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PSYCH 101: Reminders!

(1) If you do not attend your assigned recitation


section, your course grade will drop by a full
letter grade.!
(2) Exam 1 is on Tues, Sept 28th (Modules 1-6). !
(3) There are NO make up exams in this course.!
(4) Practice exams are given in your recitation
sections next week.!
(5) If you do not receive a sufficient grade on Exam
1, then you must take Exam 4 on Dec 21st.!
Outline: Neural &Hormonal Systems!
Neural Communication!
!" Neurons!
!" How Neurons Communicate!
!" How Neurotransmitters Influence Us!

The Nervous System!


!" The Peripheral Nervous System!
!" The Central Nervous System!
The Endocrine System!
Phrenology: An old approach to
studying brain structure!
In 1800, Franz Gall
suggested, that bumps of
the skull represented
mental abilities. His theory
though incorrect,
nevertheless proposed that
different mental abilities
were modular.!
Neural Communication!
One of the body#s information systems is built from
billions of interconnected cells called neurons.!

Neurons are studied in many different brains they


operate in the same way in all of these brains. !
Parts of a Neuron !
Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron. !
!Information is computed here.!
Dendrites: Send input to the cell body. !
!They receive information from other neurons.!
Axon: Long fiber that passes information!
! from the cell to the terminal branches.!
Parts of a Neuron Continued !
Myelin sheath insulates axons and speeds information
transmission down axon. !
Terminal Branches of axon: Branched ending of axons.
Sends messages to other neurons.!
Multiple Sclerosis!
An autoimmune
disease in which the
body#s own immune
cells attack, and
cause the
degeneration of, the
myelin sheath. !

Myelin is the protective coating that surrounds axons.


When this covering is damaged, signal transmission
down axons is slowed down or stopped. MS most
commonly begins in people aged 20-40, but can start
at any age. There is no known cure.!
Action Potential!
A neural impulse. A brief
electrical charge that travels
down an axon generated by
the movement of positively
charged atoms in and out of
channels in the axon#s
membrane. !

See Animation at: ! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCasruJT-DU


Depolarization & Hyperpolarization !
Depolarization: Depolarization occurs when
positive ions enter the neuron, making it more
susceptible to fire an action potential. !

Hyperpolarization: When negative ions enter


the neuron making it less susceptible to fire.!
An Action Potential Takes Time
Hyperpolarizing or!

Refractory Period
If enough electrical impulses come from other
neurons, the sum of the depolarizing current
(positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current
(negative ions) crosses some threshold (usually
~ -40mV). Then sodium (Na+) channels open,
the membrane because more depolarized.
Eventually, opens potassium channels and that
repolarizes the membrane.!

K!
Na!
Action Potential Properties!
Refractory Period: After a neuron has fired an
action potential it pauses to recharge itself to fire
again.!

All-or-None Response: When the depolarizing


current exceeds the threshold, a neuron will fire.
Below the threshold, it will not fire.!

Intensity of an action potential remains the same,


throughout the length of the axon.!
See Animation at: !
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YP_P6bYvEjE !
Synapse [SIN-aps] !
A junction between the axon tip of the sending
neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or
cleft.!
Neurotransmitters!
Neurotransmitters are
chemicals released from
the sending neuron. !
They travel across the
synapse and bind to
receptor sites on the
receiving neuron#s
dendrites, thereby pushing
it towards generating an
action potential. !
Synaptic Transmission!

Synaptic
Gap
Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the
receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.!
Reuptake!

Neurotransmitters in
the synapse are
reabsorbed into the
sending neurons
through the process of
reuptake. This process
applies brakes on
neurotransmitter
action.!
Lots of Different Neurotransmitters!
Endorphins!

Nature#s pleasure/pain killer “drug.”!


A class of neurotransmitters!
Naturally occurring opiates released during
extreme pain, exercise (runner#s high),
acupuncture, laughter, and orgasm. !
Elevates mood and eases pain.!
Morphine works on these opiate receptors.!
Agonists!
Antagonists!

Curare!
BOTOX!

An example of an!
Antagonist.!

It causes paralysis!
by blocking the neurotransmitter Ach
(acetylcholine) from release from the
sending neuron.!
It is a poison just like Curare.!
Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. !
It is the body#s fast, electrochemical
communication system and has 2 parts!

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System (PNS): !
(CNS): ! The sensory and
The brain & motor neurons
spinal cord! that connect the
CNS to the rest
of the body.!
Kinds of Neurons!

Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the


sense receptors to the CNS. !

Sensory Neuron
(Bipolar)
Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the
CNS to muscles and glands. !

Interneurons connect the two neurons.!

Motor Neuron
(Multipolar)
Interneuron Neuron
(Unipolar)
Central Nervous System:$
Spinal Cord and Reflexes!

Simple Reflex
Peripheral Nervous System!
Somatic Nervous System: The division of the
peripheral nervous system that controls the body#s
skeletal muscles.!

Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the peripheral


nervous system that controls the glands and other
muscles.!
The Nerves!
Nerves consist of neural “cables” containing many
axons. They are part of the peripheral nervous
system, and connect muscles, glands, and sense
organs to the central nervous system.!
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)!

Sympathetic Nervous System:


division of the ANS that arouses
the body, mobilizing its energy
in stressful situations.!

Parasympathetic Nervous
System: division of the ANS that
calms the body, conserving its
energy.!
The Endocrine System!
The body#s “slow”
chemical
communication
system.
Communication is
carried out by
hormones
synthesized by
glands and
transported via the
blood.!
Hormones!
Chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands
and secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones, a
general term, affect the brain and many other
tissues of the body. They are a way for one part of
the body to %talk# to another part.!
There are many different kinds of hormones:
stimulate/inhibit growth, mood swings, activate/
inhibit the immune system, regulate metabolism,
hunger, fight or flight response, etc.!
For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases
heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar and
feelings of excitement during emergency
situations.!
What do these people have in common?!
They were accused of taking performance boosting
hormones, like testosterone and human growth
hormone.!
Testosterone is a sex hormone, aka a sex steroid.!
Not all hormones are steroids and not all steroids are
sex hormones. Cortisol, for example, is a steroid
(fight or flight response), but not a sex related one. !
Hormone Replacement Therapy!
•" “She#s just hormonal.” Wrong.!
•" Everybody is hormonal. Every body runs on
hormones all the time. Without hormones
%talking,# the body isn#t running — whether a man
or a woman, just dead.!
•" Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) –
estrogen/progesterone (female sex hormones)
are given to increase the amounts of these
hormones in women whose levels have dropped
due to age or surgery. Affect many systems,
including PMS symptoms and calcium in bones.!
Non-sex related hormones!
•" Thyroid gland – in throat, makes hormones
change your ability to handle hot and cold, level
of energy, body weight and calcium levels.!
•" Vitamin D is also a hormone that affects calcium.
It works on the liver, the parathyroid gland and
the gut to increase the movement of calcium into
the body.!
•" Pituitary gland – base of brain, makes growth
hormone, endorphin and thyroid stimulating
hormone.!
Stress Hormones $
(e.g., cortisol, norepinephrine)!
•" Critical for the fight or flight response.!
•" But, long term activation of stress hormones increases your
risk for significant health problems including heart disease,
depression, inability to sleep, digestive problems, obesity,
memory loss, skin conditions. !

•" Caregiving: a long term stressor. 63% mortality increase in


spouses caring for their partners for ~ 5 years.!
2007!
Muhammad Ali! Parkinson"s Disease!
Gradual cell death in substantia Yesterday in Plainfield!
nigra decreases dopamine
production!
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300+ Score: Significant risk of illness; Score of 150-299: Moderate risk of illness
Identifying and Managing Chronic Stress!
Effects of stress on Effects of stress on Effects of stress on
your body your thoughts/ your behavior
feelings
Headache Anxiety Overeating
Back Pain Restlessness Undereating
Chest Pain Worrying Angry outbursts
Heart Disease Irritability Drug or alcohol abuse
Heart Palpitations Depression Increased smoking
High blood pressure Sadness Social withdrawal
Decreased immunity Anger Crying Spells
Upset Stomach Forgetfulness Relationship Conflicts
Sleep Problems Lack of Focus
Stress Management Strategies
Eating a healthy diet and getting regular exercise and plenty of sleep
Practicing relaxation techniques (e.g., Meditation, Yoga, Tai Chi) From the
Fostering healthy friendships Mayo Clinic
Having a sense of humor
Seeking professional counseling when needed
Pituitary Gland!
The size of a pea, but
called the “master gland”
because it regulates
activity in all other glands.
It secrets hormones
needed for growth &
reproduction (e.g., human
growth hormone). !
Over secretion of human growth hormone in
children can cause gigantism.!
Under secretion during childhood -> dwarfism.!
Under secretion in adults can cause lethargy & loss
of sexual ability.!
Adrenal Glands!
Adrenal glands consist of adrenal medulla and
adrenal cortex. Medulla secretes hormones
(epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol) during
stress, and adrenal cortex regulates salt and
carbohydrate metabolism to give you fuel to respond
to the stress.!

Insulin: a hormone
produced in the
pancreas.
Not enough insulin
leads to diabetes
PSYCH 101: Reminders!
Exam 1 is on Tues, Sept 28th (Modules 1-6). This is
one week from Tuesday.!

Practice exams will be given in your recitation


section next week. Some of the questions from
the practice exam will appear on the real exam
on Sept 28th.!
There are NO make up exams in this course.!
If you do not get a satisfactory grade on Exam 1,
then you must take Exam 4 on Dec 21st.!

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