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Abstract
This paper demonstrates the use of fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors for the measurement of residual strain development during the
consolidation of a thermoplastic composite. During the processing of the carbon fibre-reinforced polyphenylene sulphide (AS4/PPS)
laminate, FBG sensors respond to changes in material state, for example the glass-rubber transition and solid–liquid transition. The sensors
also permit the observation of wavelength shifts and spectral form changes induced by the contraction of the composite during cooling. The
experimental data are compared to a generalized plane strain, thermoelastic numerical model with temperature dependent matrix dominated
properties. The model provides solutions for two limiting cases: one where the specimen contracts freely, and one where the specimen is
restricted by perfect contact with the mould. Strain values calculated in each case are inserted into optomechanical equations, which convert
the strain state in the FBG to a corresponding change in wavelength. In this way, the modelled cases are compared to FBG wavelength shifts
during consolidation.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
peaks are caused by a non-homogeneous strain field in their with constant periods and index modulations will reflect
cross-ply thermoplastic-aluminium laminates [8]. In con- light at a single Bragg wavelength. Changes in the index of
trast, Guemes and Menendez attribute their FBG response to refraction and the period of the grating due to strains and
unequal transverse strains that cause birefringence in the temperature variations will perturb the Bragg wavelength of
optical fibre core. They interpret their spectral splits using a an FBG. For strain and temperature fields that are uniform
plane stress model of the optical fibre, thereby neglecting along the length of the sensor, the relative shift in Bragg
the contribution of a three-dimensional stress field [4,6]. wavelength is described by Sirkis [9] using the following
Okabe et al. provide a generalized plane-strain, thermo- equations:
elastic model with constant material properties to show how
Dlbx n2
the strains in a cross-ply laminate after curing can create Z 3z K 0 ½p11 3x C p12 ð3z C 3y Þ C xDT (2a)
unequal transverse strains in the fibre optic sensor, thus lB 2
causing birefringence [5]. This solution assumes that all
residual strains are solely the result of free thermal Dlby n2
Z 3z K 0 ½p11 3y C p12 ð3x C 3y Þ C xDT (2b)
contraction with constant material properties. lB 2
Additional progress must be made to understand three-
where Dlbx,y are the shifts in Bragg wavelength for both of
dimensional residual strain development and the resulting
the major polarization axes in the fibre, 3x,y,z are the total
spectral responses of embedded optical fibres, particularly
principal strain components in the fibre core (3mechanicalC
those embedded in thermoplastic composites. Conse-
aDT), p11 and p12 are the strain-optic Pockel’s constants, x is
quently, the first goal of this paper is to highlight the
the thermo-optic constant and DT is the change in
capacities of FBG sensors for process monitoring and
temperature.
measuring residual strain development in a thermoplastic
When the transverse strains are equal in low-birefringent
composite. By following the FBG spectral response during
fibres (3xZ3y) the equations (2a) and (2b) become
the consolidation and demoulding of a composite, insight
equivalent, thus representing a single Bragg wavelength
can be gained into the ability of an FBG to follow
shift. This corresponds to the case most often considered in
material and process changes. The sensor will also react
sensor applications and is shown in Fig. 1. The single
to the development of residual strains on a macroscopic
equation can be further reduced by assuming that the
level.
transverse strains are related to the longitudinal strains by
Secondly, this paper attempts to better interpret the FBG
the Poisson’s ratio of the glass fibre (3xZ3yZKn3z) and that
sensor output and its relationship to the far-field composite
there is no temperature change:
strains by modelling the consolidation process. A numeri-
cal, thermoelastic model with temperature dependent matrix Dlb
properties investigates two limiting cases for the process: a Z ð1 K pe Þ3z (3)
lB
freely contracting composite, and a composite constrained
by perfect contact with the mould lid. These two cases are where pe is the effective photoelastic constant that
considered due to current difficulties in precisely knowing incorporates the photoelastic constants pij and effective
the mould–specimen contact behaviour. The cases refractive index n0. Using this equation, it is possible to
described in this work provide solutions of the strains in relate the measured wavelength shift to longitudinal strains
the fibre sensor, which can be converted into equivalent in the sensor. Although this approximation works well
spectral changes and compared to experimental findings. in situations where uniaxial strains dominate, there are cases
The model also calculates the residual stress and strain fields when Eq. (3) is not realistic [10]. This is the case when the
throughout the composite. Finally, results from the transverse strains in the fibre core are not related to the
modelled cases are used to highlight the potential errors longitudinal strain by Poisson’s ratio. If a sensor is
that can be made when interpreting FBG spectral responses. embedded in a material that undergoes thermal contraction
Table 1
Properties for the optical fibre and FBG
Fig. 3. (a) Composite laminate schematic, showing position of FBG sensor and thermocouple. (b) Micrograph showing the distribution of consolidated
composite around the embedded 125 mm diameter FBG sensor.
The strips were cleaned with a damp alcohol rag, air dried These transverse moduli were then multiplied by a factor of
and stacked into a matched-metal mould in a unidirectional 1.18 to bring the room temperature modulus in line with
configuration [0]28. Each specimen included an FBG sensor accepted values since the DMTA can provide accurate
that was centrally located either between the middle plies, or trends but not necessarily accurate absolute values [2].
between the 3rd and 4th outer plies. Each sensor was Where required, shear moduli were assumed to follow the
correctly positioned in the x-direction by passing it through same temperature trend as the transverse modulus.
slits centred in either end of the mould and the exiting Coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) in the
portions of the fibre were protected by PTFE tubing to transverse direction were measured up to 270 8C using a
prevent fracture. Long gauge length FBG specimens also Perkin Elmer thermomechanical analyser (TMA7). This
included thermocouples that were embedded in an adjacent technique was not sensitive enough to measure the
ply to provide a means for temperature compensation. A extremely small CTE in the fibre direction, therefore, the
schematic of the specimen configuration and a micrograph embedded FBG’s were used to provide this information.
of an embedded FBG are shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b) and a Specimens were placed in a freezer and the temperature
list of the four specimen configurations is provided in drops read by the embedded thermocouples were compared
Table 2. to the wavelength shifts. Wavelengths were then related to
the strain state using Eqs. (2a) and (2b). The thermally
3.3. Composite mechanical properties induced strains in the fibre were also calculated analytically
by assuming the generalized plane strain case of a
Mechanical properties of the AS4/PPS composite were
cylindrical inclusion in an infinite host used by Sirkis
obtained using a mixed numerical–experimental identifi-
[10]. By combining this solution with Eqs. (2a) and (2b) and
cation method based on modal analysis [15] and key values
assuming room temperature material properties and the
were confirmed with both manufacturers data [16] and
previously measured transverse CTE, it was possible to
independent tensile tests. Temperature dependent transverse
extract the value of the longitudinal CTE. This value was
moduli trends were measured using a Rheometrics Solids
Analyzer (RSAII) which performed dynamic mechanical assumed to remain constant for all temperatures due to the
thermal analysis (DMTA) in three point bending at 1 Hz. domination of the carbon fibres. Room temperature values
of all material parameters are provided in Table 3, given a
Table 2 fibre volume fraction of 60%.
List of specimen characteristics
Fig. 5. Processing cycle parameters, including the mould temperature and the platen pressure applied on the mould.
allowed the thermoplastic to completely melt and then the mould, the measured spectra transformed from a single
solidify into the mould form upon cooling. peak into multiple peaks due to the non-uniform contact
Each FBG sensor was characterized before and after stress between the rigid, curved prepreg plies and the optical
consolidation with a tunable laser-based system capable of fibre [18]. Later in the process, around the glass-transition
polarization control. Additionally, specimens with 22 mm temperature (Tg) of 90 8C, the polymer matrix softened
long gauge lengths were monitored throughout the allowing for better contact with the FBG. As a result, the
consolidation process. During processing, a tunable laser spectra presented a double peak after this transition. They
and photodetector were coupled to the FBG sensor fibre to did not return to a single peak form because of the mould
provide continuous measurements of the reflected spectra. pressure which was pressing the fibre into an elliptic shape
The temperatures of the embedded thermocouple and of a causing birefringence as described by Eqs. (2a) and (2b)
thermocouple inserted into the mould (Fig. 3) were when 3xs3y. The deformed shape can be assumed due to
measured concurrently via a temperature data acquisition geometric and loading symmetry.
system. Another indication of the passage through Tg was
The available optical monitoring system used during given by the magnitude of the Bragg wavelength. In
fabrication did not posses sufficiently fast polarization Fig. 6, the temperature corrected wavelength shifts showed
control, thus spectral measurements were taken with a sharp jump around Tg. A similarly marked step in Bragg
arbitrary and possibly changing polarization states. The wavelength was observed at the melting temperature (Tm),
monitored Bragg wavelength was consequently defined by
of 280 8C. This jump was also followed by a change in
either the maximum of a single or multiple-peak spectrum,
the spectral forms, from double peaks to single peaks.
or by the maximum of the rightmost peak in a double-peak
This transformation was explained by the liquid state of the
spectrum. The requirement for this arbitrary standardization
polymer matrix that permitted viscous flow of the composite
stemmed from the tendency of the spectra to change form
around the fibre optic sensor creating equal transverse
and centre of gravity due to load-induced birefringence.
strains.
When possible, peak separation due to birefringence was
Later in the melt state of the process, two step pressure
measured during processing in order to complete the
spectral data from these tests. increases were applied. During each of these pressure steps,
there were corresponding increases in Bragg wavelength
due to the increased pressure in the mould. If one considered
that the FBG and polymer were now in perfect contact, then
4. Experimental results it would be possible to model these instantaneous
wavelength shifts using a low transverse modulus for the
During the heating portion of the consolidation process, composite as described later in this paper.
Bragg wavelength shifts and spectral forms provided After solidification, the FBG sensor was considered to have
qualitative indications of changes in the surrounding perfect adhesion with the matrix, and consequently wave-
composite prepreg. The magnitude of spectral shifts and length shifts and spectral forms then represented strains
their forms depended on the contact between the optical transferred from the surrounding composite specimen into the
fibre and the composite. For example, when the sensor was core of the optical fibre. During cooling, the Bragg wavelength
placed between the prepreg sheets and pressure applied on followed the contraction of the composite plate (Fig. 6).
L. Sorensen et al. / Composites: Part A 37 (2006) 270–281 275
Fig. 6. Typical changes in the wavelength peak (right peak if split) during processing.
Some fluctuations were observed in the wavelength measure- change, the ratio of transverse strains was considered
ments corresponding to the on/off water cooling process. After constant.
viewing video recordings of the specimen and mould during After demoulding, it was possible to measure the complete
processing, it was evident that this on/off sequence caused spectral response of the embedded FBG sensors with a
significant movement and pressure changes that would explain polarization controlled laser using 1 pm scan steps. Fig. 7
the periodic wavelength fluctuations. The video recording also shows a typical wavelength response before embedding (left)
indicated that the matrix retained the capacity for viscous flow compared to the spectra obtained after consolidation (right).
until temperatures around the recrystallization temperature All spectra exhibited uniform single-peak forms, indicating
(TcZ235 8C) published for PPS [19]. uniform longitudinal strain fields. However, since the two
It was also noticed that the spectral peak split returned in the right-hand spectra were obtained from the same specimen
vicinity of this Tc; however, it was difficult to pinpoint the simply by adjusting the polarization angle of the light by 908,
exact temperature where this occurred due to the lack of this indicated that the dual peaks were caused by strain-
polarization control during processing. It is likely that the induced birefringence in the embedded fibre. By combining
mould–composite interaction during thermal contraction Eqs. (2a) and (2b), transverse strain differences in the core of
caused the birefringence leading to a peak split. At the end the optical fibre were calculated using the wavelength
of cooling, the mould was released from the press, resulting in separation between the two peaks:
a wavelength step increase but no peak split change. The same
2 lbx K lby
type of wavelength jump was again observed when the 3x K 3y Z 2 (4)
n0 ðp12 K p11 Þ lB
specimen was removed from the mould. These step increases
in wavelength were related to the release of constraints caused The separations between lbx and lby were measured with
by mould contact; however, since the peak split did not the polarization controlled system, and then inserted into
Eq. (4) to obtain corresponding transverse strain differences as
listed in Table 4. Measurements taken during processing are
provided later in the paper; however, it is interesting to note
that the removal of the composite specimen from the mould
and from the press caused no change in the transverse strain
difference (peak split), even though significant jumps were
observed in the overall wavelength. This led to the conclusion
Table 4
Differences between the wavelengths of the two major polarization axes
caused by transverse strain differences
that the forms of strain distributions were ‘frozen’ into place with quadratic, generalized plane strain elements
during processing, and then proportionally released upon (CPEG8R). The radius of the optical fibre is 0.065 mm
removal from the mould. For measurements taken during compared to the specimen half thickness of 1.82 mm and in
processing, the lack of polarization control would not permit the constrained case, the mould lid thickness of 15 mm.
the visualization of peak splits less than approximately 30 pm Since the fibre optic region is the area of interest, the mesh is
due to the bandwidth of the original spectra. The resolution refined to provide appropriately small elements around the
was also limited to G5 pm due to the laser step spacing. FBG sensor. For the unconstrained model this includes 14,
Although the experimental configuration gave overall 599 elements and 44,439 nodes. The constrained model uses
wavelength shift and peak split data, they were insufficient 14,974 elements and 45,646 nodes.
to completely describe the three dimensional strain state if In developing these numerical models various factors
longitudinal strains are small compared to transverse strains. should be considered. For the AS4/PPS composite system,
For this reason, a model of the consolidation process must with a high melting point of 280 8C, the laminate thermal
be used to solve for the strain field in the FBG. contraction is considered to have the most influence on
residual strain development. Mould contact and pressure are
also considered significant due to the development of
5. Numerical modelling birefringence in the experimental results, which implies
unequal transverse strains. Global strains caused by thermal
gradients are neglected due to the small temperature
5.1. Description of the numerical modelling
differences recorded between the inner, outer and mould
A generalized plane strain thermoelastic model is used to thermocouples during cooling. Crystallization development
calculate the strain field both in the centre of the optical fibre is also omitted from the model due to the difficulty of
and in the surrounding composite. This incremental model performing tests to accurately quantify its evolution and due
follows the cooling portion of the consolidation cycle so that to an uncertainty in its importance as discussed by Sonmez
residual strain development can be calculated starting from and Eyol [20]. The recrystallization temperature, is
the solidification of the composite laminate. The strain data however, considered an important reference point, since
are then inserted into Eqs. (2a) and (2b) and the resulting above Tc the matrix is so soft that no significant residual
wavelength shifts compared to experimental data. strains are expected to accumulate.
Considering the symmetry of the specimen geometry and The simulations of this consolidation process use
the applied loads, only one quarter of the specimen is constant elastic, isotropic material properties in the fibre
analyzed. The specimen is subjected to two sets of boundary optic (Table 1) and in the steel mould. The modulus of steel
conditions in order to show the effect of the loading pressure is 200 GPa, its Poisson’s ratio 0.3 and its coefficient of
and mould–specimen contact. In the first case, the model is thermal expansion 12 mm/8C. In the composite region the
described as ‘unconstrained’ since it represents a freely material is elastic, transversely isotropic, and the fibre
contracting specimen without mould contact. Although, this dominated properties (E11, a11) and Poisson’s ratios are
situation does not match reality, it is chosen as a reference considered constant with temperature (Table 3). In order to
state. A second ‘constrained’ boundary condition set is better model the stress and strain development due to
chosen to provide the limiting solution where the contact consolidation, the temperature dependence of the matrix
between the specimen and the mould lid is assumed perfect. dominated composite properties (E22, G12, a22) is taken into
These two sets of boundary conditions, subsequently account as shown in Fig. 9. By applying temperature
referred to as the ‘unconstrained’ model and the ‘con- dependence, it is assumed that such an incremental elastic
strained’ model, are shown in Fig. 8. model sufficiently describes the process without the need for
The numerical analysis of these two cases is performed in an experimentally and numerically expensive viscoelastic
ABAQUS 6.4 using an incremental thermoelastic model model [1,2,21]. The use of temperature dependent moduli
Fig. 8. (a) Unconstrained model boundary conditions, (b) constrained model boundary conditions where the mould is perfectly attached to the composite (not to
scale).
L. Sorensen et al. / Composites: Part A 37 (2006) 270–281 277
Fig. 9. Temperature dependent transverse modulus E22 and CTE a22, with piecewise constant steps shown only on the modulus curve. (G12 follows the same
trend as E22.)
that are very low, close to Tm, also means that no significant cooling portion of the consolidation process. This graph
residual stresses will accumulate before Tc. shows the experimental evolutions of the rightmost peak
In the numerical model, transverse modulus, shear shift compared to the modelled Bragg wavelengths for the x-
modulus and transverse CTE are considered piecewise axis of polarization. The experimental results are set to a
constant by step, corresponding to thirteen temperature reference point corresponding to zero strain at 235 8C
increments calculated in both models. As shown in Fig. 9, following video observations of matrix behaviour (Section
temperature increments have different magnitudes depend- 4). It is assumed that the viscous composite will not retain
ing on the rate of change of the transverse modulus in a any significant residual strain above Tc. At solidification,
given temperature range. In temperature ranges where the (TmZ280 8C) the results from the constrained and uncon-
modulus varies quickly, the steps are smaller, whereas, the strained models differ due to the addition of the moulding
entire process below Tg is considered in one step. pressure as a boundary condition in the constrained model.
Calculations are performed at each temperature incre- While the specimens cool in the mould, the peak shifts
ment using the corresponding material properties to solve closely follow the constrained model results. When they are
for the incremental stress–strain state in the specimen. At released from the mould, the experimental wavelengths
any point in the cooling process, the total stresses and strains jump towards the results predicted by the unconstrained
are the sums of the temperature-induced stresses and strains. model. This implies that the specimen–tool interaction
In the constrained case, the moulding pressure is also contributes significantly to strain development during
applied at each temperature step; thus the total accumulated cooling.
strains include the current pressure-induced strains in This specimen–tool interaction can be further investi-
addition to the sum of the temperature-induced strains. gated by looking at the birefringence induced in the
The strains calculated at each increment of the experiments compared to that predicted by the models. In
unconstrained model are verified using an analytical the fibre core, transverse strains in the unconstrained model
generalized plane strain model for a fibre in an infinite develop to be equally compressive, thus this model does not
orthotropic matrix subjected to thermal contraction [9]. explain the peak splits observed during and after consolida-
Both the numerical and analytical calculations provide tion (Fig. 11). In contrast, due to tool–part contact in the
identical results for strains at the fibre core. constrained model, the transverse strains diverge signifi-
cantly during cooling. The small difference in strains upon
application of moulding pressure does not cause any
6. Results of numerical analysis measurable peak split, supporting the single peak observed
in FBG measurements.
6.1. Optical fibre core In Fig. 12, the separations of the transverse strains (3xK
3y) are compared to the experimental strain differences
In Fig. 10, results from the two numerical models are measured via Eq. (4). While the unconstrained model does
compared with experimental measurements taken during the not predict any birefringence, the perfect mould–specimen
278 L. Sorensen et al. / Composites: Part A 37 (2006) 270–281
Fig. 10. Evolution of wavelength shift (rightmost peak when required) during cooling: experimental and modelled.
contact assumed in the constrained model clearly introduces the matrix fracture strength [22]. The origin of these high
excessive birefringence. It does, however, provide a stresses (sx) is the thermal expansion mismatch between the
plausible explanation for the origin of the experimentally steel mould and the 908 direction of the composite. During
observed peak splits. A solution considering realistic cooling, the steel mould restricts the contraction of the
frictional contact between the mould and the composite composite, thus causing tensile stresses in the x-direction.
would be required to provide the intermediate solution that These tensile stresses would significantly reduce the
better follows the experimental results. resistance of the composite to transverse matrix cracking.
Examining the plot of strain distribution in Fig. 14 one
6.2. Strains in the composite observes large compressive through-thickness strains both
around the optical fibre and in the far-field composite. At the
Next, one must consider that the strains measured by an fibre interface these compressive strains reach 3%, which in
FBG represent the strains in the fibre core and not tension represents the failure strain reported for the PPS
necessarily those in the surrounding composite material. matrix. Interestingly, the optical fibre disturbance of the
The numerical analysis used in this section provides insight strain field becomes negligible at a distance of approxi-
into the stress and strain distribution throughout the mately three fibre radii from the FBG. Although, the cases
composite specimen, by considering the FBG to be investigated herein represent two extreme situations of the
embedded in a homogeneous laminate. Fig. 13 shows that consolidation process (unconstrained and constrained), the
all residual stresses remain low or zero in the far-field actual residual strain distribution should fall between
composite of both models, except for the transverse stresses the results presented in Fig. 14. Consequently, the strains
(x-direction, constrained model) which surpass half of
Fig. 11. Evolution of strains in the optical fibre core during cooling as Fig. 12. Evolution of transverse strain difference in the fibre core during
calculated by the unconstrained and constrained models. cooling: modelled and experimental.
L. Sorensen et al. / Composites: Part A 37 (2006) 270–281 279
Fig. 13. Stresses along the y-axis after cooling as calculated by the unconstrained and constrained models.
Fig. 14. Strains along the y-axis after cooling as calculated by the unconstrained and constrained models.
By studying the residual strain cases modelled in this continued support on optics issues. Finally, they wish to
paper, it is clear that one must carefully consider the type of thank Cytec Industries Inc. for the composite material used
strain field in the core of an FBG sensor before interpreting in this investigation and the Laboratoine de technologie des
its signal. In cases where uniaxial loads are applied to a composites et polymers, IMX, EPFL for the use of their hot
specimen, Eq. (3) should provide adequate correlations. press.
When materials like carbon fibre-reinforced polymers
undergo thermal shrinkage, the fibre-direction strains are
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