorly executed, royal attempt to undermine the Assembly
and halt the revolution.
o The second factor, the populace of Paris numbered more than 600,000 people.
Throughout the winter and spring of 1789 high prices for bread had produced riots.
Those Parisians who had elected representatives to the Third estate had continued
to meet after the elections. By June they were organizing a citizen militia and
colleting arms. They intended to protect the Assembly and the revolution it had
begun.
o On July 14, large crowds of Parisians marched to the Bastille to get weapons for
the militia. Through miscalculations and ineptitude by the governor of the fortress,
the troops in the Bastille fired into the crowd, killing ninety-eight people and
wounding many others.
o Only July 15, the militia of Paris, called the “national guard” offered its command to
a young liberal aristocrat, Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834). He gave the guard a
new symbol: the red and blue stripes form the colors of the coat of arms of Paris,
separated by the white stripes of the royal flag. The emblem became the
revolutionary cockade (badge) and eventually the tricolor flag of revolutionary
France.
o The attack on the Bastille marked the first of many crucial Journees (days on which
the populace of Paris redirected the course of the revolution).
o Louis XVI personally visited Paris, where he wore the revolutionary cockade and
realized the organized electors as the legitimate government of the city the
National Guard and that he lacked the military support to turn back the revolution.
The citizens of Paris had established themselves as an independent political force
with which other political groups might ally for their own purposes.
 Great Fear-

o The Great Fear saw the burning of “chateaux” the destruction of legal records and
documents and refusal to pay feudal des.
o The peasants were reclaiming rights and property they had lost through
administrative tightening of the collection of feudal dues during the past century as
well as venting their anger against the injustices of rural life. Their targets were both
aristocratic and ecclesiastical landlords.
o On the night of August 4 , 1789, aristocrats in the National Constituent Assembly
attempted to halt the spreading disorder in the countryside. Several liberal nobles
and clerics rose in the Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, dues and tithes.
Theses nobles and clerics gave up what they had already lost and what they could
not have regained without civil war in the rural areas.
o After the night of August 4, all French citizens were subject to the same and equal
laws. The sale of government offices was also abolished. The dramatic session of
 the Assembly effectively abolished the major social institutions of the Old Regime
and created an unforeseen situation that requited a cast legal and social
reconstruction of the nation.
o A deep economic downturn had struck France in 1787-1788. Food prices increase,
wages not kept up with the rise in prices, many people suffer from hunger.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen-

o On August 27, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen. This declaration drew on the political language of the Enlightenment and
the Declaration of Tights that the state of Virginia had adopted in June 1776. The
French declaration proclaimed that all men were “born and remain free and equal
in rights.” The natural rights so proclaimed were “liberty, property, security, and
resistance to oppression.” The Government existed to protest these rights. All
citizens were to be equal before the law and were to be “equally admissible to all
public dignities, offices, and employments, according to their capacity, and with no
other distinction than that of their virtues and talent.” There were to be due process
of law and presumption of innocence until proven guilty. Freedom of religion was
affirmed. Taxation was to be apportioned equally according to the salary. Property
constituted “an inviolable and sacred right.”
o Two most powerful, universal political ideas of the declaration were civic equality
and popular sovereignty. The first would challenge the legal and social inequities of
European life, and the second would assert that governments must be responsible
to the governed.
o Summer of 1789, many politically active and informed Frenchwomen hoped the
guarantees of the declaration would be extended to them, rather than just the men.
 Parisian Women’s March-

o Louis XVI stalled before ratifying both the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen and the aristocratic renunciation of feudalism. Plus, the bread remained
scarce and expensive.
o On October 5, 7,000 Parisian women armed with pikes, guns, swords, and knives
marched to Versailles demanding more bread. Intimidated, the king agreed to
sanction the decrees of the Assembly. On October 6, 1789, His carriage followed
the crowd into the city, where he and his family settled in the old palace of the
Tuileries in the heart of Paris. The National Constituent Assembly also soon moved
to Paris.
 National Constituent Assembly reorganizes France-In Constitution of 1791, the National
Constituent Assembly established a constitutional monarchy (in administration, rationalism;
in economics, unregulated freedom; and in religion anticlericalism). The major political
authority of the nation would be a unicameral Legislative Assembly, in which all laws
would originate.
 o Active- men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages could
vote. They choose electors, who voted for the member of the legislature. Women
could neither vote nor hold office.
o The accumulation of wealth from land and commercial property would open the
path to political authority.
o Departements- generally equal size named after rivers, mountains, and other
geographical features. The departments were subdivided into districts, cantons,
and communes.
 End of Monarchy, a Second Revolution-

o Ever since the original gathering of the estates General, deputies from the third
Estate had organized themselves into clubs composed of politically like-minded
person. Jacobin, a group that met in a former Dominican priory dedicated to St.
Jacques in Paris. They pressed for republic rather than a constitutional monarchy.
o Girondists (many of them came from the department of the Gironde in southwest
France) assumed leadership of the Assembly. They passed one measure ordering
the émigrés to return or suffer the loss of their property and another requiring the
refractory clergy to support the Civil Constitution or lose their state pensions.
o On April 20, 1792, The Girondists led the Legislative Assembly to declare war on
Austria. Final defeat of France at Waterloo in June 1815.
o Pauline Leon led a group of women to petition the Legislative Assembly for the right
to bear arms and to fight to protect the revolution. These demands to serve, voiced
in the universal language of citizenship, illustrated how the rhetoric of the revolution
could be used to challenge traditional social roles and the concept of separate
social spheres for men and women. Once the war began, some Frenchwomen did
enlist in the army and served with distinction.
o Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian forces, issued a manifesto
threatening to destroy Paris if the French royal family were harmed.
o Paris commune was a committee of representatives from the sections of the city.. it
became an independent political force casting itself in the role of the protector of
the gains of the revolution against both internal and external enemies.
o The Tuleries palace was invaded on August 1, by a large crowd who forced Louis
Xvi and Marie Antoinette to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly. The crowd
fought with the royal Swiss guards. The royal family was then imprisoned in
comfortable quarters, but the king was allowed to perform none of his political
functions.
 The September Massacre-The Paris Commune summarily executed or murdered about
1,200 people who were in the city jails.
 Convention-

o As its first act, the Convention declared France a republic- a nation governed by an
elected assembly without a monarch.
 o Sans-culottes “with out breeches” were shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and
in a few cases factory workers. They believe all people have a right to subsistence,
and they resented most forms of social inequality. This attitude made them
intensely hostile to the aristocracy and the political leaders the revolution. They
simply wanted to share political powers, social prestige and economic security
with the aristocracy. They believed the people should make the decision of
government to an extent as great as possible.
o Jacobin, republicans who sought representative government. They favored an
unregulated economy. Once the Convention began to deliberate, these Jacobins,
known as the Mountain because their seats were high up in the assembly hall,
worked with the sans-culottes to carry the revolution forward and to win the war.
o In December 1792, Louis XVU was put on trial as mere “Citizen Capet,” the original
medieval name of the royal family. Many convicted Louis of conspiring against the
liberty of the people and the security of the state. Was condemned to death by a
smaller majority, he was beheaded on January 21, 1793.
o The Girondists had led the country into the war, but had been unable either to win it
or to suppress the enemies of the revolution at home.
 The Reign of Terror-

o By April 1793, the Jacobins began to direct the French government; the nation was
at war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia, and Holland. The
governments of these nations allied to become the First Coalition, which attempt to
protect their social, political systems, and economic interests against the
aggression of the revolution.
o The actions to protect the revolution and silence dissent came to be known as the
Reign of Terror.
o The Committee of Public Safety to carry out the executive duties of the government.
The members were all revolutionary leaders who were convinced republicans who
had long opposed the more vacillating policies of the Girondists. They saw their
task as saving the revolution from mortal enemies at home and abroad.
o Main problem was the wages of the war. The sans-culottes invaded the
Convention and successfully wiped out the Girodist members and gave the
Mountain complete control.
o Lazare Carnot, a member of the Committee of Public Safety in charge of the
military, began a mobilization for victory by issuing a Levee en Masse (a military
requisition on the entire population, conscripting males into the army and directing
economic production to military purpose.
o In Republic of Virtue, civic virtue largely understood in terms of Rousseau’s Social
Contract (the sacrifice of one’s self and one’s interest for the good of the republic)
would replace selfish aristocratic and monarchical corruption. The core value of the
 republic of virtue was the upholding of the public over the private good or the
championing of the general will over individual interests.
o Maximilien Robespierre embodied this republic by terror. He had emerged as the
dominant figure on the Committee of Public safety, favored a republic. To him, the
republic of virtue meant whole-hearted support of the republican government, the
renunciation of selfish gains from political life, and the assault on foreign and
domestic enemies of the revolution.
o Pauline Leon and Claire Lacombe found the society of Revolutionary Republican
women. The women of the society also demanded the right to wear the
revolutionary cockade that male citizens usually wore in their hats.
o Convention’s attempt to De-Christianize France. There were twelve months of thirty
days each. Every tenth day was a holiday. In November 1793, the convention
decreed the cathedral of Notre dame in Paris to be “temple of reason.” Churches
were desecrated, torn down, or used as barns or warehouses.
o The mandate of these tribunals was to try the enemies of the republic, but the
definition was an “enemy” shifted as the months passed. Those whom the tribunal
condemned in Paris were beheaded on the guillotine, a recently invented
instrument of efficient and supposedly humane execution. At the Nantes several
hundred people were simply tied to rafts and drowned in the river Loire.
 The End of the Terror-

o Jacques Danton who had provided heroic national leadership in the dark days of
September 1792 and who had later served briefly on the Committee of Public
Safety before Robespierre joined the group. Robespierre exterminated the
leadership of both groups that might have threatened his position. He secured
passage of the Law of 22 Prairial, which permitted the revolutionary tribunal to
convict suspects without hearing substation evidence them
o Robespierre considered the worship of “reason” too abstract for most citizens,
replaced it with the “Cult of the Supreme Being.”
o Robespierre was arrested for his ill-tempered speeches in the Convention,
declaring that other leaders of the government were conspiring against him and
the revolution. No member of the Convention felt sage.

(12) Wars of Independence – Latin America

 The French Revolution and Napoleon’s movements for independence from European
domination sparked movements in Latin America.
 Revolution in Haiti: Haitian Revolution demonstrated slaves of African origins could revolt
against white masters and mulatto freemen.
 French National Assembly in 1791 decreed free property-owning mulattos on Haiti should
enjoy same rights as white plantation owners once French Revolution broke out. Colonial
Assembly in Haiti resisted that order.
 1791, slave rebellion shook Haiti, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, and French officials from
Paris helped them. Spain and Great Britain tired to intervene to expand their own influence,
but were opposed to end slavery. L’Ouverture supported French against Spanish and
British. He imposed an authoritarian constitution on Haiti and made himself Governor-
General for life, but preserved ties with France.  Napoleon’s French government feared
L’Ouverture and Napoleon sent an army to Haiti to capture him, and he later died in prison.
 Creole elite (merchants, landowners, and professional people of Spanish descent) led
movements against Spain and Portugal. Creole discontent with Spanish colonial
government because Spanish policies favored peninsulares--white people born in Spain—
and they had all the best positions. Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807 and made his
brother king of Spain in 1808. Creole elite feared a liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain
would impose reforms in Latin America that would harm their economic and social
interests, and Spain would be dry of resources because of Napoleon’s wars. Creole juntas
(political committees) claimed the right to govern different regions of Latin America. Juntas
ended the privileges of peninsulares, whose welfare depended on the Spanish crown.
Creoles took high positions now.
 Buenos Aires was center of revolt, and the junta there sent forces to Paraguay and Uruguay
to liberate them from Spain. They were defeated, and Spain never regained control. Jose
de San Martin lead the Rio de la Plata forces, led an army over the Andes Mountains and
occupied Santiago in Chile. Martin organized a fleet that carried his army to Peru and drove
out royalist forces from Peru. San Martin believed in monarchies.
 Simon Bolivar organized liberating junta in Caracas, Venezuela, in 1810. Captured Bogota,
capital of New Granda, to secure a base for an attack on Venezuela. He captured Caracas
and became president. Bolivar believed in republicanism.
 Independence in New Spain: New Spain included Mexico, Texas, California, and SW
United States. Miguel Hidalgo y Costila (Creole priest) issued a call for rebellion, and set a
program of social reform. Executed in 1811 and leadership fell to Jose Maria Morelos y
Pavon, another priest. He called an end to forced labor. Revolution in Spain forced
Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution, and conservative Mexicans rallied behind
Augustin de Iturbide, who declared Mexico independent of Spain in 1821.
 Brazilian independence came simply and peacefully when the royal family fled from
Portugal to Brazil and transformed Rio de Janeiro into a royal city. 1820 revolution in
Portugal, and its letters demanded João’s (prince regent) return to Lisbon. João became
King João VI and left his son Dom Pedro as regent in Brazil. Peaceful independence
because political/social elite of Brazil wanted to avoid destruction that the wars of
independence had unleashed in the Spanish American Empire. These leaders had every
intention of preserving slavery.
(13) Decembrist Revolt in Russia

 Tsar Alexander I came to the throne in 1801, turned away from reform, suppressed
liberalism and nationalism.
 When Russian forces drove Napoleon’s army across Europe and occupied defeated
France, they were exposed to the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment
and noticed how backward and politically stifled their nation was. They formed secret
societies, a famous one was Southerner Society led by Pestel, that advocated
representative government and the abolition of serfdom. Performed coup d’etat in 1826.
 Tsar Alexander I died without an heir, Constantine and Nicholas debated which one to be
tsar, and Nicholas declared himself tsar. Moscow regiment marched into Senate Square in
St Petersburg and refused to swear allegiance, and called for a constitution and
Constantine as tsar. Nicholas ordered cavalry to attack them. He presided over the
commission that investigated the Decembrist Revolt and secret army societies.
 Decembrist revolt was first rebellion in modern Russian history with goals of having a
constitutional government and abolition of serfdom.
 Nicholas as symbol of extreme 19th century autocracy, he supported serfdom and censored
literary and political papers. Created program of Official Nationality of “Orthodoxy,
Autocracy, and Nationalism.” The Russian Orthodox church was supposed to provide basis
for morality, education, and intellectual life. Nicholas I conservative in foreign affairs,
especially in Poland in the 1830s when Constantine was given to rule Poland; December
18, Polish diet declared revolution as a nationalist movement. Diet deposed Nicholas as
king of Poland. Nicholas issued Organic Statute that declared Poland to be part of the
Russian Empire.

(14) Russian Revolution

 The March Revolution in Russian was the result of the collapse of the monarchy’s ability to
govern. Nicholas II was weak and incompetent and suspected of being under the
domination of his German wife and insidious peasant faith healer Rasputin. Whom a group
of Russian noblemen assassinated in 1916. In 1915, the tsar took personal command of the
armies on the German front, which kept him away from the capital. In his absence corrupt
and incompetent ministers increasingly discredited the government even in the eyes of
conservative monarchists
 The Provisional Government-In early march 1917, strikes and worker demonstrations
erupted in Petrograd as Saint Petersburg had been renamed. The ill-disciplined troops in
the city refused to fire on the demonstrators. The tsar abdicated on March 15. The
government of Russia fell into the hands of members of the Duma, who soon formed a
provisional government composed chiefly of Constitutional democrats (Cadets) with
western sympathies. At the same time, various socialist groups including both Social
revolutionaries and Social Democrats of the Menshevik wing began to organize soviets,
 councils of workers and soldiers. Initially, they allowed the provisional government to
function without actually supporting it. The Mensheviks believed that Russia had to have a
bourgeois stage of development before it could have a revolution of the working class.
o In this climate, the provisional government decided to remain loyal to Russia’s
alliances and continue the war. The collapse of the last Russian offensive in the
summer of 1917 sealed its fate. Disillusionment with the war, shortages of food and
other necessities at home, and the peasants’ demands for land reform undermined
the government. This occurred even after the moderate socialist Alexander
Kerensky became prime minister.
 Lenin and the Bolsheviks-The Germans in their most successful attempt at subversion had
rushed the brilliant Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin in a sealed train from his exile in Switzerland
across Germany to Petrograd. Lenin saw the opportunity to achieve the political alliance of
workers and peasants he had discussed before the war. He hammered away on the theme
of peace, bread, and land. The failure of the summer offensive encouraged them to attempt
a coup, but the effort was a failure. Lenin fled to Finland, and his chief collaborator Leon
Trotsky was imprisoned.
o The failure of a right-wing countercoup gave the Bolsheviks another chance.
Trotsky, released from prison, led the powerful Petrograd soviet. Lenin returned in
October, insisted to his doubting colleagues that the time was ripe to take power,
and by the extraordinary force of his personality persuaded them to act. Trotsky
organized the coup that took place and concluded with an armed assault on the
provisional government. The Bolsheviks, almost as much to their own astonishment
as to that of the rest of the world, had come to rule Russia.
 The Communist Dictatorship- In selecting a Constituent Assembly, the Social
Revolutionaries won a large majority over the Bolsheviks. The Red Army halted the
assembly. The Bolsheviks turned the land over to peasant proprietors Factory workers were
in charge of their own; state controlled bank, rejected the debt of the tsarist government
and property of the church
o The Bolshevik government took Russia out of the war; signed an armistice with
Germany and accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, where Russia surrenders
Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, and Ukraine. They'd pay for war insurance
o Lenin believed the war would lead to communist revolutions and knew Bolsheviks
had to rule. The new government met resistance; Civil war occurred between Red
Russians (supporting revolution and controlled by the Bolsheviks) and White
Russians (opposed revolution).
o Bolsheviks took a step by murdering the tsar and family, with officers fighting the
o Revolution. Aid from Allies helped the Red Army win firm control

(15) 1848 Revolutions

  Liberal and nationalistic revolutions started from: Famine and poor harvests,
unemployment, slow commercial and industrial economy, and bad living conditions.
Change started with political liberals in the middle class They wanted a more
representative government, civil liberty, and an unregulated economic life. Germans,
Hungarians, Italians, Czechs, and other small national groups in eastern Europe wanted to
create national states Revolutions failed to establish genuinely liberal or national states.
Conservative order was strong and resilient. Liberals refused the political revolution and
isolated themselves.
 ITALY- Piedmont’s defeat was disappointing to Italians, but it marked the first stage of the
Italian Revolution. Liberals and nationalists had hope for Pope Pius IX (who reformed the
papal states) to unite Italy, but after Count Pelligrino Rossi (the minister of Papal States)
was assassinated, the Pope fled to Naples and a Roman Republic was proclaimed by
radicals. 2 famous republican nationalists: Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Austrian troops attacked Rome and restored the Pope. In early June 1849, French soldiers
laid seige on Rome and the Roman Republic dissolved. French forces helped protect the
pope for 21 years. Pope Pius IX renounced his liberalism and never united Italy.
 Germany- Frederick William IV was monarch of Prussia and called a Prussian Constituent
Assembly to write a constitution to help unify Germany. He appointed David Hansemann as
the head of cabinet, but Frederick ignored the assembly and it dissolved. Frederick wrote
his own constitution that had 3 class voting, all adult mails could vote but voted by ability to
pay taxes (largest taxpayers, which were 5% of the population) elected 1/3 of Prussian
parliament.
 Frankfurt Parliament-
o Held on May 18th 1848, in Saint Paul’s Church in Frankfurt.
o Representatives from all German states gathered to write a liberal constitution for a
united Germany.
o They offended and alienated conservatives and did not support German workers
because it did not restore protection to guilds.
o Questioned weather to include Austria in unified Germany (grossdeutch wanted
Austria, kleindeutch against including Austria)
o March 27, 1849, Constitution was produced but rejected by Frederick William IV
because he said that kings rule by the grace of God and not by man-made
constitutions -> Frankfurt Parliament dissolved
o Germany failed to unite by the works of liberals.

(16) World War I

 1879 Germany secret treaty with Austria that was a Dual Alliance that said they would come
to each other`s aid if Russia attacked them, and if it was someone else, the other would
stay neutral. Italy wanted colonial expansion, joined the Dual Alliance in 1882. Bismarck
was succeeded with his diplomacy! So now it was the Triple Alliance, Germany, Austria,
 and Italy. Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 promised neutrality (with Russia) if either side was
attacked.
 1902 Britain allied with Japan to defend interests against Russia. Also made a series of
agreements called the Entente Cordiale with France to make nice. Britain even helped
France with Morocco in return for British control of Egypt.
 The First Moroccan Crisis- Germany decided to test Britain and France`s friendliness by
stepping into French Morocco and pushing for independence (by German chancellor
Prince Bernhard von Bulow). They demanded a conference to show their power and how
weak France was. Austria sided with Germany, but Italy, Spain, Russia, and the US went
with Britain and France. Germany gained trivial concessions and France`s control of
Morocco`s was affirmed. FAIL on Germany`s part! British Sir Edward Grey saw an imminent
German attack on France and allowed France and Britain to come closer and by 1914 they
were militarily and navally dependent, practically allies.
 British Agreement with Russia- Britain feared Germany`s naval power and it made sense
that it would buddy with France`s ally Russia, so they did something similar to the Entente
Cordiale and settled any Russo-British problems. The Triple Entente was an informal, but
powerful association of Britain, France, and Russia. It was against the Triple Alliance of
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, BUT Italy was kind of unreliable.
 Soon, The Triple Entente became strained when countries began to have trouble backing
each other up in hopes of not stirring up trouble. A second Moroccan Crisis occurred when
Germany made France nervous when they put gunboats in the Congo, and Britain was
ready to come to France`s aid should they be needed. There was also uprisings in the
Balkans, for independence.
 June 28, 1914, Austrian throne heir Archduke Francis Ferdinand shot in Bosnia`s capital
Sarajevo. The assassin was a Serbian nationalist who was a part of a political terrorist
society called Union or Death (also, Black Hand). Serbian officials were even involved in the
plotting. Austria declared war on Serbia, and so Russia declared war on Austria, Austria
mobilized against Russia. Germany resisted mobilizing too because they wanted Russia to
look like the mean guy who started it, and luckily they did just in time, and so Germany
declared war on Russia August 1. Germany declared war on France. The invasion of
Belgium negated the neutrality of Belgium, therefore Britain stopped being neutral too and
Britain declared war on Germany!
 The Triple Entente- the Allies, more people, naval power, and financial resources.
 Germany and Austria- the Central Powers, had internal lines of communication and quick
attack launches.
 Germany`s war tactics were ideas developed by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of
German general staff.  Basically, they go east into France, south, and then looping back
around, making the right wing stronger than the left so the French would attack in the
wrong place while the war was decided on the left.
  The war in the west involved trenches and bombardments, while the war in the east, Russia
pushed into Austria, and kept going.
 America Enters the Revolution- 1916 President Wilson tried to intervene and negotiate
peace but no mutual terms could be found, and nothing changed until 2 things in early
1917 happened.
o First, Germany continued unrestricted submarine warfare, so the US broke of
diplomatic dies, declared war on Germany, and
o Second, America only came in now because the tsarist gov`t of Russia had finally
been overthrown!
 Russia pulled out of the war with the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk after the Russian Revolution,
Germany put their last offensive at the Battle of Marne but the Americans defeated them
and the disintegration of the German army forced William II to abdicate, and the majority
branch of the Social Democratic Party proclaimed a republic, and immediately ended the
war by signing an armistice accepting German defeat. The peace settlement was not mild,
and it embittered the Germans, who thought they`d been tricked.
 Out of Wilson`s 14 points, only the League of Nations was incorporated at the Paris peace
settlement. Germany lost Silesia and Prussia was separated from Germany. Austro-
Hungarian Empire became many states. Magyars were left with a smaller HUngary.
Southern Slavs were united with the Kingdom of Serbs. Romania was enlarged and Russia
lost vast west territory. Germany had to pay massive reparations and take full blame for the
war. 

(17) World War II

 The German Conquest of Europe- The German attack on Poland employed the use of a
new tactical system called Blitzkrieg or “lightning warfare.” The speed of German victory
was astonishing. On September 17th Russia invaded Poland from the east, dividing the
country with the Germans.  Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June, 1941, just 22 months
after their treaty.
 Until the spring of 1940 the Western Front was relatively quiet while the French continued to
hide behind their Maginot line and Britain quickly armed and used its Navy to blockade
Germany. To many, this was known as the phony War or Sitzkrieg. Then, without warning,
Germany overtook both Denmark and Norway, capturing both air and naval bases closer to
Britain. A month later, a combined land, and air attack struck Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxemburg. The British and Franch armies in Belgium were forced to flee to the English
channel where the efforts of hundreds of Britons manning small boats saved the lives of
300,000 soldiers.
 The Maginot line ran from Switzerland to the Belgian frountier, however, after the Rhineland
was given to Germany without opposition, the Belgians lost faith in their French allies.
Therefore, they declared neutrality and the Maginot line became exposed on its left flank.
The French army collapsed and Mussolini invaded southern France on June 10 th.A puppet
 government was put in place under Petain. In two months Hitler had accomplished what
Germany had failed to achieve in four years of bitter fighting in the previous war.
 The Battle of Britain- With France fallen, and Britain isolated, Hitler was prepared to allow
Britain to retain its empire in return for a free hand for Germany on the continent. Britain had
already fought long and hard against Napoleon to prevent a single power from dominating
the Continent.  If there was any chance the British would consider such terms, it
disappeared when Winston Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime minister in May 1940.
 Churchill had been an early and forceful critic of Hitler, the Nazis, and the policy of
appeasement. Churchill’s sense of history, his feeling for British greatness, and his hatred
off Tyranny and love of freedom made him reject any compromise with Hitler. He inspired
his country
o Hitler and his allies, including the Soviet Union, controlled all of Europe. Japan was
having its way in Asia. The United States was neutral, dominated by isolationist
sentiment, and determined to avoid involvement outside the western hemisphere.
 One of Churchill’s greatest achievements was befriending President Roosevelt who was
able to provided a small amount of support for the British.
 Hitler was forced to contemplate an invasion which required control over the air. The first
strikes of the German air force began in southeast England and may have succeeded had
they continued.
 However, In September, Germany began bombing London every night killing 15,00 people.
However, the theory of victory through air power alone failed.
o The Royal Air Force inflicted heavy losses in the Luftwaffe. Hitler lost the battle of
Britain in the air and was forced to abandon his plans for invasion.
 The German Attack on Russia- One of Hitler’s goals had always been to conquer Russia
and obtain Lebensraum, or “living space”. Operation Barbarossa was the codename for the
invasion of Russia. It was aimed to destroy Russia before the winter set in. However, this
depended on an early start which proved to be difficult with Hitler’s Italian allies who were
growing jealous.
 Mussolini’s invasion of France was a fiasco and Hitler would not allow him to annex French
territory in Europe or Africa. So he successfully captured British territory in Africa. He also
invaded Greece from his base in Albania. In north Africa however, the british
counterattacked and invaded Libya. The Greeks themselves pushed into Albania. In March
1941, the British sent help to the Greeks, and Hitler was forced to divert his attention to the
Balkans and Africa. General Erwin Rommel, later to earn the title “Desert Fox”, went to Africa
and soon drove the british back to Egypt. In the Balkans, the German army quickly crushed
Greek resistance. The price was a delay of six weeks. The diversion Mussolini’s vanity
caused proved to be costly the following winter in the Russian campaign. Operation
Barbarosa was launched against Russia June 22, 1941, and it almost succeeded. Despite
Russian suspicion of Germany they were taken by surprise and German victory seemed
imminent.
 Yet, the germans failed to deliver a final blow, the advance on Moscow was delayed while
Hitler decided strategy. By the time he was ready to return the offensive near Moscow, it
was too late. Winter devastated the German army, which was not equipped to face it. The
Blitzkrieg had turned into a War of attrition.
 Hitler’s Plans for Europe- Hitler had no single plan of government but relied on intuition and
pragmatism. He predicted his empire would last a thousand years. Hehe J His plan of
giving Lebenstraum to the Germans was to be accomplished at the expense of people he
deemed to be inferior. Hitler planned to use german colonies to use the local people as
cheap, virtually slave, labor.
 Hitler’s long range plans included Germanization and colonization. He would absorb those
natives that were akin to them. He even had plans to adopt selected people from the lesser
races into the master race. For example, the Nazis planned to bring half a million Ukrainian
girls to Germany as servants and find German husbands for them.
 Japan and the United States enter the War- The American government was pro-British and
might not have overcome isolationist sentiment and entered the war in the Atlantic if war
had not been thrust on America in the Pacific.
o Since the Japanese conquest of Manchuria in 1931, American policy towards
Japan had been suspicious and unfriendly. The outbreak of the war in Europe
allowed for Japanese expansion across Asia, taking advantage of the distracted
powers. The only barrier to Japanese expansion was the United States.
 After the Japanese invasion of Indochina in July, 1941, the U.S. cut off vital supplies of oil
and other materials. The British and Dutch did the same and Japanese plans for expansion
could not continue.
o Rather than yield, Japan decided to risk War and launch an air attack on Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii on December 7th, 1941. The next day, the United States and Britain
declared war on Japan. Three days later, Germany and Italy declared war on the
United States.
 The Tide Turns- America was unprepared for war though it had great potential and it
seemed that nothing could stop Japan’s expansion.
 In 1942, the Germans also advanced deeper into Russia, while in Africa Rommel drove the
British back to Egypt. German submarine warfare was threatening British supplies. The
Allies were being thrown back on every front, and the future looked bleak.
 The first good news came in the spring of 1942. A naval battle in the Coral Sea sank many
Japanese ships and gave security to Australia. The united States defeated the Japanese in
a fierce air and naval battle off Midway island.
 The main combatants of the more than twenty nations opposed to the Axis powers were
Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. However, the Russians remained
suspicious of their allies and demanded more aid than was already given to them. It was
not until 1944 that conditions were right for an invasion of Europe.
 Allied Landings in Africa, Sicily and Italy
 The Americans pushed eastward through Morrocco and Algergira. The two armies caught
the German army between them in Tunsia and crushed it. The Allies now controlled the
Mediterrainian and could attack southern Europe. The allies continued by taking sicily while
a coup toppled Mussolini. The allies landed in italy and the Germans there resisted fiercely.
 Battle of Stalingrad- The Russian campaign became more and more demanding,
germany’s goal was the oil fields near the Caspian Sea. However, Stalingrad was a
keypoint that Hitler was determined to take and Stalin was equally detersmined to keep.
The Russians lost more men in the battle of Stalingrad than the U.S. did in the entire war.
However, because Hitler again would not allow retreat, he lost an entire army at the battle
of Stalingrad. This marked the turning point of the Russians campaign where Russia was
finally able to gain the offensive with the help of the U..S.
 Strategic Bombing- In 1943 the Allies gained ground in production and logistics. The
industrial might of the U.S. began to come into full force., and new technology and tactics
reduced submarine menace.
o Americans prefeered “accurate bombing” by which they strategically hit important
military and industrial targets of germany during the day. While Britain considered
precision bombing impossible so they preffered bombing at night to destroy the
moral of the german people. Neither had much effect until the Americans
introduced low range fighters that could protect the bombers and allow accurate
missions by day.
 By 1945, Allies bombed at will which made extensive damage and helped shorten the war.
The ariel war over germany took a heavy toll of the German airforce and diverted german
resources from other military purposes.
 The Defeat of Nazi Germany- On June 6, 1944(“D-day”), American, British, and Canadian
troops landed inforce on the coast of Normandy. The German defense was strong but the
allies established a beachhead and then broke out of it.
 Battle of the Bulge- The Germans launched a counter attack in Belgium and Luxembourg
and pushed forward into the Allied line. Although the Allies suffered heavy losses, the bulge
was the last gasp for germans in the west. Thee allies crossed the Rhine in 1945 and the
german resistance crumbled.
 The Capture of Berlin- The Germans continued fighting the Russians until may because the
allies called for unconditional surrender. Hitler commited suicide on April 30 th, 1945.
 Fall of the Japanese Empire- The War in Europe ended March 8 th, 1945.
 Americans recapture the Pacific Islands- In 1943, Americans began using a System known
as “Island hopping” where they would not capture every Pacific Island the Japanese held,
but just the major bases and strategic sites. In June, 1944 the U.S. had reached the Mariana
islands which could be used as bases to bomb Japan.
 In the same year the Americans recaptured the Philippines. From new bases in Iwo Jima
and Okinawa the Americans launched devastating bombings. However, the Japanese still
refused to surrender.
  Science and Technology presented the Americans with an alternative option to invading
Japan. On August 6th, 1945 an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
Even after a second bomb the Japanese would not give up.
 The intervention of Emperor Horihito finally forced the government to surrender. Peace was
formally signed aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2 nd, 1945.
 The Cost of the War- WWII was the most terrible war in history with deaths up to some 15
million people, and at least as many civilians killed. However tentions after the war
remained as people were conscious that another major war might extinguish humanity. As
the fighting ended, conflict among the victors made a lasting peace doubtful

(18) Cold War

 Causes: At the Potsdam Conference, President Truman pressured Stalin to permit free
elections, but Stalin rejected this and said that communism and capitalism could not
coexist. An “Iron Curtain” (according to Churchill) fell on Europe and divided its democratic
west and its communist east.  Germany was also split into east and west,
 President Truman and the US took on the policy of containment in 1946 to stop the
expansion of communism, his Truman Doctrine rejected communism and declared that
the US would help all free people who were resisting oppression by communists, the first to
receive aid were Turkey and Greece.
 Then the Marshall Plan (1947), the Secretary State George Marshall gave aid to countries
in Europe to rebuild their economies, as long as they money was used on US-made
products.
o The Soviet Union rejected the Plan, made their own Molotov Plan for eastern
Europe to rebuild their postwar economies according to the Communist parties of
the countries.
 In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed, a defensive military alliance,
and in response, the Soviets made the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of the communist
eastern European countries.
 When the western nations tried to create a currency for West Germany to help it onto its
feet as a nation, the Soviet Union blockaded the western nations from entering Berlin, and
so President Truman had the US airlift supplies into the city for 10 months. In 1961,
the Soviet Union raised the guarded Berlin Wall along the border of east and west Berlin to
keep any people on the communist side from escaping to the democratic side.

 Then the arms race began when the Soviet Union tested their first atomic bomb in 1949.
Dwight D. Eisenhower became US president, and he took on Brinkmanship, or being willing
to go to the brink or edge of war 

(19) Crimean War

  The root of Russia to extend its influence over the Ottoman Empire. The dispute of religion
and Russia wanting to extend its control over the Ottoman provinces of Moldavia and
Walachia let to the conflict. In the summer of 1853, Russia occupied the two provinces;
shortly the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. On March 28, 1854, France and Britain
declared war on Russia in alliance with the Ottomans. In September 1855, the Russian
fortress of Sevastopol finally fell to the French and British.
 In March 1856, a treaty was created in Paris and required Russia to surrender territory near
the mouth of the Danube River, to recognize the neutrality of the Black Sea, and to
renounce its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. As a result, for
about 25 years after the Crimean War, European affairs were unstable, producing a period
of adventurism in foreign policy.

(20) The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871):

 Bismarck now wanted to complete unification by bringing the states of southern Germany
into the newly establish confederation. In 1868, a military coup replaced Isabella II of Spain
and the Spaniards chose Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Catholic cousin of
William I of Prussia. Bismarck knew that France would object strongly to a Hohenzollern
Spain. France sent Count Vincent Benedetii to consult with William I. On July 12, Leopold’s
father renounced his son’s candidacy for the Spanish throne, fearing the issue would cause
war between Prussia and France. On July 13, the French government instructed Benedetti
to ask William for assurances he would tolerate no future Spanish candidacy for Leopold.
Later that day the king sent Bismark to say the peaceful resolution of the controversy, which
had disappointed the chancellor, who desperately wanted a way with France to complete
unification. Bismarck released an edited version of the dispatch. The revised Ems telegram
made it appear that William had insulted the French ambassador. The French declared war
on July 19. The southern German states joined Prussia against France, whose defeat was
not long in coming. On September 1, at the battle of Sedan, the Germans not only beat the
French army but also captured Napoleon III. Ten days earlier, the German Empire had been
proclaimed. The German princes requested William to accept the title of German emperor.