"The purpose of the memorial is to communicate the founding, expansion, preservation, and

unification of the United States with colossal statues of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and
Theodore Roosevelt." Gutzon Borglum

Mount Rushmore National Memorial is host to almost three million visitors a year from
across the country and around the world. They come to marvel at the majestic beauty of the
Black Hills of South Dakota and to learn about the birth, growth, development and the
preservation of our country. Over the decades, Mount Rushmore has grown in fame as a
symbol of America-a symbol of freedom and a hope for people from all cultures and
backgrounds.

All the cultures that make up the fabric of this country are represented by the memorial and
surrounding Black Hills. One of the most important gifts we can give our visitors at Mount
Rushmore National Memorial is an understanding and love for our nation's history and
cultures and an appreciation of the importance of caring for that legacy.

People

Learn more about the life of Gutzon Borglum and his other works.
Lincoln Borglum was his father's right hand man on this project the unsung hero of this project.

NPS PHOTO
Doane Robinson 1856-1946

Doane Robinson is known as the “Father of Mount Rushmore.” It was his idea for colossal carvings in the
Black Hills. He wanted to create an attraction that would draw people from all over the country to his
state. In August of 1924 he contacted Gutzon Borglum who was working at Stone Mountain, GA on the
face of Robert E. Lee. In his letter Robinson invited Borglum to visit South Dakota and talk over the
possibility of carving a mountain. Borglum took Robinson up on his offer and met with him during
September of 1924 and again in August of 1925. During this second trip Borglum found Mount
Rushmore. From that point on Robinson worked diligently to secure funding for the project. Doane
Robinson’s idea was a success.

JOHN BOLAND FAMILY

John Boland 1884-1958

John Boland became interested in the Mount Rushmore project through Doane Robinson in 1925. He was
very active in raising funds. It was Mr. Boland that kept the Rushmore project from running up bills it
could not pay. Trustworthy and hard working he was the one that had to handle the unpaid creditors
until the treasury was replenished.

NPS PHOTO
William Williamson 1875-1972

Congressman William Williamson was the driving force in getting money appropriated from Congress for
the construction of the memorial. He was the one who convinced President Coolidge to come visit the
Black Hills for a summer vacation in 1927. He also served as a member of the Mount Harney Memorial
Society in 1925 until the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Society was created by legislation in
1929. He served as secretary, vice-president, and president of the Society.

SD STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY

Peter Norbeck 1870-1936

Senator Peter Norbeck was a champion of Mount Rushmore and all of South Dakota. He was a political
leader with a vision for the future of South Dakota. A tireless campaigner for Mount Rushmore, Norbeck
orchestrated the political and legislative means to provide federal support in times when funding was
difficult to obtain.

NPS PHOTO
Charles E. Rushmore, the mountain bears his name.

RUSHMORE, BISBEE & STERN

61 BROADWAY, NEW YORK

December 14, 1925

RE: RUSHMORE MOUNTAIN: OR RUSHMORE ROCK

Dear Sir:

My friend, Mr. Lawrence F. Abbott, of The Outlook, has handed to me your letter to
him of October 10, 1925, relating to the project of sculpting Rushmore Mountain, or
Rushmore Rock, in the Black Hills of South Dakota; and, since then, I have seen a copy of
your letter of November 28, 1925, to Mr. Julian Blount, of Redfield South Dakota, concerning
the naming of the mountain.
No doubt it will interest you to have accurate data on that subject.
In your letter to Mr. Blount you say: "Rushmore Rock was named for Mr. Rushmore,
a lawyer of Philadelphia who was interested in the Etta Mine." I am the lawyer in question,
though of New York City, and not of Philadelphia.Late in 1883 the discovery of tin in the
Black Hills was brought to the attention of a group of gentlemen in New York City and
excited their interest. I was a youthful attorney at the time, and was employed by these
gentlemen early in 1884 to go to the Black Hills and secure options on the Etta mine, and
other cassiterite locations. My mission required me to remain several weeks in the Hills, and
to return there on two or three later occasions in that year and in 1885. Part of my time was
spent among prospectors at Harney, and at a log cabin built in that neighborhood. In my life
among these rough, but kindly, men I conformed to their ways, and, may I say it with
becoming modesty, was in favor with them.
I was deeply impressed with the Hills, and particularly with a mountain of granite rock
that rose above the neighboring peaks. On one occasion while looking from near its base, with
almost awe, at this majestic pile, I asked of the men who were with me for its name. They said
it had no name, but one of them spoke up and said "We will name it now, and name it
Rushmore Peak." That was the origin of the name it bears, and, as I have been informed, it is
called Rushmore Peak, Rushmore Mountain and also Rushmore Rock.
Some time after the incident above narrated I was told that the name and identification
of the Rock, or Mountain, was recorded in the Land Office in Washington at the instance of
some of the good friends referred to, but I have never sought to verify this feet.
As you well say in your letter to Mr. Abbott this Rock is unique and lends itself
admirably to a national monument of the kind you have suggested. I trust you may succeed in
carrying out the proposed design.

Very truly yours,

Charles Edward Rushmore

Hon. Doane Robinson,

Superintendent, Department of History
Pierre, South Dakota

Stories

WHY THESE FOUR PRESIDENTS?

George Washington, (1st president) led the early colonists in the American Revolutionary War to win
independence from Great Britain. He was the father of the new country and laid the foundation of
American democracy. Because of his importance, Washington is the most prominent figure on the
mountain. (1732-1799) Washington Birthplace

"Believing that a representative government, responsible at short periods of election, is that which
produces the greatest sum of happiness to mankind, I feel it a duty to do no act which shall essentially
impair that principle." George Washington

Thomas Jefferson, (3rd president) he was the author of the Declaration of Independence, a document
which inspires democracies around the world. He also purchased the Louisiana Territory from France in
1803 which doubled the size of our country, adding all or part of fifteen present-day states. (1743-
1826) Jefferson Memorial...

"We act not for ourselves but for the whole human race. The event of our experiment is to show whether
man can be trusted with self - government." Thomas Jefferson

Theodore Roosevelt, (26th president) provided leadership when America experienced rapid economic
growth as it entered the 20th Century. He was instrumental in negotiating the construction of the
Panama Canal, linking the east and the west. He was known as the "trust buster" for his work to end
large corporate monopolies and ensure the rights of the common working man. (1858-
1919) Birthplace... Inaugural... Sagamore Hill... TR Nat. Park...

"The first requisite of a good citizen in this Republic of ours is that he shall be able and willing to pull his
weight - that he shall not be a mere passenger." Theodore Roosevelt

Abraham Lincoln, (16th president) held the nation together during its greatest trial, the Civil War.
Lincoln believed his most sacred duty was the preservation of the union. It was his firm conviction that
slavery must be abolished. (1809-1865). Boyhood Home... Lincoln Home...Lincoln Memorial...

"I leave you hoping that the lamp of liberty will burn in your bosoms until there shall no longer be a
doubt that all men are created free and equal." Abraham Lincoln

To learn more about these four presidents and all the others follow this link to the White House.

Memorial History

Getting this project underway was a challenge all by itself. Once Robinson and others
had found a sculptor, Gutzon Borglum, they had to get permission to do the carving.
Senator Peter Norbeck and Congressman William Williamson were instrumental in
getting the legislation passed to allow the carving. Williamson drafted two bills, one
each, to be introduced to Congress and the State Legislature. The bill requesting
permission to use Federal land for the monument was easily passed. The bill sent to
the State of South Dakota was not going to be so easy. The Mount Harney National
Memorial bill was defeated twice and almost a third time when on March 5, 1925
Governor Gunderson signed the bill. The Mount Harney Memorial Association was
established by the Governor later that summer.

Early in the project money was hard to find despite Borglum's promise eastern
businessmen would gladly make large donations. He also promised the people of
South Dakota they would not be responsible for paying for any of the mountain
carving. In the summer of 1927, President Calvin Coolidge was in the Black Hills, and
Borglum was planning a formal dedication of the mountain. Borglum hired a plane to
fly over the State Game Lodge in Custer State Park where Coolidge was staying. As
he flew by Borglum dropped a wreath to invite the President to the dedication
ceremony. Fortunately Coolidge agreed to attend. On August 10, 1927 Mount
Rushmore was formally dedicated. At the dedication ceremony President Coolidge
gave a speech and promised federal funding for the project.

A meeting was arranged for Borglum to meet with the Secretary of the Treasury,
Andrew Mellon. Mellon's approval would be critical to the passage of the Mount
Rushmore National Memorial Act through both houses of Congress. Borglum
convinced Mellon of the projects importance. Mellon was willing to fund the entire
project but Borglum said he would need only half the money from the government on
a matching basis, the rest, he could raise privately. Senator Norbeck was stunned that
Borglum would turn down full funding.

President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing federal funding. The Rushmore bill
authorized government matching funds up to $250,000.00 and created the Mount
Rushmore National Memorial Commission with 12 members appointed by the
President. Coolidge appointed ten of the twelve members and said Hoover should
appoint the other two.

When Hoover took office he quickly appointed the final two members to the
commission but did not meet with the Commission. The Commission had to meet with
the president to begin work. Congressman Williamson was asked to make an
appointment with the president, asking him to organize the Commission meeting.
Frustrated by the slow pace, Borglum decided he would try to get in to see the
President. When he got to the White House he got into an altercation with the
President's secretary and Williamson's appointment was cancelled. Eventually
Williamson got in to see the President, convinced him of the importance of the project
and getting the first meeting of the Commission set up. Hoover met with the
Commission within a couple of days. Officers were elected and the day following the
meeting Williamson and Boland, the secretary of the executive committee, went to
Mellon and received the first funding from the government. Mellon gave them
$54,670.56 to match funds already spent by the Mount Harney Association.

One notable exclusion from the new Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission
was Doane Robinson. The father of the project was not even put on the list of
potential candidates to serve on the committee to be selected by the President.
Robinson continued to support the project and generously offered, "Let me help were
I can." Soon, feeling unnecessary, Robinson moved away from the Rushmore project.

The Commission was organized and money was in the bank, work on the mountain
could begin in earnest. Workers were hired, machinery was installed and facilities
were developed. In the 1930's Norbeck managed to get emergency relief-funds
through the New Deal and to get those funds matched by the Rushmore
Appropriation.

In 1933 a major change developed with the signing of Executive Order 6166 by
President Franklin Roosevelt. Mount Rushmore was placed under the jurisdiction of
the National Park Service. Borglum did not like being under the "watchful eye of the
government". Julian Spotts, an engineer by training, was sent by the National Park
 Service to assist with the work. Spotts made improvements that made work on the
mountain more efficient and easier on the workers.

In 1938 Borglum removed all road blocks to his complete control of the Rushmore
project. At this time the Mount Rushmore Memorial Commission was reorganized and
new members, who allowed Borglum complete control over almost everything, were
named. Borglum wanted to create the Hall of Records, a large repository carved into
the side of the canyon behind the carving of the presidents, to tell the story of Mount
Rushmore and America. Work was stopped in 1939 because of the threat of losing all
funding if the money was not used on the carving of the faces as was intended. Work
on the Hall of Records stopped and was never started again.

For the final two years of the project Lincoln, Borglum's son, was in charge while
Gutzon was constantly trying to get more money for the project. In March of 1941, as
a final dedication was being planned, Gutzon Borglum died. With the artist gone and
the impending involvement of America in World War II, finishing work on Mount
Rushmore drew to a close. On October 31, 1941 the monument was declared
complete.

Receiving permission to do the carving, finding funding and managing personalities

were all a part of the challenge to establish Mount Rushmore National Memorial. At
times it seemed harder to keep the project going than it was to do the colossal
carving of the four presidents. In the end, cooler heads, charm, and determination
saw the memorial through to the end. Mount Rushmore National Memorial has
become a great icon of American history.

Historical Letters and Legislation

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE.

South Dakota State Historian Doane Robinson.
South Dakota State Historian, Doane Robinson, was the first to contact Sculptor, Gutzon Borglum, in 1924 to talk over
mountain carving in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Read Doane Robinson's letter to Gutzon Borglum letter. PDF
 CHARLES D'EMERY
Sculptor Gutzon Borglum.
Sculptor Gutzon Borglum's reply to Doane Robinson telegram PDF

Carving History

October 4, 1927 - October 31, 1941

Mount Rushmore is a project of colossal proportion, colossal ambition and colossal

achievement. It involved the efforts of nearly 400 men and women. The duties
involved varied greatly from the call boy to drillers to the blacksmith to the
housekeepers. Some of the workers at Mount Rushmore were interviewed, and were
asked, "What is it you do here?" One of the workers responded and said, "I run a
jackhammer." Another worker responded to the same question, " I earn $8.00 a
day." However, a third worker said, "I am helping to create a Memorial." The third
worker had an idea of what they were trying to accomplish.

The workers had to endure conditions that varied from blazing hot to bitter cold and
windy. Each day they climbed 700 stairs to the top of the mountain to punch-in on
the time clock. Then 3/8 inch thick steel cables lowered them over the front of the
500 foot face of the mountain in a "bosun chair". Some of the workers admitted
being uneasy with heights, but during the Depression, any job was a good job.

The work was exciting, but dangerous, 90% of the mountain was carved using
dynamite . The powdermen would cut and set charges of dynamite of specific sizes
to remove precise amounts of rock.

Before the dynamite charges could be set off, the workers would have to be cleared
from the mountain. Workers in the winch house on top of the mountain would hand
crank the winches to raise and lower the drillers. If they went too fast, the drillers in
their bosun chairs would be dragged up on their faces. To keep this from happening,
young men and boys were hired as call boys. Call boys sat at the edge of the
mountain and shout messages back and forth assuring safety. During the 14 years
 of construction not one fatality occurred.

Dynamite was used until only three to six inches of rock was left to remove to get to
the final carving surface. At this point, the drillers and assistant carvers would drill
holes into the granite very close together. This was called honeycombing. The
closely drilled holes would weaken the granite so it could be removed often by hand.

Visitors would become very interested in the honeycomb granite and would ask,
"How can I get a piece of rock like that?"
The hoist operator would respond, "Oh, I can't give that away. I'm holding onto it
for a buddy of mine that works up on the mountain."
The visitor would respond, " I'll pay, I'll give you $2.00 for it."
The hoist operator's reply was, "Nope, nope, I'd really catch if I gave away my
buddies piece of granite."
Well the visitors were very determined to get a piece of that granite. They would
make another offer. "I'll give you $6.00 for that piece of honeycomb granite.
Well, the hoist operator would pretend to pause and think about it... then he would
say, "Alright for $6.00 I'm willing to take the heat."
The hoist operator would give the visitors the piece of Honeycomb granite and take
their $6.00. The visitor would leave very pleased with their rare and hard won
souvenir. The hoist operator would wait until he was sure the visitors were gone,
then he would get on the phone going to the top of the mountain and he would say,
"Boys send down another one!"Another piece of honeycomb granite was sent down,
ready for the next visitor looking for a special souvenir from Mount Rushmore.

After the honeycombing, the workers smoothed the surface of the faces with a hand
facer or bumper tool. In this final step, the bumper tool would even up the granite,
creating a surface as smooth as a sidewalk.

From 1927 to 1941 the 400 workers at Mount Rushmore were doing more than
operating a jackhammer, they were doing more than earning $8.00 a day, they
were building a Memorial that people from across the nation and around the world
would come to see for generations.

Nature and science

There is more to Mount Rushmore than meets the eye, use all five of your senses to discover
the little known wonders hidden below the sculpture of the four presidents. Mount Rushmore
is located in the scenic Black Hills of South Dakota. The Black Hills are also called the
"Island in the Prairie," because they are an island of granitic hills surrounded by a prairie sea.

Take your time and view the great biological diversity that Mount Rushmore offers. On a
typical day you might see several different species of wildflowers, deer, mountain goats,
chipmunks and turkey vultures.

Animals
 NPS PHOTO
Baby Mountain Goat
ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT (Oreamnos americanus) Rocky Mountain Goats demand a very
specialized habitat. These skillful climbers inhabit the craggy granite core of the Black Hills.
Mountain goats are not native to the Black Hills. The population can be traced to six goats, a gift to
Custer State Park by Canada in 1924, that escaped from their pens and found their home among
the Black Hills granite peaks. There are now more than 200 mountain goats in the area. They have
long, shaggy white coats that contrast sharply with their black horns, nose and hooves. The
mountain goat's hooves are very soft to allow very steep climbing.

Amphibians

Amphibians, like the three frogs found at Mt Rushmore, go through many changes on their way to
becoming adults. Once the eggs are attached to submerged grass or twigs they will hatch in a few
days. Tadpoles, newly hatched frogs, grow rapidly and feed on algae that grow on submerged
objects. By June most tadpoles have legs and have the appearance of small froglets. Froglets that
survive will hibernate until spring when the warmer temperatures bring them out again.

Striped Chorus Frog

The Striped Chorus frog is a small frog only measuring about 1 ½ inches. They can be found in a
variety of habitats including marshes, meadows, and other open areas, and are most active at night
or in moist weather. Breeding season begins in mid-March and continues through late May. Females
lay 500-1500 eggs that attach to submerged grasses or sticks, with hatching occurs in 3-14 days.
Striped chorus frogs eat a variety of small invertebrates including ants, flies, beetles, moths,
caterpillars, and spiders. These frogs are important ecologically because they help control insect
population where they live, but they also act as a critical indicator species.

Western Chorus Frog

The Western Chorus frog is another small frog measuring only ¾-1 ½ inches. Their habitat is often
in or near areas of shallow, often temporary, bodies of water, but also can be found in grassy areas,
 woodlands, and swamps. Breeding season begins in mid-March and runs through late May. The
female lays 500-1500 eggs and hatching occurs in 3-14 days. Western Chorus frogs eat ants,
moths, caterpillars, and other small invertebrates. This frog also acts as a critical indicator species.
It is valuable in determining the overall health of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Due to its
thin skin it is very susceptible to contaminants and can indicate high levels of pollution in areas
where changes in ecology or morphology occur.

Northern Leopard Frog

The Northern Leopard Frog is a medium sized frog that ranges in length from 2-5 inches. They are
found in a variety of habitats including lakes, streams, ponds, and marshes. These frogs are
common in backyards in the summer. Breeding season begins in the spring when the air
temperatures are above 68 F in mid-March or early April. Females will release 3000-6000 eggs
which attach to twigs or plants and will hatch in about two weeks. Northern Leopard Frogs will eat
grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, non-aquatic insects, and other frogs. The Leopard Frog is
experiencing a drop in numbers due to a variety of factors, including harvesting for bait, increased
pesticide use, and loss of habitat.

Frogs are unique creatures; they have a combination of physical and biological characteristics that
make them sensitive to changes in the environment such as pollution and loss of habitat. Frogs also
have venom glands that act as protection against predators secreting irritants or toxins that may
cause a predator to drop the frog from its mouth if it is picked up or bitten. The unpleasant
experience may deter that predator from bothering that type of frog again. Since frogs prefer areas
that are moist, it may be difficult to see one on your visit, but if you listen closely at night in the late
spring you just might here the call of a male frog.

Plants

Like the smell of fresh cut grass tells you that there is grass growing in the yard, your sense of
smell, can clue you into some of the plants you will find at Mount Rushmore. Some
wildflowers have evolved to have very pleasant and sweet smells to attract pollinators likes
bees and butterflies and other plants smell sour or rotten to attract different pollinators like
flies. Trees and grasses can have distinct smells also. Smell can help you to discover
something new. The Black Hills are a very unique ecosystem. Several plant ranges overlap
here. You can find plants from areas north, south, east and west growing in the Black Hills.
Only about 5% of the plant species in the hills are indigenous to the area. The Ponderosa pine
is a tree that grows commonly in the western United States. Using your sense of smell you
can easily identify the Ponderosa pine trees that dominate the landscape in the Black Hills.
Look for a tall pine tree with reddish bark. If it has long needles you may have a Ponderosa
pine. Now walk right up to the tree and smell the bark. Does it smell sweet, kind of like
vanilla or butterscotch? You have a Ponderosa pine! Your sense of smell can help you
identify plants at home and elsewhere.
Trees and Shrubs

A young Ponderosa pine can grow from a crack in a boulder because of its many adaptation for
collecting water.

If you walk through the forest in the cool of a summer evening and smell the air it may smell sweet.
That is the sent of the Ponderosa pine trees. They have a sweet smell like vanilla or butterscotch.
Ponderosa pine is the primary tree in the Black Hills around Mount Rushmore. Ponderosa pine trees
are well adapted to the environment that they grow in. You can find Ponderosas in the Black Hills,
across the Rocky Mountains and westward to California. Ponderosas can tolerate drier conditions. In
the Black Hills Ponderosa pines are found on dry, rocky, slopes, especially south facing slopes. Other
species of pine like the Douglas fir, which is a western forest climax tree, can not tolerate the drier
climate here. The Ponderosa pine forest community has evolved with cycles of drought and fire to
become home to a variety of species.

In the Black Hill a Ponderosa pine forest is the climax forest community. A climax community is the
final stage of biotic succession attainable by a plant community. If there is a disturbance in the
Ponderosa community, forest succession will start again from an earlier stage. A blow down or pine
bark beetle infestation in an area can cause a break in the Ponderosa climax community. In this
newly opened area other species of trees and plants will start to grow. Grasses, shrubs and quaking
aspen are introductory species. They are the first plant species to colonize a disturbed area. The
quaking aspen is a short-lived tree. Individual trees may only live 30 to 50 years before they start to
die. In the Western United States, including the Black Hills, Aspens reproduce with suckers. Suckers
are new trees that grow from the parent rootstock. The parent rootstock produces a genetic twin or
clone. Every tree growing in a stand is likely a clone. Cloning gives aspens a head start over other
tree seedlings that start out with tiny rootlets to provide them with nutrients. The aspens will
continue to clone until the Ponderosas begin to reseed. The aspen seedlings can not tolerate the
shade created by the Ponderosas. Soon the Ponderosas take over the area and a climax forest is
developed again and will maintain until the next major disturbance.

A typical characteristic of a climax Ponderosa pine forest is an open understory. The understory is
kept clean of debris and shade tolerant species by periodic fires. Historically in the Black Hills, fires
occurred in a particular area about every 27 years. This fire record was obtained from tree core
samples. Fire scars found in the growth rings give researchers a timeline to calculate the date of a
fire. These fires were often ground fires that would clean up forest debris and remove shade tolerant
species that might compete with young ponderosas for space and sunlight. Major conflagrations
could occur but were uncommon.

During times of drought, Ponderosas are well adapted to get water and moisture whenever possible.
As with most plants, the roots are the primary tool for getting water. Where the soil is deep enough
the roots may go down 36 feet and spread to a circumference of 100 feet around the tree. The open
space in a Ponderosa forest is important. Each tree needs ample space to collect water. However,
when there is a drought the small amount of precipitation may not be enough. Another way to obtain
moisture must be used. The needles of a ponderosa have a thick skin and breathing pores or
stomata recessed into the skin. The stomata are the openings in the needles through which
transpiration, the exchange of gases, occurs. The Ponderosa's stomata are adapted to conserve and
obtain moisture. The well-protected stomata decrease potential moisture loss from desiccating
winds. The stomata also take in moisture and send it through the tree to the roots. When there is
fog or dew the stomata will open and take in water vapor from the air to water the tree. This allows
the Ponderosa to survive in dry environments and even grow from cracks in boulders.
 Ponderosa pines create a forest community like your neighborhood. From under the soil to the crown
of the trees there are organisms living together and depending on each other. The plants and
animals that live in the Ponderosa pine forest have developed unique niches for living in the forest.
Birds are likely the first animals you think of when talking about trees. Small songbirds and members
of the woodpecker family find shelter in the standing dead trees in the Ponderosa forest. Nuthatches,
northern flickers and hairy woodpeckers will carve out cavities in standing dead trees for nesting
sites. The living trees provide a food source for these species and others. In the tree's layered bark a
plethora of insect life make their homes. The nuthatches, woodpeckers, flickers, brown creepers and
other birds will feed on these insects. The pygmy nuthatch and the brown creeper work the bark in
opposite directions to harvest this abundant food source without competing with each other. As the
brown creeper creeps up the tree searching for insects under the bark, the pygmy nuthatch is
coming down the tree searching the bark from the opposite direction. These insects living in the bark
are also an important food source for birds and small mammals during the winter when other food
sources are scarce.

Red squirrels, mice, wood rats and chipmunks also depend on the trees for food. The seeds in the
cones are a source of protein in the animal's diet. Porcupines mainly subsists on tree cambium, the
sweet layer just under the bark that transports nutrient throughout the tree. Porcupines can girdle a
tree and kill it. This, however, opens the forest for introductory species or young climax species
growth. Every member of the forest community has a role to play. The habitat created by a healthy
Ponderosa pine forest maintained by fire is important to ungulates like deer and elk. The open park
like landscape with grassy meadows interspersed creates forage for these animals. During the heat
of summer the grasses below the Ponderosas are still greener and provide food for elk as they make
their altitudinal migration to higher elevations during the hotter weather. During the winter months
white-tailed and mule deer will forage on young seedlings.

A healthy, well-developed forest community will include a mosaic of vegetation types. Aspen, birch,
oak and spruce also grow in the forests of the Black Hills and create different smaller forest
communities in areas. Many of the drainages with perennial streams support the spruce and oak
communities. In Spearfish Canyon, about an hour north of Mount Rushmore, the Black Hills spruce is
the climax tree in the upper part of the canyon. The spruce/oak understory has thick undergrowth of
shrubs. In the low areas wet grass meadows form. Beaver ponds are common as well. The Black
Hills have a very diverse forest community from the open Ponderosa climax forest to the cooler
moister spruce and oak woods of the canyons.

There are many wonders at Mount Rushmore besides the four presidents carved on the mountain.

Flowers found at Mount Rushmore

National Memorial

Blanket Flower (Gaillardia aristata)

Blooms late June – August
Uses: This flower was used by many Native Americans. An adhesive
substance (poultice) was used to treat skin disorders. The plant also was
used to make eyewash, nose drops, foot wash, and the flower heads
were rubbed on rawhide bags for waterproofing.
Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus)
Blooms July – August
Uses: Native American used the leaves to treat rashes under the arm pits.
Leaves were also used to treat swollen glands; the flowers were rubbed
on sores. The smoke produced by burning the plants was used to treat
asthma and bronchitis.
False Dandelion (Agoseris glauca)
Blooms June – August

Uses: This plant produced a sap which the Native Americans used to clean
their teeth.

Smooth Beardtongue (Penstemon glaber)

Blooms Late May – July
Uses: Several tribes took the leaves of this plant and made an adhesive
substance out of them and used it to treat snakebites. A tea was also made
from the leaves to treat cramps.
Wild Blue Flax (Linum lewisii)
Blooms: June – August
Uses: Many Native American tribes used the seeds of this plant to add
flavor to their food. The flower tops were also used to make eyewash.

Purple Prairie Clover (Petalostemum purpureum)

Blooms: June - August
Uses: The Plains tribes chewed the roots of this plant like gum. They also
used the clover to make tea.

Purple Cone Flower (Echinacea angustifolia)

Blooms: June - July
Uses: This plant was a mainstay for Native Americans. It was used for
many things from treating headaches, stomach aches, and sore throats, to
snakebites.

Wild Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa)

Blooms: June - August
Uses: The Native Americans used this plant to make a tea that was used to
treat colds.

Wooly Vervain (Verbena stricta)

Blooms: July - September

Uses: Many Native tribes made a tea out of this plant for enjoyment and
also to treat stomach problems.

Annual Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

Blooms: Late July – September
Uses: The seeds of this plant provided many tribes with a food source.
They could be eaten raw, roasted, or boiled.

Prairie Cone Flower (Rudbeckia columnifera)

Blooms: July – September
Uses: A tea was made from this plant by many Native tribes to treat
headaches. The yellow petals were also used to make a yellow dye.

Western Dock (Rumex occidentalis)

Blooms July – August
Uses: Many Native tribes used the leaves of this plant in a sweat bath to
treat rheumatism. They also took the plant and made an adhesive
substance which could be used to treat cuts and wounds.
(http://www.nps.gov/moru/naturescience/loader.cfm?
csModule=security/getfile&PageID=152151 )

Environmental factors

If you took a long deep breath while visiting Mount Rushmore what would you smell? Nothing? Look at
the picture to the right for a view from Mount Rushmore to the east toward the plains. How far could you
see? 15-20 miles? More? On a clear day at Mount Rushmore you can see over 40 miles out onto the
plains and the air would smell fresh and clean. There are factors though that could change the view in
the future. Natural events like fault movement, fire and rivers can cause change, but outside influences
can have an effect as well. Dust, pollution, light and noise that come to Mount Rushmore from distant
places on the wind or with the weather change the local environment. It is the mission of the National
Park Service to conserve and protect National Park Sites for the enjoyment of present and future
generations. This means the National Park Service has the job of keeping these natural and cultural
wonders in pristine condition, so you can come and enjoy these places again and again.

Geologic Activity

The geologic forces of heat, pressure, deposition, uplift and erosion have combined with millions of
years of time to create the spectacular setting for the carving of Mount Rushmore. The rocks which
form and surround the memorial are part of the “crystalline core” of the Black Hills, the oldest rocks
inSouth Dakota and among the oldest in the western United States.

There are two distinct stories to tell - the origin of the rocks and the creation of the current
topography. The rocks are ancient, the topography is relatively recent.

Origin of the Rocks

There are two main types of rock at Mount Rushmore, very old granite and much older metamorphic
rocks.

Precambrian Sediments
The metamorphic rocks we now see began as sediments at the bottom of a shallow sea during the
Precambrian period - sometime between 1.6 and 2.5 billion years ago. Dates this old are very
difficult to determine precisely, mainly because they pre-date all life on the earth. What is now
western South Dakota was then near the edge of a sea. Because there was no plant life to hold the
forces of erosion in check, erosive forces acted much faster during the Precambrian. Vast quantities
of sand and clay were washed down into the sea.

The pressure of its own weight eventually turned this sand and clay into sandstone and shale.
Eventually these sandstone and shale formations reached a thickness of several miles.

Formation of the Granite

About 1.6 billion years ago a great mass of molten rock began to rise from deep within the earth’s
crust. As this mass cooled (still well underground) it formed the granite which is now the core of
theBlack Hills. The molten rock cooled unevenly, forming both blocks of relatively fine grained rock
(quick cooling) and, more commonly, blocks of coarse grained pegmatite (slow cooling). A large
block of fine grained granite now forms the upper portion of Mount Rushmore, which provided an
excellent carving medium for Gutzon Borglum.

Metamorphism
As this mass of molten rock rose upwards it came in contact with the older sandstone and shale. The
intense heat and pressure melted some of the sedimentary rocks and turned the rest into
metamorphic rock. The sandstone became quartzite, an extremely hard, glassy rock. The more
abundant shale became mica schist. What had once been shale now acquired a property called
schistosity, or the physical ability to break easily into thin slices. The mineral content was also
changed by the pressure as the original quartz and clay were converted into new minerals. The most
common are muscovite and biotite, but others include garnet, sillimanite, staurolite, cordierite and
feldspar. The rocks were also bent and folded. The exact contact points between the granite and the
metamorphic rocks can be seen in many places within the memorial as geologic unconformities.
These granites and metamorphic rocks (mainly mica schists) make up all of the surface rock visible
within the memorial.

Formation of the Topography

Erosion
The geologic history of the region between 1.6 billion and 500 million years ago is unknown. Either
no rocks formed during that time or none have survived. Several miles of rocks must have been
eroded from above the granite during that time, creating marine sediments which have been found
to the east of the region.

Deposition
The flanks of the Black Hills are covered with rocks which formed between 500 and 100 million years
ago. These rocks have been completely eroded away in the area of the memorial but they can be
seen on any of the roads heading away from the central Black Hills. Most of these rocks were
limestone. They were deposited in shallow seas as millions of marine organisms died and fell to the
bottom, were buried and converted to sedimentary rock. These limestone formations include the
rocks of both Wind Cave National Park and Jewel Cave National Monument.

Uplift
About 70 million years ago the area of the Black Hills began to uplift. This uplift
is believed to be related to the general uplift of the central Rocky Mountains. As the Black Hills began
to rise, the sedimentary rocks above the crystalline core began to crack, and then erode away. This
process of erosion is complete in the area of the memorial-only the granites, pegmatites and
metamorphic rocks of the crystalline core are still visible within the boundaries of the memorial.
Much of the material eroded from above the crystalline core was transported up to 150 miles to the
east and forms the rock layers now being eroded again at Badlands National Park.
 Modern Topography
Mount Rushmore is here today because the granite erodes very slowly compared to the surrounding
rocks. In the area of the memorial the hard granite creates mountains or hills and the equally tough
quartzite forms knife ridges. The less resistant mica schist tends to be eroded into canyons and
gullies.

Erosive Forces
The primary erosive forces in action today are wind, rain, snow and frost wedging. The forces of wind
and weather slowly eat away at the rocks of the memorial. However, the granite is extremely
resistant. The rate of erosion on the granite faces has been estimated at only 1/10 inch per one
thousand years.

A more significant erosional force in the Black Hills is frost wedging. Granite has natural cracks in it.
If water gets into the cracks it expands as temperatures dip below freezing - exerting great pressure
on the rock and gradually expanding the cracks. This is prevented by the caulking of cracks on the
memorial with a silicon solution that prevents water from entering the cracks.

What You See Today

The two stories of the rock at Mount Rushmore - the origin of the rock and the creation of the
current topography are as different as the rock types found here at the mountain. The granite is a
very hard rock and the mica schist is much softer. The granite was once molten rock and the mica
schist was formed as a result of the heat and pressure exerted by the molten rock. The granite
erodes very slowly at only one inch every 10,000 years, while the mica schist is eroded relatively
quickly into canyons and gullies. Water is the main erosive force threatening to make any real
change to the mountain. Water freezing over the years can wedge the blocks of rock apart. The
result of all these geologic forces created a place where a colossal carving could stand. The four
granite faces look down upon millions of visitors each year from their lofty heights and will continue
to do so for thousands of years to come.

Soundscape / Noise

Natural Sounds Program: Safeguarding the Sounds of Life

Listening to the National Parks

Elk bugling in the cool autumn air of Rocky Mountain National Park, waterfalls thundering in
Yosemite Valley, muskets firing at Gettysburg, the quiet hush among giant redwoods - these are the
sounds that make visiting our national parks a unique experience.

Natural and cultural sounds reawaken the sense of awe that connects us to the splendor of the
national park experience and have a powerful effect on our emotions, attitudes, and memories. Who
can forget the flash of adrenaline from the sound of looming whitewater or the lightning bolt that
cracked just a little too close.

The National Park Service regards these sounds as acoustical resources that must be protected.
Acoustical resources include sounds such as wildlife, waterfalls, wind, rain, historic and cultural
sounds.

The Importance of Sound

Soundscapes are essential for appreciating and enjoying park features. Our ability to see is a
powerful tool for experiencing our world, but sound adds a dimension that sight alone cannot
provide. In many cases, hearing is the only option for experiencing certain aspects of our
environment. Our ears often provide the best opportunities to find wildlife because animals can often
be heard at much greater distances than they can be seen.

Noise behaves a lot like smog in the air because it obscures sounds and reduces the listening horizon
for visitors and wildlife. Places of deep quiet are most vulnerable to noise. Therefore, wildlife in
remote wilderness areas and park visitors who journey to these quiet places are likely to be
especially sensitive to noise.

Sound and Wildlife

In the wild, the ability to hear is so important for survival that no deaf vertebrate species are known
to exist. In addition to producing sounds for communication, animals continuously detect sounds,
even when they are asleep. Losing the ability to hear those sounds because of inappropriate or
excessive noise can have serious consequences. It may mean missing the footfall of a predator or
failure to adequately compare songs from potential mates. Appropriate soundscapes are important
for animal communication, territory establishment, courtship and mating, nurturing young, and
effective use of habitat. Scientific studies have shown that wildlife can be adversely affected by high
levels of noise. Although the severity of the impacts varies depending on the species being studied
and other conditions, research has found that wildlife can suffer adverse physiological and behavioral
changes from noise and other human disturbances.

For example:

• Noise has been associated with suppression of the immune system and increased levels of
stress-related hormones in animals.
• Studies have also shown that songbirds that live in noisy places have to sing louder than
birds in quieter environments. Birds forced to sing at a higher volume have to expend
increased levels of precious energy to attract a mate or warn of predators.
• Bighorn sheep are less efficient at foraging for food when they are exposed to aircraft noise,
and mountain goats often flee from the sound of helicopters and airplanes.
• Research has demonstrated that noise can adversely affect reproductive success in caribou
and communication in whales.

When these effects are combined with the other sources of stress experienced by wildlife such as
winter weather, disease, insect harassment, and food shortages, noise can have important
implications for the health and vitality of wildlife populations within a park. By protecting the
integrity of park soundscapes, creatures big and small have a better chance of reproduction and
survival in the wild.
 Hearing our Past: Cultural and Historic Sounds

A healthy soundscape is not limited to the sounds of nature. Human sounds also have an appropriate
place in the outdoors. Cultural and historic sounds are important components of many national park
units. The sound of a cannon shot echoing across a Civil War battlefield or the hypnotic drumbeat of
a sacred tribal dance brings the past into the present and elicits a sense of connection to our
ancestors. Cultural and historic sounds provide insight into historic events or an earlier lifestyle,
people, or culture. Cultural and historic soundscapes are treated and managed as a park resource
and an important component of the visitor experience. Managers at cultural and historic parks strive
to preserve an acoustic setting that is consistent with the resources and values being protected.

Did you know that…

• Crickets have hearing organs in their knees.

• The ear never stops working. When we sleep, our ear keeps hearing and our brain filters out
background sounds.
• The three bones in the middle ear are the malleus, incus and stapes (or hammer, anvil and
stirrup). They are the smallest bones in the human body and are full sized when we are
born. All three could fit on a penny.
• We begin to hear in the womb at 18 weeks, while sight is the last sense to develop.

Tune in – Help us safeguard the sounds of life

There is a whole new world of sound waiting to be revealed. Here are some tips to help you become
attentive listeners in national parks.

• Take a moment to close your eyes and listen to the sounds around you. You may be
surprised by what you hear.
• Speak quietly and turn off vehicle engines whenever possible.
• Look for mute options on electronic equipment such as cell phones, watches, or cameras.
• Follow park rules on motorized recreation, and be courteous and respectful on your
motorcycle, boat, personal watercraft, or off road vehicle.
• Turn off car alarms. Disable sound on electronic door locks.
• Use alternative transportation such as shuttles when available.
• Be aware of campground quiet hours.

• Be respectful of others. The sounds you make will affect the experience of other visitors.
Encourage friends and family to do the same.

Ecosystem
Natural features and ecosystems

Cave / Karst Systems

 NPS PHOTO
Boxwork, a calcite formation common in Wind Cave.

Mount Rushmore National Memorial is located in the granite core of the Black Hills. There are no caves within the M
there is a ring of limestone exposed around the edge of the Black Hills that does contain numerous caves. This lime
down at the bottom of a shallow sea that covered the area about 350 million years ago. Two of these caves are Nat
sites, Wind Cave National Park and Jewel Cave National Monument. Check their websites for additional details o
was formed and what their special features are.

NPS PHOTO BY D. LUCHSINGER

Nailhead spar calcite crystals and dripstone formations in Jewel Cave.

Jewel Cave

Forests
A young Ponderosa pine can grow from a crack in a boulder because of its many adaptation for
collecting water.

If you walk through the forest in the cool of a summer evening and smell the air it may smell sweet.
That is the sent of the Ponderosa pine trees. They have a sweet smell like vanilla or butterscotch.
Ponderosa pine is the primary tree in the Black Hills around Mount Rushmore. Ponderosa pine trees
are well adapted to the environment that they grow in. You can find Ponderosas in the Black Hills,
across the Rocky Mountains and westward to California. Ponderosas can tolerate drier conditions. In
the Black Hills Ponderosa pines are found on dry, rocky, slopes, especially south facing slopes. Other
species of pine like the Douglas fir, which is a western forest climax tree, can not tolerate the drier
climate here. The Ponderosa pine forest community has evolved with cycles of drought and fire to
become home to a variety of species.

In the Black Hill a Ponderosa pine forest is the climax forest community. A climax community is the
final stage of biotic succession attainable by a plant community. If there is a disturbance in the
Ponderosa community, forest succession will start again from an earlier stage. A blow down or pine
bark beetle infestation in an area can cause a break in the Ponderosa climax community. In this
newly opened area other species of trees and plants will start to grow. Grasses, shrubs and quaking
aspen are introductory species. They are the first plant species to colonize a disturbed area. The
quaking aspen is a short-lived tree. Individual trees may only live 30 to 50 years before they start to
die. In the Western United States, including the Black Hills, Aspens reproduce with suckers. Suckers
are new trees that grow from the parent rootstock. The parent rootstock produces a genetic twin or
clone. Every tree growing in a stand is likely a clone. Cloning gives aspens a head start over other
tree seedlings that start out with tiny rootlets to provide them with nutrients. The aspens will
continue to clone until the Ponderosas begin to reseed. The aspen seedlings can not tolerate the
shade created by the Ponderosas. Soon the Ponderosas take over the area and a climax forest is
developed again and will maintain until the next major disturbance.

A typical characteristic of a climax Ponderosa pine forest is an open understory. The understory is
kept clean of debris and shade tolerant species by periodic fires. Historically in the Black Hills, fires
occurred in a particular area about every 27 years. This fire record was obtained from tree core
samples. Fire scars found in the growth rings give researchers a timeline to calculate the date of a
fire. These fires were often ground fires that would clean up forest debris and remove shade tolerant
species that might compete with young ponderosas for space and sunlight. Major conflagrations
could occur but were uncommon.

During times of drought, Ponderosas are well adapted to get water and moisture whenever possible.
As with most plants, the roots are the primary tool for getting water. Where the soil is deep enough
the roots may go down 36 feet and spread to a circumference of 100 feet around the tree. The open
space in a Ponderosa forest is important. Each tree needs ample space to collect water. However,
when there is a drought the small amount of precipitation may not be enough. Another way to obtain
moisture must be used. The needles of a ponderosa have a thick skin and breathing pores or
stomata recessed into the skin. The stomata are the openings in the needles through which
transpiration, the exchange of gases, occurs. The Ponderosa's stomata are adapted to conserve and
obtain moisture. The well-protected stomata decrease potential moisture loss from desiccating
winds. The stomata also take in moisture and send it through the tree to the roots. When there is
fog or dew the stomata will open and take in water vapor from the air to water the tree. This allows
the Ponderosa to survive in dry environments and even grow from cracks in boulders.

Ponderosa pines create a forest community like your neighborhood. From under the soil to the crown
of the trees there are organisms living together and depending on each other. The plants and
animals that live in the Ponderosa pine forest have developed unique niches for living in the forest.
Birds are likely the first animals you think of when talking about trees. Small songbirds and members
of the woodpecker family find shelter in the standing dead trees in the Ponderosa forest. Nuthatches,
 northern flickers and hairy woodpeckers will carve out cavities in standing dead trees for nesting
sites. The living trees provide a food source for these species and others. In the tree's layered bark a
plethora of insect life make their homes. The nuthatches, woodpeckers, flickers, brown creepers and
other birds will feed on these insects. The pygmy nuthatch and the brown creeper work the bark in
opposite directions to harvest this abundant food source without competing with each other. As the
brown creeper creeps up the tree searching for insects under the bark, the pygmy nuthatch is
coming down the tree searching the bark from the opposite direction. These insects living in the bark
are also an important food source for birds and small mammals during the winter when other food
sources are scarce.

Red squirrels, mice, wood rats and chipmunks also depend on the trees for food. The seeds in the
cones are a source of protein in the animal's diet. Porcupines mainly subsists on tree cambium, the
sweet layer just under the bark that transports nutrient throughout the tree. Porcupines can girdle a
tree and kill it. This, however, opens the forest for introductory species or young climax species
growth. Every member of the forest community has a role to play. The habitat created by a healthy
Ponderosa pine forest maintained by fire is important to ungulates like deer and elk. The open park
like landscape with grassy meadows interspersed creates forage for these animals. During the heat
of summer the grasses below the Ponderosas are still greener and provide food for elk as they make
their altitudinal migration to higher elevations during the hotter weather. During the winter months
white-tailed and mule deer will forage on young seedlings.

A healthy, well-developed forest community will include a mosaic of vegetation types. Aspen, birch,
oak and spruce also grow in the forests of the Black Hills and create different smaller forest
communities in areas. Many of the drainages with perennial streams support the spruce and oak
communities. In Spearfish Canyon, about an hour north of Mount Rushmore, the Black Hills spruce is
the climax tree in the upper part of the canyon. The spruce/oak understory has thick undergrowth of
shrubs. In the low areas wet grass meadows form. Beaver ponds are common as well. The Black
Hills have a very diverse forest community from the open Ponderosa climax forest to the cooler
moister spruce and oak woods of the canyons.

Groundwater
Melting snow helps replenish the water tables.

In the Black Hills the average annual precipitation is approximately 18 inches. This is more than the
1.92 inches received annually at Death Valley National Park but much less than the 133 inches
received in a year in the Hoh Rainforest of Olympic National Park. Though the amount of rain that
falls here is more than falls in the desert it is not sufficient to "water" the Black Hills. Groundwater is
an important source of water for plants and animals here.

The high elevation of the area around Mount Rushmore means the watertable is charged by
precipitation. The main water carrying rock formation is mica schist. The extensive tree and plant
cover helps to control runoff, this encourages filtration of the water down into the broken and
fractured rock. In spring, when the snow is melting, this ground cover is especially helpful. The
ground cover will help to hold back runoff and offer moderate temperature control. If the snow melts
slowly more of the water will filter into the rock and will not be lost as runoff.

To discover different ways nature helps to control runoff try this experiment at home or school. You
will need two people, one to pour the water and another to run the timer or stop watch. Get a piece
of plywood and cover it with a tarp. Prop the plywood up at a gentle angle and place a pan at the
base of the plywood to catch the water. Using a 1-gallon watering can pour the water over the
surface like rain. Time how long it takes the water to run down the board into the pan. Stop your
timer when the water stops flowing. Now take a few soda cans and attach them to the tarp to
simulate tree trunks and put torn pieces of wax paper on top to represent leaves on the tree. Scatter
dirt, small twigs, leaves and pine needles over the surface of the tarp to represent forest debris.
Again use your 1-gallon watering can to pour water over the surface, remember rain will fall on the
treetops too. Time how long it takes the water to flow down slope. Which landscape did it take longer
for the water to run through down into the pan? Which example would allow more water to soak into
the ground? If you added more trees would that make a difference?

Around Mount Rushmore groundwater is used for drinking water and by the local plant and animal
life. To provide drinking water for the people who live, work and visit the Mount Rushmore a well
pumps water from the ground. The groundwater also comes to the surface on its own. Because of
gravity water will flow downhill on the surface and in the bedrock. The water will continue to flow
until it reaches the lowest point or it runs into something that will not let it pass. If there is a barrier
the water will dam up. The water in the rock around Mount Rushmore flows downthrough the rock
until it runs into granite or pegmatite dikes. The dikes act as dams and the water backs up behind
them. The water can build up until it starts to flow at the surface forming a spring. Seeps and
springs release groundwater unexpectedly from fractures in the rock as well. The seeps and springs
provide water to creeks and small pools that might otherwise dry up. These are important watering
places for the local wildlife population. The groundwater is also a water source for plant life. The
shallow watertable of the area allows plant roots and especially the large taproot of trees to get
water.

Around the Black Hills there is another interesting groundwater feature. Layers of metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks ring the central granitic core of the Black Hills. Rings of sandstone and limestone
in particular, are good rock layers for the formation of aquifers. The Madison or Pahasapa limestone
and sandstones in the upper layer of the Minnelusa formation take in and hold groundwater. These
 rock layers are exposed at elevations higher than most of the state. The rest of the rock formation
dips downslope. The down sloping will cause the water that is taken in to move downhill away from
the intake area. The water level in the aquifer will rise as more water is added. The elevation to
which the water will rise is called the potentiometric surface. This is a gently sloping line that moves
downward and away from the intake area. Where the contour of the land surface goes below this line
an artesian spring or well could form. Artesian springs are fairly common around the periphery of the
Black Hills, especially on the west side in the Red Valley.

However, there are threats to the groundwater. Increased population causes strain as do resource
development and periodic drought. The very thing that made the area popular with early settlers,
mining the areas rich mineral resources, also endangers water quality. As population increases the
need for additional water for drinking, household use, watering lawns, all take water from
groundwater aquifers. Aquifers have a finite amount of water that they receive each year. Using
more water than the aquifer is recharged with each year will cause the aquifer to be drawn down.
Eventually the groundwater could someday be used up. To prevent this from happening there are
things we all can do. Water your lawn in the evening or plant your lawn with native plants that are
beautiful and drought resistant. Turn off the faucet while brushing your teeth, only use the
dishwasher when it is full or stop using it all together. Get involved with your community, set an
example for others to follow. Let your local, state and federal officials know that clean water is
important for your community. Every little bit helps.

Soils

Mount Rushmore is located in the higher elevation of the central Black Hills. This area is where
granite outcroppings form the high peaks of the Black Hills. Below the high granite domes ponderosa
pines dominate the landscape. The appearance of the landscape is influenced by many factors
including the soil. The high elevation areas have little or no soil and therefore have little vegetation.
Where the Ponderosa pines grow, there is moderately deep soil. This is enough for the Ponderosas to
take root and sink in a taproot to obtain moisture when there is little precipitation. Soil influences the
plants that grow in a particular area. However, Ponderosa pines have a great effect on the soil too.

Soils vary based on attributes of the parent material or bedrock, elevation and climate. The parent
material for soils in the central Black Hills is mostly granite or mica schist. The granite is very hard
and slow to break down. The mica schist is a metamorphic rock that breaksdown more readily. The
mica schist develops into a well-drained soil. Except where parent materials are of recent igneous
origin, deep zones of fractured bedrock usually underlie soils. Joints and fissures in this rock admit
and store soil water that has percolated down through, and they are often penetrated deeply by
roots-particularly those of ponderosa pine. A well drained, moderately deep soil is ideal for
Ponderosa seedlings to start. The parent material first influenced the soil condition but climate and
trees also influence the soil. The climate of the Black Hills Ponderosa pine forest is cold and dry. The
cold, dry climate means that dead plant material, or detritus, is slow to break down and return
nutrients to the soil. Pine needles with their thick, waxy coat form a thick mat on the surface of the
soil. When rain and snow melt percolate through this layer of detritus it forms humic acid. Humus
and minerals, particularly aluminum and iron are transported from the top, or A horizon, into the B-
horizon. Humus is the dark colored organic portion of the soil, between the detritus and upper soil
horizon. The results is an acidic, gray colored soil. The acidic soil is inhospitable and unfavorable for
other understory plants to start in. Young Ponderosa seedlings are more tolerate of the soil and able
 to out compete other plant life.

Growing in the acidic soil is a vast fungal network of branching hyphae. Hyphae are hairlike
filaments. The hyphae release enzymes that breakdown detritus and return some nutrients to the
soil. In the dry ponderosa forest soils fungi parasitize the tree roots to increase their nutrient intake.
The trees in return receive additional moisture from the extended "reach" of the fungi's hyphae. This
is a symbiotic relationship where both members of the relationship benefit.

The acidic soils of the Black Hills prove to be an ideal foundation for the plant and animal
communities that live in and above its surface.

Pine Beetle Infestation

Mount Rushmore to Develop Action Plan to Manage Pine Beetle Infestation

(Keystone, SD) The National Park Service has assembled a team of managers and specialists to
develop an action plan for summer 2010, relating to the treatment of the mountain pine
beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae) at Mount Rushmore National Memorial. The team is comprised of
National Park Service employees from Mount Rushmore National Memorial, the Northern Great Plains
Fire Management Program, and the Midwest Regional Office which provides oversight and technical
guidance to the Memorial.

For decades, the Black Hills have been experiencing outbreaks of the mountain pine beetle which
currently are killing large swaths of forests on private and public lands. The National Park Service
has been working with Black Hills partners and developing strategies on how to slow the spread of
the infestation by working with the USDA Forest Service, the South Dakota Department of
Agriculture, and various local government agencies.

The team will convene today at Mount Rushmore to strategize on the development of an action plan.
The plan will most likely include a three prong approach and will focus on prevention, elimination of
existing infestations, and a post-treatment clean-up component.

The Black Hills area has experienced severe drought conditions for several years now, allowing the
mountain pine beetle to proliferate, infecting more and more trees. Mount Rushmore National
Memorial is surrounded by the Black Hills National Forest and abuts the Black Elk Wilderness area.
As of 2009, 100% of the total acreage of the Black Elk Wilderness has been affected by tree mortality
due to bark beetle infestation. The nearby Norbeck Wildlife Preserve

is also adversely impacted, with an anticipated mortality rate of 80% for its mature timber stands.
 Populations of the mountain pine beetle are typically found at an endemic level, killing and
reproducing in stressed or weakened trees. At times, beetle populations increase dramatically. In
the increasing and outbreak stages, any host trees, healthy or stressed, are attacked and killed.

Mountain pine beetle has always been a part of the Black Hills forest ecosystem, with outbreaks
occurring periodically. The first recorded outbreak in the Hills occurred from the late 1890's through
the early 1900's and killed an estimated 1-2 billion board feet of timber. Outbreaks also have
occurred in the 1930's, 1940's, 1960's and 1970's, each lasting 8-13 years with the 1970's outbreak
being larger and causing more mortality than any of the others, except for the turn of the century
outbreak.

The standing dead timber with many trees still retaining their dried out needles, combined with the
drought conditions, significantly increases the potential for a catastrophic wildfire to rapidly spread
throughout the area. Just like the mountain pine beetle, wildfire does not recognize political
boundaries and can affect public and private lands without discrimination.

Mount Rushmore National Memorial has successfully completed several fuel-reduction projects in the
past several years in an attempt to provide a means to stop or slow the growth of any unwanted
wildfire. These projects have included thinning, through prescribed fire or mechanical removal,
overcrowded stands of timber near critical structures and areas within the memorial.

The goal of this planning team is to develop a plan for action to slow the spread of mountain pine
beetle and protect the Mount Rushmore area from large wildfires.

http://www.nps.gov/moru/forteachers/loader.cfm?
csModule=security/getfile&PageID=267043
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January 20, 2010

Action Plan to Manage Pine Beetle
Mount Rushmore to Develop Action Plan to Manage Pine Beetle Infestation.

September 29, 2007

Fall Hours
Fall Hours for Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Starting October 1, 2007

September 01, 2007

Fall Hours at Mount Rushmore
Fall Hours at Mount Rushmore

August 19, 2007

Naturalization Ceremony
Naturalization Ceremony to be at Mount Rushmore National Memorial.

July 04, 2007

Entertainment and Fireworks Celebrate Independence Day at Mount Rushmore
The annual fireworks at Mount Rushmore National Memorial ended a day full of patriotic entertainment
and celebrations.
July 02, 2007
Status of Fireworks Program still Uncertain
Forecasted hot temperatures and dry conditions have officials at Mount Rushmore National Memorial
concerned about the status of the planned July 3rd fireworks show.

June 30, 2007

Be Prepared and Arrive Early for Mount Rushmore Independence Day Celebration
Over twenty thousand visitors are expected to visit Mount Rushmore National Memorial on Tuesday, July
3, as part of the annual Independence Day Celebration.

June 28, 2007

Rising Temperatures and Dry Conditions Threaten Mount Rushmore Fireworks
Forecasted hot temperatures and dry conditions have officials at Mount Rushmore concerned about the
status of the planned July 3rd fireworks show.

June 21, 2007

Fireworks, Music, and Dance Mark Mount Rushmore Independence Day Celebration
One of the nation’s top rated fireworks displays will cap a full day of events on Tuesday, July 3rd, at
Mount Rushmore National Memorial.

2008 Press Releases

December
12/03 Public Scoping Meetings Announced

October
10/01 Fall Hours Announced
10/08 Julie Gregg Joins Mount Rushmore Team

September
09/11 Preservation Team Gets up Close with Sculpture

August
08/11 Mount Rushmore to host Naturalization Ceremony

July
07/14 Memorial Unveils new D.A.R.E. Vehicle
07/03 Independence Day Celebration a Success
07/02 Author Catherine Stier to Sign Books on July 3

June
06/30 Plan Ahead to Attend Independence Day Celebration
06/25 Full Program Planned for Independence Day Celebration
06/24 Tramway Installed on Mountain for Fireworks
06/23 Mount Rushmore Honors WWI Veteran Frank Buckles
06/16 Author Jim Burnett to Sign Hey Ranger! at the Memorial

May
 05/28 Free Sculpture Workshops Offered at Mount Rushmore
05/22 Author Bruce Raisch to Sign Books

April
04/17 Memorial Seeks Comments on Backcountry Trail Proposal
04/01 Memorial announces Summer Hours

Statistics

Park Statistics

Acerage
Gross Area Acres 1,278.45

Visitation:

Mount Rushmore NMEM

Year Recreational Visitors
1941 393,000
1942 139,694
1943 31,412
1944 29,575
1945 84,712
1946 324,596
1947 427,022
1948 570,663
1949 656,717
1950 740,499
1951 740,634
1952 835,101
1953 913,808
1954 910,100
1955 894,600
1956 829,800
1957 866,700
1958 961,400
1959 1,045,700
1960 1,067,000
1961 1,030,400
1962 1,209,400
1963 1,272,800
1964 1,343,300
1965 1,507,400
1966 1,585,200
1967 1,632,500
1968 1,728,500
1969 1,763,900
1970 1,965,700
1971 2,281,200
1972 1,880,903
1973 1,949,300
1974 1,592,500
1975 1,533,500
1976 1,733,500
1977 1,733,100
1978 1,750,127
1979 1,245,425
1980 1,284,888
1981 1,604,991
1982 1,484,300
1983 1,562,559
1984 1,558,872
1985 1,740,793
1986 1,648,737
1987 1,530,714
1988 1,570,137
1989 1,639,986
1990 1,671,673
1991 2,044,522
 1992 1,917,134
1993 1,930,053
1994 2,043,988
1995 1,687,529
1996 1,904,991
1997 1,752,014
1998 2,014,485
1999 1,972,289
2000 1,868,876
2001 1,904,119
2002 2,162,570
2003 2,217,894
2004 2,037,820
2005 2,037,861
2006 1,989,771
2007 1,856,118
2008 1,789,328
2009 2,260,192
2010 2,331,237

Park
Planning
park planning includes:
General Management Plan
 Park planning is an integral element in the preservation and enjoyment of national parks across the
country. The Mount Rushmore National Memorial management team looks forward to hearing from
the public concerning any planning projects happening at the park.

Please check the National Park Service's Park Planning website for more information about
planning projects.

COMPLETED PLANNING DOCUMENTS

2010 Mountain Pine Beetle Action Plan

A National Park Service Rapid Resource Assessment Team (RRAT) created an action plan to address
the Mountain Pine Beetle (MPB) epidemic that is causing ponderosa pine mortality throughout the
Black Hills. Working with area agencies, the memorial developed this plan to slow and hopefully
mitigate the movement of the pine beetle into the memorial.
Press Release (.pdf)
Mountain Pine Beetle Plan (7.58mb .pdf)

Backcountry Trail Environmental Assessment

Mount Rushmore National Memorial completed an Environmental Assessment in 2009 on a proposed
backcountry trail for the park. The approximately 9.8 miles of trail in the proposed system would be
constructed in phases along with accompanying visitor comfort stations, information kiosks, and
trailheads. The multi-loop trail will encompass the memorial and will provide several shorter sub-
loops to allow shorter hikes on the trail and hikes of varying length and difficulty.
Yellow Wolf Trail Environmental Assessment (13.3mb .pdf)
Environmental Assessment Appendix Documents (8.42mb .pdf)
Finding of No Significant Impact (643kb .pdf)

General management plan

NPS PHOTO
Visitors at Mount Rushmore National Memorial

Mount Rushmore National Memorial is beginning the planning process of a new General Management
Plan. The plan identifies the overall direction for the future management of the memorial. This
includes answering the question "what kind of place do we want this area to be?"

Mount Rushmore is looking for your help in answering this question. You are invited to participate in
the planning and preservation of the memorial through the submission of comments and attendance
at upcoming public meetings.

An Invitation to Participate
Planning, Environment and Public Comment website
We welcome your comments and ideas throughout the planning process. The comment website is
available for you to post comments concerning your thoughts about the future planning of Mount
Rushmore.

Scoping Newsletter
Mount Rushmore GMP Scoping Newsletter(1.06 mb, pdf)
This introductory newsletter provides background information on the General Management Plan
process.

Public Scoping Presentation

Mount Rushmore Public Scoping Presentation
For those unable to attend the December public scoping meetings, please review this presentation for
information concerning the GMP process.

Planning Today for Tomorrow's Parks

Planning Today for Tomorrow's Parks
video opens and plays in Windows Movie Player
This introductory video explores the planning process that helps address the multitude of challenges
facing parks today. In this overview, key stakeholders and park staff from around the country
highlight some of the results of recent general management planning.