Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Objective............................................................................................................................3

Introduction........................................................................................................................3

Equipment..........................................................................................................................3

Procedure..........................................................................................................................4

Results...............................................................................................................................6

Calculations.......................................................................................................................7

Discussion..........................................................................................................................9

Errors and Precautions....................................................................................................10

Conclusion.......................................................................................................................11

References.......................................................................................................................11

APPENDIX.......................................................................................................................12

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 Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the experiment was to determine the coefficient of permeability of red
sand by use of the falling-head method.

INTRODUCTION

Permeability is a soil property which indicates the ease with which water will flow
through the soil (Lambe, 1951), and is dependant upon a number of properties of the
soil which include the grain size, void ratio, shape and arrangement of pores, degree of
saturation and properties of the pore fluid.
Data on the value of the permeability of a given soil has many practical
engineering applications, since this property would come into play in matters such as
drainage, soil behavior under load, groundwater supply and seepage under structures.
In general, permeability has a significant role in the effective strength of a soil and thus
its knowledge is of great importance.
The method being used to determine permeability (also known as coefficient of
permeability) in this experiment is the falling-head test (see FIGURE 1 for required
apparatus) which is used in the case of fine-grained soils.

EQUIPMENT

o Permeability device o Retort stand

o Cylindrical mould o Meter rule
o Upper and lower porous stones o Beaker
o Porosity ring o Measuring cylinder (100ml)
o Spring o Stopwatch
o Burette o Thermometer

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o Electronic balance o Vernier caliper

o Spatula o Drying oven
o Tamping hammer o Mechanical grease
o Metal basin
o Moisture can PROCEDURE

1) An electronic balance was used to determine the masses of the cylindrical

mould, porosity ring, upper and lower porous stones, tamping hammer, metal
basin and moisture can which were all recorded.
2) A sample of the red sand to be used was also weighed and placed in the drying
oven so that the moisture content could thereafter be found.
3) The vernier caliper was used to determine the internal diameter of the cylindrical
mould.
4) The bottom ring of the permeability device was greased before the cylindrical
mould was put in place so that water would not leak from the mould. The bottom
porous stone was then inserted.
5) Three layers of the red sand were then placed into the cylindrical mould; each
layer was stamped by the tamping hammer 25 times at a height of 2 inches
above the sand layer.
6) A spatula was then used to even out any red sand which may have stuck to the
sides of the mould.
7) The height of the column of sand was then measured using a vernier caliper.
8) The weight of the cylindrical mould and column of packed sand was then
obtained.
9) The components were then refitted into the bottom portion of the permeability
device.
10)The upper porous stone was then placed over the compacted sand, followed by
the spring and then the greased upper portion of the permeability device, which
was fastened in place by the 3 fastening screws.

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 Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

11)The valve controlling the water was then opened in order to saturate the sample
and remove any clogs and loose sand from the apparatus, until the water began
to run clear.
12)It was ensured that the apparatus was set up as shown in FIGURE 2.
13)The initial height of the water in the burette, h1, was measured using the meter
rule, noted and the valve was opened in order to allow the flow of water for 30
seconds through the permeability device and into a beaker, at which point the
valve was closed.
14)The final height of water in the burette, h2, was also noted.
15)The amount of water that flowed into the permeability device, Qin, was read off
and recorded from the burette.
16)The amount of water that flowed out, Qout, was collected from the beaker and
measured in a measuring cylinder.
17)The temperature of the water collected was measured and recorded using a
thermometer.
18)Steps 13 to 17 were then repeated until 3 viable sets of readings were obtained.
19)After step 18 was completed, the saturated soil sample was removed from the
device, placed in the metal basin and reweighed, and placed in the drying oven.

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 Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

RESULTS

Test no h1 / cm h2 / cm t /s Qin / cm3 Qout / cm3 T / °C

1 90 54.7 30 61.3 61.0 27
2 90 54.7 30 61.2 61.0 27
3 90 54.3 30 61.8 61.5 27
Average 90 54.6 30 61.4 61.2 27
TABLE 1 SHOWING THE RAW DATA OBTAINED FROM THE FALLING HEAD TEST

Component Mass / g Component Mass / g

Cylindrical mould 159.90 Moisture can 31.19
Porosity ring 6.66 Moisture can & sample 85.00
Upper porous stone 38.62 Moisture can and oven dried sample 83.62
Lower porous stone 40.12 Mould & compacted sand 487.25
Tamping hammer 1271.32 Metal basin & saturated sample 504.27
Metal basin 127.40 Metal basin & oven dried sample 441.80
TABLE 2 SHOWING THE MASSES OF THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS USED FOR THE EXPERIMENT

Measurement 1 2 3 Average / mm
Internal diameter of mould 63.45 63.62 63.70 63.59
Height of sand column 65.00 66.00 67.00 66.00
TABLE 3 SHOWING THE VARIOUS LENGTH MEASUREMENTS USED FOR THE EXPERIMENT

Coefficient of permeability at 27°C 5.95 x 10-3 cm/s

Coefficient of permeability at 20°C 5.06 x 10-3 cm/s

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Void ratio of soil sample 0.71

Moisture content of soil sample 2.56 %
TABLE 4 SHOWING THE CALCULATED PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL SAMPLE

CALCULATIONS

Average hydraulic head across sample at end of test,

54.7+54.7+54.3
h2 = = 54.6 cm
3

Average volume of water entering permeability device,

61.3 61.2+ 61.8

Qin = = 61.4 cm3
3

Average volume of water leaving permeability device,

61.0 61.0+61.5
Qout = = 61.2 cm3
3

Average length of the sample,

65+66+67
L= = 66 mm = 6.6cm
3

Average diameter of the sample,

63.45+63.62+63.70
d= = 63.59 mm = 6.36 cm
3

Cross sectional area of the burette,

Qout 61.2
a= = = 1.72 cm2
h1−h 2 90−54.6

Cross sectional area of soil sample,

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π x d 2 π x 6.362
A= = = 31.77 cm2
4 4

Volume of soil sample,

V = A x L = 31.77 x 6.6 = 209.68 cm3
Coefficient of permeability at conducted temperature (27°C),
aL h1 aL h1 1.72 x 6.6 90
k= ln = 2.303 log = 2.303 l og = 5.95 x 10-3 cms-1
At h2 At h2 31.77 x 30 54.6

Coefficient of permeability at 20°C,

η 27° C 0.8502
k20°C = k27°C = 5.95 x 10-3 x = 5.06 x 10-3 cms-1
η 20° C 1

Potential energy generated by tamping hammer,

Ep = mgh = 1.27 x 9.81 x 5.08 x 10-2 = 6.33 x 10-1J

Impact velocity of tamping hammer,

v = √ 2 gh = √ 2 x 9.81 x 5.08 x 10−2 = 9.98 x 10-1 ms-1

Kinetic energy generated by tamping hammer,

2
m v 2 1.27 x ( 9.98 x 10−1 )
Ek = = = 6.32 x 10-1J
2 2

Dry density of specimen,

M 2 −M 1 487.25−159.9
ρd = = = 1.56 gcm3
V 209.68

Void ratio of specimen,

G s ρw 2.66 x 1
e= -1= - 1 = 0.71
ρd 1.56

Moisture content of sample,

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 Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

original weight of soil−dry weight of soil 53.81−52.43

w(%) = x 100 = x 100 =
original weight of soil 53.81
2.56%

DISCUSSION

The soil sample used for the experiment (see FIGURE 3) was red sand from the
National Quarries Trinidad Limited, located in the Arouca area. A basic inspection of
the sample reveled that the soil consisted of more or less same sized small grained
particles consistent with that of fine sand. It was also loose and easily crumbled to the
touch. Based on this assessment, a falling-head test (a derivation for this method could
be found in the APPENDIX) was considered suitable for the fine grained material.
The experiment objective was to determine the coefficient of permeability for this
sample and the method employed was the falling-head permeability test. This
technique involved obtaining the volume of water which flowed into and out of the
sample soil in a given time, and in conjunction with other data which could be measured
or calculated from the experiment, the coefficient of permeability was found. The
principle behind this method is based on the concept that a fluid (in this case water)
would flow through different types of soils at different rates. This is privy to the fact that
soil parameters such as the particle size, void ratio and arrangement of pores all
contribute to the pattern and ease of flow through a soil.
With respect to the actual raw experimental data obtained (see in APPENDIX), it
could be seen that there was actually a difference in the volume of water which flowed
into and out of the permeability device. This difference could be mainly attributed to
some of the water filling up the pore spaces within the soil sample. Since the sample
was saturated before the trials were run, none of the water was really taken to “wet” the
particles of the sample.

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When the relevant calculations were conducted, it was found that the coefficient
of permeability for the sample at the conducted temperature of 27°C was 5.95 x 10-3
cms-1, and the coefficient of permeability for the sample at 20°C was 5.06 x 10-3 cms-1,
which corresponds to a soil with good drainage characteristics of medium to high
permeability classification of the general soil type clean sands (see FIGURE 4 for
classification table).
It was convenient to calculate the permeability value for 20°C since it is at this
temperature that the coefficient of permeability is taken as 100%. This variation occurs
because of the permeability being dependent on temperature as a result of the viscosity
of the permeating fluid being affected. Hence a correction factor (see FIGURE 5) was
applied in order to work things to an acceptable standard.
The falling head method obtains the coefficient of permeability to a reasonable
level of accuracy; however there are a number of limitations which prevent the result
from being ideally representative of the actual soil conditions. These include the lack of
in situ pressures, no horizontal flow gradient and variations in soil strata. The method
can thus be improved by implementing a triaxial cell and flexible wall membrane.

ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS

o Multiple readings were taken for all measurements of length and mass, and the
average value was used to obtain a higher degree of accuracy.
o The bottom ring and upper component of the permeability device were greased
to prevent/ minimize leaking of the water which would have introduced an error
when inspecting Qin and Qout.
o A standard was used when preparing the soil sample (3 layers, 25 blows, a
height of 2 inches above sample) in order so that the results may be reproduced.
o The sample was allowed to become saturated so that each so that each trial
would take place under similar conditions.
o Water was allowed to flow through the sample before the trials were conducted
to allow any clogs and excess loose sand to be removed.

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 Kirk Woo Chong – 809003758 CVNG 2009 – Soil Mechanics II

o There would have been an inaccuracy in the result for Q out as some of the water
could have been left in the beaker in the transfer.
o The graduations in the measuring cylinder and only allowed for an accuracy of
±0.5cm3.
o The experiment was carried out in a controlled temperature environment (via air
conditioning unit) in order to help keep the ‘T’ values for the Q out constant.
o When the cylindrical mould and sample are weighed, some of the grease used
would have been on the mould and thus there may be a small error in using this
value for calculation purposes, however this may not have made any significant
difference but is stated for the sake of completeness.

CONCLUSION

Within the limits of experimental error, it was found that:

1) The coefficient of permeability for the sample at the conducted temperature of
27°C was 5.95 x 10-3 cms-1.
2) The coefficient of permeability for the sample at 20°C was 5.06 x 10-3 cms-1.
3) The soil sample may have been classified as a soil with good drainage
characteristics of medium to high permeability of the general soil type clean
sands.

REFERENCES

 Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics (7th edition). Taylor and Francis, April 2004.

 Lambe, William T. Soil Testing for Engineers. John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1967.

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 Mitchell, James K.. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. Second edition. John
Wiley and Sons, New York.

 Bowles, Joseph E. Engineering Properties of Soils. 4th. Boston: Irwin McGraw–

Hill, 1992.

 Budhu, Muni. Soil Mechanics and Foundations. John Wiley and Sons Inc, 2000.

APPENDIX

F IGURE 1 SHOWING THE REQUIRED

APPARATUS FOR THE EXPERIMENT

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FIGURE 2 SHOWING THE SETUP FOR

THE EXPERIMENT

FIGURE 3 SHOWING THE SOIL SAMPLE USED FOR THE EXPERIMENT

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FIGURE 4 SHOWING THE BREAKDOWN OF CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

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FIGURE 5 SHOWING THE VISCOUSITY CORRECTION TABLE USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

FALLING-HEAD TEST DERIVATION

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δh
Let the drop in head over a period of time define the velocity by: v=-
δt
δh
And inflow of water to soil is: (qv)in = av = - a
δt
h
Inspect Darcy’s law to obtain outflow by: (qv)out = Aki = Ak
L
δh h
Observing the continuity condition gives: -a = Ak
δt L
t2 h2
Ak δh
Separation of the variables and integrating between limits:
aL ∫ δt = -∫ h
t1 h1

Solving for k in the vertical direction would then give:

aL h1
k= A ¿¿ ln ( h )
2

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