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c

 
Bone like cartilage is a type of hard connective tissue; it is the hardest structure
in the body.

  

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  Jorms 1/3 weight of bone; consists of fibrous
material & cells; responsible for the toughness & resilience of bone
   Jorms 2/3 weight of bone; consists of the following
mineral salts-calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium fluoride &
magnesium phosphate; responsible for the rigidity & hardness of bone.
Calcium in bone makes it opaque to X-ray.

   



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Bone tissue is of two types:

1) Compact or Dense.
2) Cancellous or Spongy.

In both types, bone is formed of tiny plates of mineral matter known as lamellae.

 chard & dense; resembles an ivory. Bone is dense &

contains no marrow spaces.
 cconsists of a spongework of trabeculae arranged in a
regular pattern, best adapted to resist the local stress & strain. The
interstices of cancellous bone as well as the marrow cavity in a long bone
are filled with red or yellow marrow.

   



c

Microscopically the structure of spongy & compact bones is the same. The only
difference is that the space in a spongy bone are large while in the compact type
the bone tissue is dense & contains narrow channels.

  

!
Microscopically a bone consists of numerous cylindrical units, each of which is
known as " # or $ #. The following structures are
present in a Haversian System ʹ

1) Haversian Canal 3) Lacunae

2) Lamellae 4) Canaliculi


 "  It is a canal present in the centre of each Haversian system.

It runs parallel with the long axis of bone. Each canal contains a small artery,
vein, lymphatic, thin nerve fibres & supporting delicate areolar tissue. Blood
vessels nourish the surrounding lamellae.
 !These are thin plates of bone tissue consisting of a ground
substance or matrix with collagen fibres lying in a calcified material. These
lamellae are arranged concentrically around the Haversian canal. Adjacent
lamellae are held together by interchange of fibres. 

Interstitial lamellae : These lie in the angular interval between typical

haversian systems. They lie more or less parallel with the surface & run in various
directions.

Circumferential lamellae : Jound at the outer & inner periphery of the cortex.

% !These are small spaces between lamellae. Each lacunae contains a

bone cell.
& These are fine radiating channels which lacunae to each other &
with the central Haversian canal. The canaliculi are occupied by protoplasmic
process of bone cells. 
'(
These are canals running at right angles to the long axis of bone. They contain
blood vessels, nerves & lymphatics & connect Haversian canals with the
 medullary cavity & the surface of the bone. Theseccanals are not surrounded
by concentric lamellae of bone.

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!!
These are (i) Osteoblasts (ii) Osteoclasts (iii) Osteocytes

They are all derived from osteogenic cells & represent different functional
expression of the same cell.

 ) These are ovoid cells with basophilic cytoplasm & an oval
nucleus. They lie against the surface of bone in the inner layer of periosteum
& the endosteum i.e; at the sites where active bone formation is in progress.
They form protein elements of the matrix & control deposition of mineral salts
in relation to collagen fibres. They produce Alkaline Phosphatase which helps
in precepition of calcium phosphate & other salts.
  #Osteoblasts becomes osteocytes by forming matrix around itself
& becoming dormant when active bone formation is not required. They
occupy the lacunae.
Osteocytes & Osteoblasts are cells with process
% These are large multi-nucleated giant cells with acidophilic
cytoplasm, which contains many vacuoles. They arise by fusion of osteoblasts
& osteocytes & are concerned with resorption of bone during growth &
remodeling of skeleton. They produce Acid Phosphate which dissolve
inorganic constitutents of bone.



  

It is a thick layer of fibrous tissue which covers bone surfaces ecept over its
articular surfaces where it is replaced by articular cartilage. Through its blood
vessels it nourishes the bone & if torn, the underlying bone dies. Periosteum has
bone forming activity in times of need. In dried bones the periosteum & the
articular cartilages are not present.
  *  consists of two layers.
1. Outer Jibrous layer : Consists mainly of white fibrous tissue & contains
numerous blood vessels, lymphatics & nerves.
2. Inner Osteogenic layer : Consists of highly vascular layer of fine elastic
tissue forming dense networks. It is lined on its deep surface with bone
forming cells (Osteoblasts) during growth period, hence it is called
Osteogenic layer.
The blood vessels pass from the outer layer into Volkmann͛s canals through
the inner osteogenic layer & ultimately into the Haversian canals & the
medullary cavity.

) *+ #These are collagenous fibres connecting the fibrous layer of

periosteum with the circumferential lamellae of bone, chiefly opposite the sites of
attachment of tendons & ligaments are near the end of long bones. Deeper parts
of these fibres ossify & given better anchorage.

*  
1. utritive : Periosteum nourishes the underlying bone through its blood
vessels.
2. Osteogenic : Periosteum helps in bone formation during the growth period
& during repair of fractures.
3. Protective : Periosteum helps to hold the fragments of bone together in
some cases of simple fractures.
4. Periosteun prevents overgrowth of bone by acting as a limiting membrane.
5. Periosteum provides attachment to muscles, tendons & ligaments.


 "#*  The outer portion is supplied by nerves of the

overlying skin. Deeper parts are suppled by nerves which give motor branches to
nearby muscles. Periosteum is very sensitive to various sensations.


, 

It is highly vascular membrane which lines the medullary cavity on the inner
surface of a compact bone.

c! ,
!-
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Bones have a regular and definite pattern of blood supply. The distribution of
arteries varies according to type of the bone.
c$#*)derived from 4 sources.

   #single, large, and tortuous and accompanied by one or
two veins.It enters the shaft through the nutrient foramen. The
toetuosity of the artery before entrance into the foramen prevents it
from being damaged and from changes in blood pressure during active
muscular contraction. While passing through the compact bone in the
nutrient canal, the artery sends branches to the haversian system. On
entering the medullary cavity, it divides into two branches-one for each
end of the bone. These break up into smaller parallel branches which
soon ramify into fine branches and run to the metaphysic.
utrient artery supplies the medullary cavity and the inner two thirds of
compact bones of the shaft.
   " They are numerous and carried along the muscular
attachments.They form a plexus in the inner layer of periosteum. They
pierce the outer part of compact bone and supply it. They communicate
vessels in the haversian canals by passing through volkman͛s canal.
% +# ( juxtra-epiphyseal) " They are numerous small
vessels derived from arterial anastomosis     around
the joint.They pass through numerous vascular foramina along the line
of attachment of capsularligament to the metaphysic.They supply the
metaphyseal region, the epiphysis and the circular capsule.
& +# " They are also derived from arterial anastomosis
around the joint. They are present in only those bones where the
capsular ligament is attached to the epiphysis instead of metaphysic.

All the foue sets of vessels communicate with each other at the
metaphysis, which therefore becomes an extremely vascular part.

c$#*+ ):
Short long bones like metacarpal, metatarsals and phalanges possess
only a single epiphysis and a single metaphysic. They are supplied as follows:

   # Jorms the main supply during the period of growth.
The nutrient artery after the medullary cavity breaks up into numerous freely
anastomosing branches and supply the shaft of the bone.
  "Are the main supply after growth has ceased.
% 6. +#(metaphyseal) "Supply the epiphyseal end.
& At the opposite end where there is no epiphysis, the blood supply is
rather poor through some vessels corresponding to epiphyseal vessels
are present.
$ Because the blood supply of shafts of short long bones and the
ends of long bones is very rich, heematogenous infections like tuberculosis
and syphilis occur very commonly at these sites.
%c$#**)Scapula, Ribs etc.

1. utrient Artery: Small, single artery which enters the bone and breaks up
into branches which ramify all over the bone. They supply the spongy
bone and inner part of compact bone.
2. Periosteal Vessels: These are the main sourse of blood supply as they are
plenty in number.

) The nutrient artery enters the foramen just beyond the tubercle and
runs forward as far as the anterior end of the bone.
&c$#*  cJlat, short and irregular bones do not posses
juxtra-epiphysial or epiphyseal vessels.
 ) 
Body : supplied by
1. Two large vessels which enter its posterior surface.
2. Smaller vassels which enter its anterior or antero-lateral aspect.
Arch : Supplied by vessels entering the root of transverse process on either
side. They divide into branches which supply the transverse process, pedicle,
lamina and spine.
Atlas (1st Cervical Vertebrae) : Since it has no body, it is supplied only by
vessels entering the root of each transeverse process.
 !#+#*c
Lymphatics of bone are present only in the present only in the periosteum
and the haversian systems. They accompany the blood vessels. There are no
lymphatics in the bone marrow. The lymphatics of the haversian systems
drain into the periosteal lymph vessels.

 "#*c
erves are most numerous at the articular ends of long bones, in the
vertebrae and large flat bones. They are distributed freely to the periosteum
and also accompany the nutrient vessels. They apparently consists of both
sensory and motor (autonomus) fibres, the latter supply the blood vessels.
,"*c
Both cartilages and bones are mesodermal in origin. They develop from
the embryonic mesenchyme which is the loose cellular connective tissue
with a fluid matrix.