DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

Ecology – the scientific study of the

interactions among organisms and the
interactions between the organisms and
their environment
 Environment

Biotic Abiotic component

component
Non-living factors
Living
organisms -pH value
-Temperature
-Light intensity
-Humidity
-Topography
-Microclimate
 pH
 Most organisms survive well in neutral
environment
 Aquatic organisms are sensitive to
changes of pH
 Humidity
 The amount of water vapour in the air
 Affect the rate of water loss in plants
Low Humidity –water evaporates faster
from a surface
High humidity – at night
Low humidity – daylight
 Light intensity
 Affects the distribution of plants and
animals
Shallow water fish
Deep sea animals
Varying light intensity in a forest leads to the
growth of different types of plants
Tall trees – exposed to greater light
intensity
- small plants grow undercover from the
canopy of tall trees
- animals also live under the cover of
the tall tree
- mosses, small animals – live in low light
intensity
 Temperature
 Affect the physiological activities of plants
and animals
 Most living organisms live within narrow
range of temperature
Temperature higher than 45o C lead to
denaturation of enzymes within organisms
 Topography
 Physical land features such as altitude,
gradient, aspect of the region
 Main topographic factor – altitude
Higher altitudes – lower atmospheric
pressure and temperature
Different types of plants at different
altitude
Gradient – steepness of a slope
- steep slopes – more drainage and
runoffs
- not suitable for organisms
Aspect of a slope
- windward mountain slopes receive
more rains than leeward slopes
- different type of organisms live on
these two area
 Microclimate
 Climate in micro habitat
 Includes – humidity, temperature, light
intensity, atmospheric conditions
 Biotic components
 Primary source of energy – sun
 Living organisms

Producer Consumer Decomposers

Producer
Autotroph – synthesise organic
substances or food from nutrients and
sunlight
Produce food for other organisms
Consumer – cannot produce its own food
- feeds on other organisms
Primary consumer – herbivores
Secondary consumer – carnivores
Tertiary consumer – carnivores that prey
on secondary consumer
Food chain – the feeding relationship
between living organisms in an ecosystem
- shows the transfer of energy
from the sun
Each category of organisms in a food
chain is known as a trophic level
Pyramid of numbers – shows the number
of organisms at each trophic level
The number of organisms decrease but
the size of organisms increase
The food chains in a community are
usually interconnected to form a food web
 Energy flow within a food web
 Energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next
Sun

Producer Decomposer
-Convert solar - Transfer energy
to the soil Secondary
energy to chemical consumer
energy
- Receive
energy from
primary
Primary consumer consumer
Excretion and
-10% of the defaecation
energy is Some energy is
transferred to the Cellular transfer to the
primary consumer respiration decomposer
-- 90% lost to the - For growth
environment and
movement,
At each ascending trophic level, the total
energy level decrease along the food
chain
This explain why food chains are short
Short food chain – more energy for the
consumer
Food chains rarely have more than four
trophic levels
 Interactions between biotic
components
Interactions
between organisms

symbiosis saprophytism Prey- competition

predator

Commensalism mutualism
parasitism
Symbiosis
- Close interactions between two different
species which live together and interact
with each other for an extended period of
time
One species always benefits while the
other species may be unaffected, harmed
or helped
Three categories of symbiotic:
1.Commensalism
- commensal partner gets benefits while
the host derives neither benefits nor harm
Examples – remora fish and shark
- remora fish gets free transportation,
feeds on food scraps from the shark
Epiphytes – plants which grow on other
plants but do not obtain food from the host
- orchids obtained sunlight
- the host plant are not affected and do not
get benefits
Epizoics – animals which live on the body
of other animals
- barnacles get a free ride while looking for
food
- the whale are not affected
2. Mutualism
- a relationship between two species of
organisms in which both organisms benefit
Examples :
- A lichen – mutualistic relation of an alga
and a fungus
 Fungal
hyphae

Algae cells
 - green alga produces food for itself
and for the fungus
- alga is protected and sheltered from
drying out by fungus
 - fungus supplies carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous compounds for the algae to
manufacture food
- Plant in legume family (peas, bean)
- host to mutualistic bacteria
- Rhizobium sp. Live inside the root
nodules of leguminous plant
 - nitrogen fixing bacteria convert
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium
compounds that are used by the plants
 - plants provide the bacteria with
organic compounds
3. Parasitism
- a symbiotic relationship in which one
organisms benefits while the other is
harmed
- organisms which benefits is the parasite
which derive its nutrition from the host
which is harmed in the process
- harming or weakening the host
- smaller than the host
Examples :
- Ectoparasites – parasites that feed on the
external surface of the host
- Mosquitoes, aphids, fleas
- endoparasites – live within the tissue of
their host
- tapeworm – attach to the digestive
system of the host
 Saprophytism
 A types of interaction in which living
organisms obtain food from dead and
decaying organic matter
Saprophytic bacteria and fungi secrete
digestive enzymes to digest dead
organisms before absorbing the nutrients
Examples – Mucor sp., mushroom
 Prey predator
 Organisms or the prey is hunted and
eaten by a stronger and bigger organisms
called the predator
Examples :
- tiger, lions, eagles
The prey predator relationship is stable
The prey and predator regulate the
population of each other in a dynamic
equilibrium
 Number of Fall in the
predators increases population of
prey

Increase the size The prey

of the prey population
population Level at which returns to the
the prey level at which it
population starts fluctuates
to fluctuate

Increase in the
size of prey
Fall in the Number of population
prey predators
population decreases
 Prey predator
 Interaction between organisms which live
together in a habitat and compete for the
same resources that are in limited supply
The competition between individuals of
the same species is called an
intraspecific competition
The competition between individuals of
different species is known as an
interspecific competition
The intraspesific competition is more
intense because the needs for nutrients,
shelter, light and other resources are
identical
Organisms which are weak will migrate or
die
Example :
intrespesific competition between the
populations of Paramecium aurelia and
Paramecium caudatum
Species which are stronger and have
better adaptations are usually more
successful and survive the competition
Paramecium aurelia grows faster than the
Paramecium caudatum
P. aurelia reproduces at a faster rate and
has a competitive edge in obtaining
nutrients
The processes of colonisation and
succession in an ecosystem
 Ecosystem – a community of living
organisms interacting with one another
and with the non living environment
Ecosystem are dynamic
Biotic communities – changing
- response to – climate, internal factors
 Ecological terms
Habitat
- Natural environment in which an
organisms live
- Provides – food, shelter, living space,
breeding site
Species
- Group of organisms that look alike and
have similar characteristics, share the
same ecological niche, capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile
offspring
Population
- A group of organisms of the same species
living in the same habitat at the same time
Example : population of elephants living in
the jungle
Community
- A natural collection of plant and animal
species living within a defined area or
habitat in an ecosystem
Members of community interdependent
and interact with one another
A change in the population will affect the
population and distribution of other
species within the communities
Niche
- The function of an organisms or the role its
play in an ecosystem is known as
ecological niche
Includes its habitat, interactions with other
organisms, the types of food it consumes,
the range of temperature
Example :
the niche of grass is as producer of
carbohydrates and organic substances
which provide food for other organisms
 Colonisation and succession
 Environment of bare rocks and sand left
behind by forest fire is not suitable for
most organisms
When air, water, nutrients ad sunlight are
available spores and seeds of certain
plants start to germinate and grow
This is called colonisation
Pioneer species – the early colonisers
that appear on a bare patch of ground
without soil
 - hardy species – grasses, fern
- have special adaptations which
enable them to survive in dry and
nutrient poor soil
 - change the environment that favour
subsequent communities
Adaptations of pioneer species
- Produce large number of easily dispersed
seeds to help them colonise space
Dense root system bind the sand and soil
particles together and hold water and
humus to improve the structure of the soil
- Have a short live cycle – die, the remains
add to the humus content of the soil
Pioneer species modify the environment,
creating conditions which are favourable
for other species called successor species
Successor species grow larger and
gradually shade the original pioneer
species and replacing it
Example :
- herbaceous plant (dandelions and
weeds)
Successor adaptations :
- small wind dispersed seed which can
spread, germinate and grow rapidly
Successor species change the structure
and the quality of the soil
Shrubs become the new dominant
species
Shrubs modify the environment – enables
large trees to grow
Large trees provide shade – shrubs
cannot compete – replaced by forest floor
species (low light intensities)
Succession – gradual process in which
one community changes the environment
so that it is replaced by another
community
Succession take hundreds of years
- lead to stable community
- in equilibrium with the environment
- climax community
Example of climax community – rainforest
Climax community – stable, mature, little
or no changes in its species structure
 Mangrove swamp
 Found in the tropical and subtropical
regions where fresh water meets salt
water
Hostile environment for normal plants
– low level of oxygen
- high concentration of salt
- high intensities of sunlight
- strong winds
- strong wave
Adaptations of mangrove plants
 Highly branched underground cable roots
- Avicennia sp.
Prop roots (aerial roots) – Rhizophora sp.
- anchor plants to the muddy soil
Breathing roots (pneumatophores) – grow
vertically upward
- numerous pores for gas exchange
during low tides
- lenticels (pores) on the bark of the
tree – for gas exchange
The leaves
- covered with thick layer of cuticle –
reduces transpiration during hot days
- thick and succulent , able to store water
Cell sap in the root cells has higher
osmotic pressure than the soil water
surrounds them
- roots do not lose water by osmosis
Salt is excreted from hydathodes (pores
on the lower epidermis of the leave) as
crystalline salt
Mangrove seeds are able to germinate
while still attached to the mother plant –
Viviparity
- increase the survival of the mangrove as

the seedlings can float horizontally

Zonation of mangrove swamps
The pioneer species of a mangrove
swamp are Sonneratia sp. and Avicennia
sp.
The extensive root systems trap and
collect sediments, including organic matter
from decaying plant parts
As time passes, soils become more
compact and firm
This condition favour the growth of the
Rhizophora sp.
Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer
species
Prop root system of Rhizophora sp.
Traps silt and mud, creating a firmer soil
structure #135. Slide 135
The ground become higher. Soil become
drier
The condition becomes more suitable for
Bruguiera sp.
This species replaces the Rhizophora sp.
The buttress root of the Bruguiera sp.
Forms loops which extend from the soil to
trap more silt and mud
More sediment are deposited and the
shore extend further to the sea


Over the time , terrestrial plant – nipah
(Nypa fruticans) and Pandanus sp. begin
to replace the Bruguiera sp.
The transition and succession from
mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest
and eventually tropical forest takes a long
time
Tropical rainforest – climax community
colonisation and succession
in a pond
 pioneer species pioneer species die and
-phytoplankton, algae & decompose – becomes
submerged plant organic
-Hydrilla sp., Cabomba matter & converted into
sp, humus
Elodea sp.

humus and soil erode from the

sides of
the pond – deposited on the base
of the
pond
- shallower conditions become
unfavourable for
submerged plants
- more suitable for floating
plants
adaptive characteristics of pioneer :
- fibrous root penetrate deep into the soil
- bind and particles together
floating plants
- duckweeds (Lemna sp.), water
hyacinth
(Eichornia sp.), lotus plant
(Nelumbium sp.)

receive enough
sunlight - reproduce
rapidly

- spread and cover large

area
- prevent sunlight from
reaching
submerged plants
 decompose remains
lack of sunlight of submerged plants
– submerged add
plants dies organic matter to the
base
of the pond

ponds become
erosion occurs at the shallower
edge of the ponds unsuitable
more sediments for submerged
deposited plants
on the base of the
ponds
emergent plants
replaced the live in water
floating e.g. sedges, cattails
plants

rhizomes grow emergent plants grow

horizontally – bind from
soil the edge to the middle of
particles together & the
absorb pond
more mineral salts
plants die, decomposed
remains add to the sediments
o
the base of the pond -
shallower
 condition of the pond
becomes
favourable for land
plants

herbaceous weeds:
Ageratum conyzoides,
Euphorbia hirta, Oldentandia
dichotoma land become drier – land plants
such as
shrubs, bushes, woody plants
becomes
numerous

Primary forest emerges turns into

tropical
rainforest – climax community
 Population Ecology
Population – a group of organisms of the
same species occupying a particular area
or habitat
various factors determine the size of a
population :
 - abiotic factors
 -biotic factors
 -birth rate
 -death rate
 -immigration, emigration
to study the dynamic of a population
ecologist need to estimate the population
size
Sampling techniques allow ecologist to
estimate the total population sizes and
densities
 Quadrat Sampling Technique
used to study plant populations or
populations of immobile animals
consist of a square or rectangular frame
made of metal or wood
strings are used to subdivide the quadrat
into smaller squares
the size of the quadrat depends on the
size, distribution and density of the
organisms being studied
a number of quadrats are set up randomly
throughout the area being studied
the species present within the frame is
counted and the number is recorded
frequency of species :
number of quadrats containing
the species X 100%
number of quadrats sampled
Density of the species :
total number of individuals
of a species in all quadrats
number of quadrats sampled
x area of each quadrat
sampled
Percentage coverage :

aerial coverage of all

quadrats (m2) x 100%

number of quadrats
sampled x quadrat
area
 Capture, mark, release and
recapture technique
used to estimate the population sizes of
mobile animals such as mammals, birds,
butterflies, woodlice and other insects
a specific animal sample is captured and
marked with a ring or tag with water proof
coloured ink, cellulose paint or nail varnish
the marked animals are then released into
the general population
after a few days and weeks a second
animal sample is captured and the number
of marked animals in the second sample is
counted and recorded
Population size :
number of organisms in the
first sample x number of organisms
in the second sample
number of marked organisms
recaptured
this technique assumes :
- the marked animals are not harmed or
predated upon
- the animal population under study is
stable – no mortality because of disease,
no immigration or emigration
- the marked animals mix freely in the
population
- marked individual has the same probability
of being recaptured
to ensure the results are more accurate :
- capture large samples
- animals must be captured randomly
- enough time must be given for the marked
animals to mix with unmarked animals
the marked used must be permanent and
not easily detected by predators or hinder
the animals movement
 Abiotic factors which influence the
population distribution of an organisms
temperature
light intensity
humidity
pH
aspect
 Biodiversity
refers to the diverse species of plants and
animals in different ecosystem on earth
Taxonomy is the branch of Biology
concerned with the identification, naming
and classification of organisms
Classification is necessary so that
organisms can be easily and accurately
identified
enables scientist to communicate
accurately and precisely with one another
 organisms

monera Protista Fungi

Plantae Animalia
 Monera
unicellular organisms
have cell wall
no membrane for organelles and nucleus
genetic material scattered in the
cytoplasm
examples – cyanobacteria (blue green
algae), bacteria
cyanobacteria and certain bacteria can
carry out photosynthesis
Bacteria's shape:
1. rod
2. round
3. spiral
 Protista
includes algae and protozoa
nuclei and membranes surrounded by
membranes
plant like protist – green algae – have
chloroplast
heterotrophic or autotrophic
the cells of multicellular protist are not
specialised to perform specific function
within organisms
Examples : Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp.,
Spirogyra sp., Trypanosoma sp.
 Fungi
mostly multicellular organisms
cell wall of fungi contain chitin
main bodied consist of a network of thread
like hyphae called micelium
saphrophytic
have ni chlorophyll, obtain energy by
decomposing decaying organisms and
absorbing its nutrients
examples – moulds (Mucor sp.),
mushrooms, yeasts
 Plantae
immobile, multicellular organisms
produce food through photosynthesis
plant cells are enclosed in cellulose cell
walls
 Animalia
multicellular heterotrophic organisms
do not have rigid cell walls and chloroplast
mostly carry out locomotion
usually digest their food internally
Hierarchy in the classification of
organisms
Living organisms are classified according
to their basic characteristics
Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species
A kingdom consists of group of organisms
sharing certain common organisms
the largest unit of classifications
contains largest number of organisms
the number of organisms at each level
decreases as we go down along the
hierarchy
the naming of organisms is based on the
Linnaeus binomial system
each organisms has two names in Latin
the first name is the name of the genus
begins with a capital letter
the second name begins with a small letter
refers to the name of the species
examples :
Homo sapiens – human
Homo sapiens
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Chordata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primates
Family – Homonidae
Genus – Homo
Species – sapiens
Bunga raya – Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Oil palm – Elais guineensis
Durian – Durio zibenthinus
Frog – Bufo melanostictus
Paddy – Oryza sativa
Rambutan – Nephelium lappaceum
 The importance of biodiversity
1. Provide various biological products
- food, medicine, timber, spices
2. Provides many environmental services to
humans and other species
- pollination, nutrient cycling, regulation of the
atmospheric composition
3. All species are supported by the
interactions among other species and their
ecosystem for food, shelter and other basic
need
4. Diversity in genetic pool
 Microorganisms
5 types :
1. Virus
2. Bacteria
3. Algae
4. Protozoa
5. Fungi
 Bacteria
size 0.5 -5.0 micro meter
Unicellular
has cell wall, plasma membrane, DNA is
enclosed in a membrane
Cell wall – made from peptidoglycan
(protein + polysaccharide)
form spores under unfavourable conditions
Shape – spherical (coccus)
 rod (bacillus)
 spiral (spirillum)
 Comma shaped (vibrio)
Examples – Lactobacillus sp.,
 Staphylococcus sp.
 Algae
Photosynthetic, plant like
Cell wall – cellulose
No leaves, stem roots
Examples – phytoplankton, Spirogyra sp.
 Fungi
Heterotrophic
Do not have chlorophyll, stems, roots,
leaves
Cell wall – chitin
Feeding – secrete enzymes that break
down organic material into simple
molecules before absorbing them
Examples – yeast, Mucor sp.
 Protozoa
Unicellular
Have nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma
membrane
Carry out life process – respiration,
reproduction, excretion
Moves – flagella, cilia, microtubules
Examples – Euglena sp., Paramecium sp,
Trypanosoma sp.
 Viruses
can only be seen by electron microscope
non living cell
cannot survive or reproduce outside the
cells of its host
Infectious
Utilise the cellular machinery of the host to
make copies of itself
two basic parts:
1. Inner core – composed of nucleic acid
(DNA or RNA)
2. Capsid - protein
Can be purified and crystallized
Examples – T4 bacteriophage, tobacco
 mosaic virus
 The effects of abiotic components on
the activity of microorganisms
1. Nutrient and water
- for reproduction and growth
- without nutrient and water -die, spores
2. pH
- most bacteria – alkaline conditions (pH
7.4 )
- Yeast & protozoa – acidic conditions (pH 4.5-5.o)
- Extreme pH – destroy bacteria
3. Temperature
- inactive at low temperature
- Optimum temperature – 35-40 C
- Beyond 60 C – growth of microorganisms inhibited
- destroyed – sterilised at 121 C
 Light intensity
Prefer dark or low light intensities
High intensities or UV – kill
microorganisms
Photosynthetic algae and bacteria – active
under high light intensities –
photosynthesis
The role of useful microorganisms in
the ecosystem
Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be absorbed
directly by plants
Plants use nitrogen in the form of
ammonium, nitrite or nitrate ions from soils
Nitrogen fixing bacteria can assimilate
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium
compounds (NH3 and NH4+) - process
called nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixing bacteria :
− Nostoc sp. - live in the soil
− Rhizobium sp. - in the roots nodules of
leguminous plants
Nitrates – taken by plants roots –
converted into plants protein
 Animals
Nitrate Plants - animals
protein
waste matter Plants Animals

decompose

Nitrobacter sp. - oxidised nitrites into

nitrates
ammonium
compounds
Nitrosomonas sp. - oxidised
ammonia
into nitrites
 denitrification – by
Nitrate in soil denitrifiying
bacteria

bacteria break down

nitrates into gaseous
nitrogen and oxygen

oxygen used by Nitrogen returned to

bacteria atmosphere
 Decomposition
Decomposers – organisms that secrete
digestive enzymes to break down organic
matter and animal wastes into simple
molecules
simple molecules – carbon dioxide, water,
ammonium
- used by autotroph – green plants
Main decomposers – saprophytic bacteria
- return nutrient in organic matter to atmosphere,
soil and water
return back nutrient to the soil – soil
becomes fertiles
The alimentary canal of termites :
- mutualistic protozoa – Trichonympha sp. secrete
cellulase enzyme
- help termite digest cellulose
Digestive system in humans :
- symbiotic bacteria synthesis vitamins B12 and K
 The harmful effects of
microorganisms
lead to spoilage of food and substances
and cause diseases
Pathogen – microorganisms that cause
diseases
- only cause disease if it can get into the body cells
 Methods in the transmission of
disease
1. water and food
- contaminated food or drinks
- through faeces of infected people
- unwashed hands
-example – typhoid, cholera
2. Airborne and droplet transmission
- enter the body through the respiratory system
- liquid droplet containing virus or bacteria from
sneeze and cough of infected person
- droplet transmission
- spores of bacteria can be transmitted by air
- airborne transmission
3. Vectors
- mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches
- vectors are the carrier of the disease
- mosquito (Anopheles sp.) - carries protozoan
(Plasmodium sp.) - malaria
-houseflies – cholera – food poisoning
4. Direct contact
- contact with infected person or personal items of
infected person
- tinea or ringworm
- AIDS, syphilis,gonorrhea
 Methods controlling pathogens
1. Antibiotics
-penicillin, streptomycins
- produced by microorganisms
- used to kill other microorganisms
2. Vaccines
- modified or weakened forms of viruses or dead
bacteria
- injected into the body to induce the production of
antibodies
-examples – BCG, Sabine vaccine
3. Antiseptics
- chemicals that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms
-prevent infections of wound
- examples – acriflavin, iodine solution
4. Disinfectents
- solutions used to kill microorganisms on the
surfaces of floor, building or furniture
-for sterilised surgical equiment
-examples – phenol, formaldehyde, carbolic acid
 The use of microorganisms in
biotechnology
Biotechnology – the application of
organisms or microorganisms or biological
processes in the production of materials
for use in medicine and industry
1. Production of antibiotics, vaccines and
hormones
- Antibiotics – produced by Streptomycines sp.
(streptomycin) and Penicillium chrysogenum
(penicilin)
- vaccine -sabine vaccine used to treat
poliomyelitis
- Genetically modified bacteria – produce
insulin
2. Production of energy from biomass
(a) Biogas
- gas produced by anaerobic fermentation of organic matter
or waste
- used in vechicles
(b) Biofuel
- combination of 10% ethanol and 90% petrol
- main source – sugar cane, maize
- glucose and sucrose extracted from these plants
- fermented by yeast to produce ethanol
- ethanol can be used for vehicles
3. Cleaning of oil spill
- genetically engineered bacteria convert oil into
less harmful molecules
4. Waste treatment
- waste treatment plant – aerobic bacteria
decompose organic matter in sewage in the
presence of oxygen
- anaerobic bacteria continue to decompose organic
matter to methane and carbon dioxide
-methane gas is collected and used as fuels
for engines pumps in the sewage plants
- digested sludge – rich in nitrates and phosphate
can be used as fertilisers
5. Production of biodegradable plastic
(bioplastic)
- Bioplastic can be broken down into inorganic
compounds by certain bacteria
 culture bacteria in
nutrient rich
medium
specific nutrient
(nitrogen)
is depleted from
cultured
medium

bacteria reacted by
producing
bioplastic as storage
applications – credit
component in their cells cards,
bottles
6. Food processing
- microorganisms is used for fermentation process
- Bread making (flour, sugar) – yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
- Beer making (barley)– S. cerevisiae & S.
carlsbergensis
- Wine (grape)
-soya sauce – fermentation of soya beans by fungi
- Yogurt – fermentation of milk by Lactobacillus
bulgaricus & Streptococcus thermophillus
- convert sugar into lactic acid which coagulate casein and
producing thick creamy yogurt
- cheese – mixing bacteria with rennin
- bacteria ferment milk sugar to lactic acid
- solid part of the milk is separated from the liquid portion
-the solid part are pressed and mould and left to mature
 Appreciating Biodiversity
1. Conservation – efforts made in maintaining
the quality of the natural environments and
their biological resources
- replanting trees
2. Preservation – efforts in protecting the
diverse ecosystem and wildlife species of
earth which are threatened with extinction