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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY ETL 1110-2-346

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers


CECW-ED Washington, DC 20314-1000

Technical
Letter No. 1110-2-346 30 September 1993

Engineering and Design


STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND EVALUATION
OF EXISTING WELDED LOCK GATES

1. Purpose that signs of distress in any project feature be


reported through channels to HQUSACE. Neither
This engineer technical letter (ETL) provides of these references describes how to perform a
guidance for evaluating the structural adequacy of detailed inspection and evaluation of hydraulic steel
existing welded lock gates. structures.

b. The state of the art in metal fatigue and


2. Applicability fracture analysis has advanced greatly in recent
years. In many industries these concepts are regu-
This ETL applies to HQUSACE elements, major larly applied to new designs and to evaluation of
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and existing structural elements. EM 1110-2-2105
field operating activities having responsibilities for requires that fatigue and fracture be considered
civil works projects. when designing new hydraulic steel structures.

c. Steel structures at several civil works pro-


3. References jects have experienced severe cracking. Some of
these incidents are discussed in Enclosure 1. This
a. ER 1110-2-100, Periodic Inspection and demonstrates the need to emphasize fatigue and
Continuing Evaluation of Completed Civil Works fracture concepts when inspecting and evaluating
Structures. such structures.

b. ER 1110-2-101, Reporting Evidence of Dis- d. The six enclosures to this ETL provide
tress of Civil Works Projects. detailed methods for inspection and evaluation of
existing steel lock gates. These enclosures provide
c. EM 1110-2-2105, Design of Hydraulic Steel specific recommendations for inspection techniques,
Structures. evaluation of detected flaws, and prediction of
remaining life. These concepts are also applicable
d. EM 1110-2-2703, Lock Gates and Operating to a wide range of other structures, including almost
Equipment. any steel structure in a civil works project.

4. Discussion 5. Action

a. ER 1110-2-100 defines periodic inspection a. Periodic inspection of steel lock gates


requirements for completed civil works projects. should include close visual inspection of critical
These requirements include all aspects of a project members and connections.
and are general in nature. ER 1110-2-101 requires
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

b. If cracks are detected during periodic c. These actions should also be implemented
inspections, the cracked elements and other critical for other steel features of civil works projects when
locations should be evaluated using the methods deemed appropriate by the structural engineer.
defined in the enclosure.

FOR THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL WORKS:

6 Encl PAUL D. BARBER, P.E.


Chief, Engineering Division
Directorate of Civil Works

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30 Sep 93

GENERAL DISCUSSION

1. Scope chamber; however, they can also be used as guard


gates, valves for filling and emptying the lock
a. Enclosures 1 through 6 include procedures to chamber, for passing ice and debris, to unwater the
inspect existing welded steel lock gates and evaluate lock chamber, to separate salt and fresh water, and
them for potential failure. The general concepts to provide access from one lock wall to the other
may also be applied to new designs, riveted and via walkways attached to the top of the gates. Most
bolted gates, gates for other purposes, and even to existing lock gates are miter gates and vertical-lift
other types of materials. gates, with a small percentage being sector gates
and submergible tainter gates.
b. This enclosure provides general discussion
and Enclosure 2 discusses causes of structural dete- b. The majority of lock gates are of the miter
rioration. Enclosure 3 describes the level of steel type, primarily because they tend to be more eco-
gate inspection appropriate during a periodic inspec- nomical to construct and operate and can be opened
tion. This includes preselecting critical locations and closed more rapidly than other types of lock
which require close examination, including identifi- gates. Miter gates are categorized by their framing
cation of fracture critical members and connections mechanism into vertically or horizontally framed
and visual inspection. Enclosure 4 describes the gates. Water pressure acting on the skin plate of a
detailed nondestructive testing procedures which vertically framed gate is resisted by vertical beam
should be used while performing a detailed struc- members supported by a horizontal girder at the top
tural inspection. Some of these procedures may and bottom of the leaf. The horizontal girders then
also be appropriate during periodic inspections. transmit the loads to the miter and quoin at the top
of the leaf and into the sill at the bottom of the leaf.
c. When evaluating older lock gates, necessary Horizontally framed lock gates transmit the skin
material information may not be available. It may plate water load directly to horizontal girders which
become necessary to perform material testing to then transfer the load to the quoin block and into
determine the chemistry, strength, ductility, hard- the walls of the lock monolith. Current design
ness, and toughness of the base and weld metal. guidance, Engineer Manual (EM) 1110-2-2703,
For this reason, material and weld testing tech- "Lock Gates and Operating Equipment,"1 recom-
niques are discussed in detail in Enclosure 5. mends that future miter gates be horizontally
framed; however, a large percentage of existing
d. Engineering evaluation of an existing gate miter gates are vertically framed.
should be more than an educated guess or a subjec-
tive evaluation. The gate condition should be deter- c. Another type of lock gate is the sector gate.
mined numerically using proper fatigue and fracture This gate is framed similar to a tainter gate, how-
analysis methods. These procedures are described ever, it pivots about a vertical axis similar to a
in Enclosure 6. The analyses can be used to deter- miter gate. Sector gates have traditionally been
mine if the gate is safe to continue current used in tidal reaches of rivers or canals and conse-
operation, what is a safe interval until the next quently may be subject to head reversal. Sector
inspection, and what is the remaining life of the gates may be used to control flow in the lock cham-
gate for expected operating conditions. ber during normal operation or close off flow dur-
ing emergency operation. Sector gates are generally
limited to lifts of 10 ft or less.
2. Types of Gates
d. Vertical-lift gates differ from miter and
a. Currently, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers sector gates in that they are raised and lowered
(USACE) operates over 250 lock chambers. The
functional requirements for lock gates vary, depend-
ing on the specific project location and operating ____________________
1
conditions. The primary purpose for steel gates is References for Enclosures 1 through 6 are found
to provide a damming surface across the lock in the Reference section following Enclosure 6.

Enclosure 1 1-1
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30 Sep 93

vertically to open or close the lock chamber. The not detailed enough to detect initial cracks nor were
load developed by water pressure acting on the lift fatigue and fracture analyses performed for these
gate skin plate is transmitted along horizontal structures prior to, and often not subsequent to,
girders into the walls of the lock monolith. Lift failure. The following brief examples, all taken
gates can be operated under moderate heads but not from a single district, illustrate the potential results
under reverse head conditions. of casual inspection combined with inattention to
fatigue and fracture concepts during design.
e. Submergible tainter gates are used infre-
quently as lock gates. This type of gate pivots a. Miter gate anchorage.
similar to a spillway tainter gate but is raised to
close the lock chamber and lowered into the cham- (1) The project utilized vertically framed
ber to open it. The load developed by water pres- downstream miter gates, 45 ft high, with a 110-ft
sure acting on the submergible tainter gate skin lock width. The upper embedded gate anchorage
plate is transmitted along horizontal girders to struts failed unexpectedly while the chamber was at tail-
recessed in the lock wall. The struts are connected water elevation. Failure occurred by fracture at the
to and rotate about trunnions anchored to each lock gudgeon pin hole. The anchor was a structural steel
wall. assembly of two channels and two 1/2-in.-thick
plates. The use of a channel with up-turned legs
causes ponding of water and results in pitting and
3. Strength and Serviceability Requirements scaling corrosion. Since the anchor is a nonredun-
dant tension member, failure caused the leaf to fall
a. Lock gates are designed according to to the concrete sill, though it remained vertical.
requirements of appropriate EM’s and design codes
as listed in EM 1110-2-2105, "Design of Hydraulic (2) The failure surfaces were disposed of
Steel Structures." Lock gates are designed to have without an examination to determine the cause of
design strengths at all sections equal, at least, to the failure. To make the lock operational as quickly as
required strengths calculated for the critical combi- possible, repairs were implemented without any
nation of loads and forces. Various gate members evaluation or recommendations from the Engineer-
must be designed to resist axial forces, bending ing Division. These repairs consisted of butting and
forces, and combined bending and axial forces. welding a new channel section to the remaining
These members are fabricated from bars, plates, embedded section and bolting a 1-in. cover plate to
standard rolled shapes, and built-up sections the channel webs. The bolt and plate materials are
depending on geometrical requirements, loading, not known.
and economics. Structural inspection and evalua-
tion are required to assure that adequate strength (3) The same type of anchorage is used on at
and serviceability are maintained at all sections least two other projects with a total of 16 similar
during the life of the gate. anchors.

b. Serviceability is a state in which the function b. Spare miter gate.


of a lock gate, its maintainability, durability, and
operability are preserved for the life of the gate. (1) The project had a spare miter gate which
The structural inspection and evaluation must assure consisted of five welded modules. When in use,
that all deflections, deformations, vibrations, corro- these modules were stacked vertically and bolted
sion, and wear of structural members do not impair together. The spare gate had been used several
the operability or performance of the lock gate. times. However, 1 month after the last installation,
cracks were discovered in the downstream flanges
of three vertical girders. The cracks originated at
4. Examples of Distressed Lock Gates the downstream face of the flange in the heat
affected zone at the toe of a transverse fillet weld.
Fracture and failure of steel members and connec- (This detail is category E for fatigue design.) The
tions have occurred in several Corps of Engineers cracks then propagated through the flange and into
projects. These projects received the required peri- the web. After cracking the downstream face of the
odic inspections. However, the inspections were flanges was 0.5-in. out-of-vertical alignment.

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(2) Quick repairs were performed by operations (3) Repair procedures were designed by engi-
personnel, without input from engineering person- neering personnel for this gate. However, the
nel. The web crack was filled with weld. The specified weld procedures were not used by the
flange cracks were gouged and welded, then two contractor, and the welders were not properly quali-
small bars were fillet welded across the crack. The fied per AWS requirements. These facts may have
bar material is unknown. These repairs served to caused inadequate repair welds, which duplicates
get the gate back into service immediately. How- part of the causes of the original cracking problem.
ever, reliable long-term repairs also should be
developed and implemented.
5. Summary
c. Submersible lift gate.
The preceding examples represent only a few of the
(1) This project has a submersible lift gate as steel cracking problems which have occurred on
the main, operational, upstream lock gate. The gate Corps of Engineers projects. It is evident that steel
consists of two leaves with six horizontal girders fatigue and fracture are real problems. Engineering,
spanning 110 ft. Several cracks were discovered in construction, and operations personnel should be
one leaf while the lock was out of service for other aware of this and of the preventive procedures
repairs. Subsequent detailed inspection identified needed to minimize such problems. Prevention is
over 100 cracks in girder flanges and bracing mem- best accomplished through proper design and con-
bers. One crack extended through the downstream struction, followed by adequate maintenance and
flange of a horizontal girder and 3 ft into the inspection. However, many existing steel structures
8-ft-deep web. may be susceptible to fatigue and fracture problems.
When cracks are discovered, engineering personnel
(2) This gate was subjected to a detailed inves- should evaluate the reliability or remaining life of
tigation of the cause of the cracking. The study the structure, determine the need for repairs, and
identified several contributing factors: the original develop adequate repair plans. When fractures
design had ignored a loading case and had included occur, operations and engineering personnel should
improper loading assumptions; limit switches were work together to investigate the causes and develop
improperly stopping the gate before it reached its reliable repair plans. Enclosures 2 through 6 pre-
supports; the design ignored higher stresses caused sent methods for inspection and evaluation of exist-
by eccentric connections on the downstream face; ing steel lock gates. These procedures should be
most of the original welds did not meet current followed to identify and correct deficiencies before
American Welding Society (AWS) quality stan- they result in serious failures.
dards; the steel for the gate had a low fracture
toughness, ranging from 5 ft-lb at 32 oF to 15 ft-lb
at 70 oF.

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CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

1. Corrosion corrosion and cause should be identified to assure


that a thorough evaluation is performed. Ultrasonic
Corrosion is degradation of a material by reaction equipment and gap gauges are available to measure
with its environment. All corrosion processes have loss of material. The progressive loss of material
electrochemical reactions as their bases. Some are can increase deflections and result in failure by
purely electrochemical, such as galvanic, pitting, overstressing, buckling, or fracture.
crevice, and general corrosion, whereas others result
from the action of chemical plus mechanical factors,
such as erosion and stress corrosion. 2. Unusual Loads

a. General corrosion is characterized by an Lock gates are designed to resist loads from self
uniform attack over the entire exposed surface with weight, hydraulic, and boat impact as discussed in
minimal variation in the depth of damage. The rate EM 1110-2-2703. Dynamic loading due to hydrau-
of attack is usually predictable, and catastrophic lic flow and impact loading due to vessel collision
failure does not often result. Galvanic corrosion is currently unpredictable. The dynamic loading
occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are in may be caused by hydraulic flow at the seals or
contact and placed in an electrolyte such as water. when lock gates are used to supplement chamber
A potential difference in the metals causes a flow filling or skim ice and debris. Impact loading can
of current between them, and the more active metal occur from malfunctioning equipment on the vessel
(anode) undergoes accelerated corrosion whereas or operator error. Furthermore, unusual loadings
corrosion in the less active metal (cathode) is may occur from malfunctioning limit switches or
retarded or eliminated. Galvanic corrosion can be debris trapped at interfaces between moving parts.
minimized by use of coatings and by keeping the In addition, unusual loads may develop on gates
anode large relative to the cathode. Pitting is a supported by walls that are settling or moving.
form of localized corrosion where the attack is These unusual loads can cause overstressing and
confined to numerous small cavities on the metal lead to deterioration of the lock gates.
surface. The length/depth ratio of the pit is usually
equal to or greater than 1. The pitts can act as
stress risers and promote nucleation of fatigue 3. Fatigue
cracks. Failure due to pitting corrosion may be
rapid and without warning. Crevice corrosion is a. Most structures are subjected to repeated
associated with confined spaces (< 0.001 in.) cyclic loading. Fatigue is the process of cumulative
formed by close fitting mechanical configurations damage caused by repeated cyclic loading. Fatigue
such as tapped joints, washers, and lap joints. damage occurs at stress concentrated regions where
the localized stress exceeds the yield stress of the
b. Stress corrosion involves the occurrence of material. After a certain number of cyclic loads,
both chemical and mechanical interactions. Four the accumulated damage causes the initiation and
basic requirements are necessary to cause stress propagation of a crack.
corrosion cracking: a susceptible alloy, an aggres-
sive environment, applied or residual tensile stress, b. Total fatigue life is the sum of the crack
and time. The rate of attack is rapid at the crack initiation and the crack propagation to a critical size
tip and much less rapid at the sides. (Barsom and Rolfe 1987). The main concern in
fatigue assessment of welded lock gates is to deter-
c. The paint system and cathodic protection mine the time required for failure to occur. The
systems should be inspected to assure that protec- propagation life is governed by the rate of subcriti-
tion is being provided against corrosion. The effect cal crack growth. Refer to Enclosure 6 for
of corrosion on the strength, stability, and service- additional discussion on fatigue.
ability of lock gates must be evaluated. The type of

Enclosure 2 2-1
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

4. Fracture should be kept below the critical stress-intensity


factor, KIc, at all times to prevent brittle fracture.
For strength and economic reasons, EM 1110-2-
2703 recommends that lock gates be fabricated c. Brittle fracture is a sudden catastrophic
using structural-grade carbon steel. Standards such failure which occurs suddenly without prior plastic
as American Society for Testing and Materials deformation and can occur at nominal stress levels
(ASTM) A6 or ASTM A898 (1991a,e) have been below yield. Brittle fracture becomes more pre-
developed to establish allowable size and number of dominate as member thickness, constraint, and
discontinuities for base metal used to fabricate lock loading rates increase and as temperature decreases.
gates. In addition, EM 1110-2-2703 also recom- Frequently, plates 1-1/2 in. in thickness and greater
mends that the gates be welded in accordance with are used as primary welded structural components
the Structural Welding Code-Steel (American on hydraulic gates. It is not uncommon to see such
National Standards Institute (ANSI)/AWS (1992). thick plates used as gate flanges, embedded
This code provides a standard for limiting the size anchorage at the top of gates, hinge and operating
and number of various types of discontinuities that equipment connections, diagonal bracing, lifting or
develop during welding. Although these criteria jacking assemblies, or platforms to support oper-
exist, when a lock gate goes into service it does ating equipment that actuates the gates. In addition,
contain discontinuities. thick castings, such as sector gears used for operat-
ing lock gates may be susceptible to brittle fracture.
a. When tensile stresses are applied to a body Cracking has been experienced on lock gates during
that contains a discontinuity such as a sharp crack, fabrication and after the thick assemblies are welded
the crack tip tends to open. For cases where plastic and placed into service.
deformation is constrained to a small zone at the
crack tip (plane-strain condition), the fracture insta- d. For many structural applications where low-
bility can be predicted using linear elastic fracture to medium-strength steels are used, the material
mechanics (LEFM) concepts. The fundamental thickness is not sufficient to maintain small
principle of LEFM is that the stress field ahead of a crack-tip plastic deformation under slow loading
sharp crack in a structural member can be charac- conditions at normal service temperatures. Conse-
terized in terms of a single parameter, K. K is the quently, the LEFM approach is invalidated by the
stress-intensity factor and has units of kips per formation of large plastic zones and elastic-plastic
square inch-√in. The stress-intensity factor is behavior in the region near the crack tip. One
related to both the nominal stress and the geometry method frequently used to analyze discontinuities
of the existing discontinuity. When the crack is when elastic-plastic conditions exist is the crack-tip
opening with the two fracture surfaces displaced opening displacement (CTOD) method (British
perpendicular to each other in opposite directions, Standards Institution 1980). The LEFM and CTOD
the displacement is referred to as mode I. The methods are discussed in detail in Enclosure 6.
stress-intensity factor during crack opening or
mode I displacement is referred to as KI.
5. Design Deficiencies
b. Another underlying principle of fracture
mechanics is that unstable fracture occurs when the Many existing lock gates were designed during the
stress-intensity factor at the crack tip reaches a criti- early and mid-1900’s. Analysis and design technol-
cal value. For mode I displacement and for small ogies have significantly improved to the current
crack-tip plastic deformation (plane-strain condi- methodology for gate design. Original design load-
tion), the critical stress-intensity factor for fracture ing conditions may no longer be valid for the exist-
instability is designated KIc. The critical stress- ing gate operation and overstress conditions may
intensity factor represents the ability of the material exist. Current information, such as fatigue and
to withstand a given stress-field intensity at the tip fracture control in structures, was not available
of a crack and to resist tensile crack extension. when many of the initial designs were performed.
Thus, KIc represents the fracture toughness of a Consequently, low category fatigue details and low
particular material and is a function of temperature toughness materials exist on some lock gates. In
and loading rate. When a structural member con- addition, the amount of corrosion anticipated in the
tains a discontinuity, the stress-intensity factor, KI, original design may not accurately reflect actual

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ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

conditions, and structural members may now be welds which may not be acceptable according to
undersized. To properly evaluate existing lock current standards.
gates, it is important that the analysis and design
information for the gate be reviewed to assure no
design deficiencies exist. 7. Operation and Maintenance

Proper operation and maintenance of lock gates is


6. Fabrication Discontinuities necessary to prevent structural deterioration. If
moving connections are not lubricated properly, the
Welded fabrication can contain various types of bushings will wear and result in misalignment of
discontinuities. Discontinuities in regions near the the gate. The misalignment will subsequently wear
weld are of special concern, since high-tensile contact blocks and seals, and unforseen loads may
residual stresses develop from the welding process. develop. Overstressing and vibrational loads could
There are two reasons that fabrication discontinu- then develop and reduce the life of the gate. Mal-
ities reduce the strength of welded gates. First, the functioning limit switches and debris along the gate
presence of the discontinuities decreases the sec- path can also induce detrimental loads and wear.
tional areas, and second, stress becomes concen- As discussed in this enclosure, paragraph 1, it is
trated around the discontinuities. The effect of essential that an effective coating system be main-
weld discontinuities on structural strength depends tained on the gates to minimize corrosion. Further-
upon the nature and size of discontinuities, type of more, when cathodic protection is necessary, it, too,
material, and type of loading. Discontinuities that must be properly operated and maintained. In addi-
exist during initial fabrication are rejectable only tion, to assure that necessary torsional stability is
when they exceed specified requirements in terms provided during opening and closing of miter gates,
of type, size, distribution, or location as specified it is essential that the prestress in the diagonals be
by ANSI/AWS (1992). In addition, industry stan- maintained. In addition, proper maintenance of
dards have improved in the area of material timber fenders and bumpers is necessary to provide
processing and fabrication. Therefore, existing protection to the gate and minimize deterioration.
structures may have included joint preparation and

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PERIODIC INSPECTION

1. Purpose of Inspection h. Conduct initial evaluation.

Existing welded lock gates are subjected to condi-


tions which could cause structural deterioration and 3. Critical Members and Connections
premature failure. The causes of deterioration are
discussed in Enclosure 2. To assure premature a. The periodic inspection should assure that
failures are averted and identify future maintenance all critical members and connections are fit for
requirements, periodic inspections are performed as service until the next scheduled inspection. Critical
discussed in Engineer Regulation (ER) 1110-2-100, members and connections are those structural ele-
"Periodic Inspection and Continuing Evaluation of ments whose failure would render the gate inoper-
Completed Civil Works Structures." Periodic able. Fitness for service means that the material
inspections on lock gates are primarily visual and fabrication quality are at an appropriate level
inspections. If the periodic inspection indicates that considering risks and consequences of failure
a gate may be distressed, a more detailed inspection (Enclosure 6).
and evaluation may be necessary. This detailed
inspection may require nondestructive and/or b. Critical gate members and connections can
destructive testing as discussed in Enclosures 4 be determined from structural analysis of the gate.
and 5. The information obtained from the inspec- This should include local stress concentrations and
tions and tests will then be used to perform a struc- fatigue considerations. In addition, effects from
tural evaluation as discussed in Enclosure 6 and existing corrosion and reduced weld quality or
make a recommendation for future action. This associated residual stresses should be considered.
enclosure will further discuss the visual inspection This analysis will require information pertaining to
which should be performed during the periodic the existing mechanical properties of the structural
inspection. material and weld (i.e. strength, toughness, ductility)
and the location, type, size, and orientation of any
known discontinuities.
2. Inspection Procedures

The periodic inspection procedure should include 4. Visual Inspection


the following steps:
a. The inspector should look closely at the
a. Review documentation on gate design, members and connections and not just view them
operational history, and maintenance record. from the top of the lock wall. Visual inspections
should be performed with an emphasis on critical
b. Identify critical members and connections. gate members and connections as discussed in para-
graph 3 of this enclosure. Historically, distressed
c. Develop plan for visual inspection. gate members and connections have been located in
areas subject to high structural loads or stress
d. Inspect for weld condition and surface ranges, geometric stress concentrations, corrosion-
discontinuities. promoting conditions, and thick plates.

e. Inspect for corrosion conditions. b. Inspectors should use various measuring


scales and weld gauges for checking the dimensions
f. Observe gate operation (and cathodic protec- of the weld bead. Boroscopes, flashlights, and
tion, if applicable). mirrors may be necessary to inspect areas of limited
accessibility. Hand-tools may be necessary for
g. Document weld, discontinuity, and corrosion cleaning the surface for inspection.
conditions.

Enclosure 3 3-1
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30 Sep 93

5. Other Inspection Methods of material due to corrosion can often be deter-


mined using ultrasonic inspection methods. If the
Inspection methods other than visual inspection may strength or stability under the existing conditions
be used for the periodic inspection of lock gates, if does not meet the design criteria, then the loads
necessary. These methods may include penetrant, must be reduced by modifying the operational pro-
magnetic particle, ultrasonic, and eddy-current cedures or the section should be replaced or rebuilt.
inspections. These inspection methods are dis-
cussed in Enclosure 4.
7. Inspection Intervals

6. Initial Evaluation The maximum time interval between periodic


inspections of lock gates is established in ER 1110-
The most common problems identified by a visual 2-100. Visual inspections should also be performed
inspection are discovery of weld bead noncompli- if unusual loading situations occur. Such situations
ance, with respect to the ANSI/AWS D1.1-92 include barge impact, earthquake, excessive ice
(1992), Structural Welding Code-Steel, surface load, frictional forces increase between seals and
cracks, fracture of structural members, and deterio- embedded plates, and movement of the supporting
ration from corrosion. For weld bead noncompli- monoliths. Additional detailed inspections may be
ances, the initial evaluation will be based on required to pursue concerns developed from the
checking with the ANSI/AWS D1.1-92 code accep- periodic inspections or investigate reported distress
tance criteria. If surface cracks or fractured mem- from lock personnel. If discontinuities exist, frac-
bers are discovered during the periodic inspections, ture mechanics concepts can also be applied to
detailed inspection and evaluation shall be per- determine appropriate inspection intervals as dis-
formed for the entire gate. The strength and stabil- cussed in Enclosure 6.
ity of corroded members should be calculated. Loss

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DETAILED INSPECTION

1. Purpose of Inspection 2. Selecting Inspection Methods

a. If distressed gate members or connections a. NDT methods are essential for field inspec-
are identified in the periodic inspection or deteriora- tion of existing lock gates. NDT can be used to
tion in structural performance is assessed from the improve structural reliability by detecting discon-
initial evaluation, then the entire gate should receive tinuities for appropriate repair. NDT methods differ
a more detailed inspection of the distressed mem- from destructive testing methods which damage or
bers, and connections should be evaluated. This impair the serviceability of the items tested.
enclosure presents a summary of various inspection
methods, guidance in selecting inspection methods, b. The six NDT methods commonly used in
inspector qualifications, code acceptance criteria, today’s industries are visual (VT), penetrant (PT),
and applicable source documents that may aid in magnetic-particle (MT), radiographic (RT), ultra-
performing a detailed inspection. sonic (UT), and eddy-current (ET). Selection of an
NDT method for inspection depends on a number of
b. Detailed inspections may be also used as variables, including the nature of the discontinuity,
part of a damage-tolerance fracture control plan accessibility, joint type and geometry, material type,
which has been used to optimize the use of welded detectability and reliability of the inspection
structures in many industries. This fracture control method, inspector qualifications, and economic
concept is based on the fact that presence of crack- considerations. A general guide for selecting NDT
like discontinuities in the structural members or methods for field inspection is given in Table 4-1,
connections does not necessarily mean the end of this enclosure.
the structure’s service life. An integrated approach
using scheduled inspections on the flawed members
and analysis of fracture/fatigue resistance of the 3. Inspector Qualifications
same members can maintain satisfactory structural
performance. The cost for repair or replacement of For an inspection to be worth performing, the
the flawed members can therefore be balanced inspector must be qualified. Corps personnel are
against the inspection cost. often not adequately trained in inspection methods;
therefore, inspections are often performed via con-
c. To develop schedules for inspection when tract with inspection specialists. The following
the damage-tolerance fracture control plan is used, qualification requirements apply to all inspectors,
fracture mechanics theories must be applied. The whether government or contractor employees.
inspection periods can be determined by fatigue
propagation analysis of the cracked structural mem- a. Qualification in NDT methods.
bers. The crack growth history from a detectable
size to the critical size can be predicted using the (1) The effectiveness of NDT depends on the
propagation laws (e.g. Paris’s crack growth law). capabilities of the person who performs the test.
Time interval between inspections should be a Inspectors performing NDT should be qualified in
fraction of this crack growth life. The optimum accordance with the American Society for Non-
nondestructive testing (NDT) intervals vary with destructive Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice
service conditions and the discontinuity conditions. No. SNT-TC-1A (ASNT 1980). The SNT-TC-1A
These inspection intervals should be short enough document is a guide to establish practices for train-
that the nondetectable cracks at the preceding ing, qualification, and certification of NDT person-
inspections do not have time to propagate to failure nel. Three basic levels of qualification are defined
before the next scheduled inspection. in SNT-TC-1A as follows:

d. A procedure for planning the inspection (a) NDT Level I: An NDT Level I individual
schedules from the crack growth analysis is shall be qualified to properly perform specific cali-
presented in Enclosure 6. brations, specific NDT, and specific evaluations for

Enclosure 4 4-1
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30 Sep 93

Table 4-1
Selection Guide for Inspection Method
Method Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Visual Surface discontinuities Economical, fast. Limited to visual acuity of the inspector.

Liquid Surface cracks and porosity Relatively inexpensive and Cleaning is needed before and after
penetrant reasonably rapid. inspection. Surface films hide defects.

Magnetic Surface discontinuities and Relatively economical and Applicable only to ferromagnetic
particle large subsurface voids expedient. materials.

Radiographic Voluminous discontinuities Provides a permanent Planer discontinuities must be favorably


Surface and internal record. aligned with radiation beam. Cost of
discontinuities equipment is high.

Ultrasonic Most discontinuities Sensitive to planer type Small, thick parts may be difficult to
discontinuities. High inspect. Requires a skilled
penetration capability. operator.

Eddy current Surface and subsurface Painted or coated surfaces Many variables can affect the test
discontinuities can be inspected. signal.
High speed.

acceptance or rejection determinations according to (a) A welding inspector must be familiar with
written instructions and to record results. engineering drawings and able to interpret
specifications.
(b) NDT Level II: An NDT Level II individual
shall be qualified to set up and calibrate equipment (b) A welding inspector should be familiar
and to interpret and evaluate results with respect to with welding processes and welding procedures.
applicable codes, standards, and specifications. The
NDT Level II individual shall be able to organize (c) A welding inspector should be able to
and report the results of NDT. maintain adequate records.

(c) NDT Level III: An NDT Level III indivi- (d) A welding inspector should have passed
dual shall be capable of establishing techniques and an eye examination with or without corrective
procedures; interpreting codes, standards, and proce- lenses to prove:
dures; and designating the particular NDT methods,
techniques, and procedures to be used. • Near vision acuity of Snellen English, or
equivalent, at 12 in.
(2) Certification of all levels of NDT personnel
is the responsibility of the employer. The employer • Far vision acuity of 20/40, or better.
must establish a written practice for the control and
administration of NDT personnel training, examina- (2) In addition, one of the following three
tion, and certification. requirements is necessary to qualify an individual as
a weld inspector for a lock gate:
b. Qualification in weld inspection.
(a) Current or previous certification as an
(1) Welding inspectors are responsible for AWS Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) in accor-
judging the quality of the product in relation to dance with the provisions of AWS QC1-88, Stan-
some form of written specification. The following dard and Guide for Qualification and Certification
qualifications are necessary for individuals to ade- of Welding Inspectors (ANSI/AWS 1988).
quately inspect welds:

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(b) Current or previous qualification by the is simple, quick, and easy to apply. It requires no
Canadian Welding Bureau (CWB) to the require- special equipment other than good eyesight, some-
ments of the Canadian Standard Association (CSA) times assisted by simple and inexpensive
Standard W178.2, Certification of Welding equipment.
Inspectors (CSA 1917).
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. A major
(c) An engineer or technician who, by training, disadvantage of VT inspection is the need for an
experience, or both, in metals fabrication, inspection inspector who has considerable experience and
and testing, is competent to perform inspection of knowledge in many different areas. Although VT
the work. inspection is an invaluable method for detecting
surface discontinuities, it is less reliable in detecting
and quantifying small surface discontinuities or
4. Inspection Reporting detecting subsurface discontinuities.

A report should be completed by the inspector at (3) Applicable document. Material pertaining
the time of inspection. It should show the location, to VT inspection is included in ANSI/AWS
size, orientation, and classification of each disconti- B1.10-86, "Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection
nuity. The following information should be identi- of Welds" (ANSI/AWS 1986).
fied and recorded in the report:
b. Penetrant inspection (PT).
a. Identification and location of inspected
structures. PT inspection is also a method used to detect and
locate surface discontinuities. Liquid penetrants can
b. Date and time of inspection. seep into various types of minute surface openings
by capillary action. Therefore, this process is well
c. Type of inspection. suited for detecting discontinuities such as surface
cracks, overlaps, porosity, and laminations. PT
d. Inspection procedure. inspection can be performed using visible dye or
fluorescent dye visible with ultraviolet light. Three
e. Inspection system (equipment). different penetrants commonly used with either dye
are water washable, solvent removable, and post
f. Inspector identity and level. emulsifiable. The various penetrant inspection
systems are listed in an order of decreasing inspec-
g. Record of discontinuities detected. tion sensitivity and operational cost as follows:

• Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye


5. Summary of NDT Methods
• Solvent removable fluorescent dye
a. Detailed visual inspection (VT).
• Water washable fluorescent dye
Detailed VT inspection uses the same inspection
tools and procedure as that described in • Post emulsifiable visible dye
Enclosure 3, except that, with a knowledge of
existing discontinuities in a structural member or • Solvent removable visible dye
connection from periodic inspections, a more con-
centrated examination is performed. The type, • Water washable visible dye
geometry, size, location, and orientation of the
discontinuities must be quantitatively determined. (1) Advantages. PT inspection is relatively
The entire structure may be inspected rather than inexpensive and reasonably rapid. Equipment
just representative members or connections.

(1) Advantages. VT inspection is useful for


checking the presence of surface discontinuities. It

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generally is simpler and less costly than that for inspection. MT inspection is generally faster and
most other NDT methods. more economical than penetrant inspection. Com-
pared to PT inspection, MT inspection has the
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. The major advantage of revealing cracks filled with foreign
limitation of PT inspection is that it can detect only material.
discontinuities that are open to the surface. Another
disadvantage is that the surface roughness of the (2) Disadvantages and limitations. MT
object being inspected may affect the PT inspection inspection is limited to ferromagnetic material. For
results. Extremely rough or porous surfaces may good results, the magnetic field must be in a direc-
produce false indications. Some substances in the tion that will intercept the direction of the discon-
penetrants can affect structural materials. If pene- tinuity. Large currents sometimes are required for
trants are corrosive to the gate material, they should very large parts. Care is necessary to avoid local
be avoided. heating and burning of surfaces at the points of
electrical contact. Demagnetization is sometimes
(3) Applicable documents. necessary after inspection. Discontinuities must be
open to the surface or must be in the near subsur-
(a) ASTM E165-91: Standard Test Method for face to create flux leakage of sufficient strength to
Liquid Penetrant Examination (ASTM 1991h). accumulate magnetic particles. If a discontinuity is
oriented parallel to the lines of force, it will be
(b) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology essentially undetectable.
for Nondestructive Examinations (ASTM 1992f).
(3) Applicable documents.
(c) AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Nondestruc-
tive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986). (a) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology
for Nondestructive Examinations (ASTM 1992f).
c. Magnetic particle inspection (MT).
(b) ASTM E709-91: Standard Guide for
MT inspection is used to detect surface or near- Magnetic Particle Examination (ASTM 1991l).
surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic fields can be generated by yokes, coils, (c) ANSI/AWS B1.10-86 (ANSI/AWS 1986):
central conductors, prod contacts, and induced cur- Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds.
rent. When the material is magnetized, magnetic
discontinuities that lie in a direction generally trans- d. Radiographic inspection (RT).
verse to the direction of the magnetic field will
cause a leakage field at the surface of the material. RT inspection is based on differential absorption of
The presence of this leakage field is detected by the penetrating radiation by the material being
use of fine ferromagnetic particles applied over the inspected. Radiation from the source is absorbed
surface, some of the particles being gathered and by the test piece as the radiation passes through it.
held by the leakage field. This collection of parti- The discontinuity and its surrounding material
cles indicates the discontinuities. Several magnetic absorb different amounts of penetrating radiation.
particle materials commonly used for MT inspection Thus, the amount of radiation that impinges on the
are dry powders (i.e. suitable for field inspection of film in the area beneath the discontinuity is differ-
large object), wet magnetic particles suspended in ent from the amount that impinges in the adjacent
water or light oil (i.e. suitable for very fine or shal- area. This produces a latent image on the film.
low discontinuities), magnetic slurry suspended in When the film is developed, the discontinuity can
heavy oil, and magnetic particles dispersed in the be seen as a shadow of different photographic den-
liquid polymers to form solid indications. sity from that of the image of the surrounding
material. Evaluation of the radiograph is based on
(1) Advantages. The MT inspection is a sensi- a comparison of these differences in photographic
tive means of detecting small and shallow surface density. The dark regions represent the more easily
or near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic penetrated parts (i.e. thin sections and most types of
materials. The cost of MT inspection is consider- discontinuities) while the lighter regions represent
ably less expensive than radiographic or ultrasonic the more difficult areas to penetrate (i.e. thick

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sections). An essential element to the radiographic (e) ASTM E747-90: Standard Test Method
process is film, a thin transparent plastic base for Controlling Quality of Radiographic Examina-
coated with fine crystals of silver bromide tion Using Wire Penetrameters (ASTM 1990h).
(emulsion).
(f) ASTM E999-90: Standard Guide for Con-
(1) Advantages. trolling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Film
Processing (ASTM 1990i).
(a) RT inspection has an ability to detect sur-
face and internal discontinuities. (g) ASTM E1025-84: Standard Practice for
Hole-Type Image Quality Indicators Used for
(b) It is generally not restricted by the type of Radiography (ASTM 1989c).
material or grain structure.
(h) ASTM E1032-92: Standard Method for
(c) It provides a permanent record for future Radiographic Examination of Weldments (ASTM
review. 1992e).

(2) Disadvantages and limitations. (i) ANSI/AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Non-
destructive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986).
(a) Discontinuities must be favorably aligned
with the radiation beam for reliable detection. (j) ANSI/AWS D1.1-92: Structural Welding
Code-Steel (Chapter 6: Inspection) (ANSI/AWS
(b) It presents a potential radiation hazard to 1992).
personnel.
e. Ultrasonic inspection (UT).
(c) The cost of radiographic equipment, facili-
ties, and safety programs is relatively high. UT inspection is a nondestructive method which
uses high-frequency sound waves to detect surface
(d) Accessibility to both sides of the parts to be and internal discontinuities. The sound waves
inspected is required. travel through the materials to be inspected and are
reflected from surfaces refracted at a boundary
(e) It is difficult to apply for field inspections. between two substances and diffracted at edges or
around obstacles. The reflected sound beam is
(f) It is a time consuming process compared to detected and analyzed to define the presence and
other NDT methods. location of discontinuities. Cracks, laminations,
shrinkage cavities, pores, and other discontinuities
(3) Applicable documents. that act as metal-gas interfaces can be easily
detected. Inclusions and other inhomogeneities in
(a) ASTM E 94-91: Standard Guide for the metal can also be detected. All surfaces of the
Radiographic Testing (ASTM 1991g). part to be examined should be free of weld spatter,
dirt, grease, oil, paint, and loose scale. UT inspec-
(b) ASTM E142-92: Standard Method for tion is usually performed with longitudinal waves or
Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing (ASTM shear waves (i.e. angle beam). Most UT inspec-
1992c). tions for discontinuities are performed using angle-
beam technique. The pulse-echo method with
(c) ASTM E242-91: Standard Reference A-scan is most commonly used for inspection of
Radiographs for Appearances of Radiographic welds. The most commonly used frequencies are
Images as Certain Parameters are Changed (ASTM between 1 and 5 MHz, with sound beams at angles
1991k). of 0, 45, 60, and 70 deg.

(d) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology (1) Advantages.


for Nondestructive Examination (ASTM 1992f).

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(a) Superior penetrating power allows the (f) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology
detection of discontinuities deep in the part. for Ultrasonic Examination (ASTM 1992f).

(b) High sensitivity permits the detection of (g) AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Nonde-
small discontinuities. structive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986).

(c) Great accuracy in determining the size, (h) ANSI/AWS D1.1-92: Structural Welding
position, and the shape of discontinuities. Code-Steel (Chapter 6: Inspection) (ANSI/AWS
1992).
(d) Almost instantaneous indications of dis-
continuities provided. f. Eddy-current inspection (ET).

(e) Ultrasonic inspection is not hazardous to ET inspection is an electromagnetic NDT method


personnel and has no effect on materials. which is based on the principles of electromagnetic
induction. When an alternating current is passed
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. through a coil, eddy current is created in the mater-
ial being tested by an alternating magnetic field.
(a) Manual operation requires careful attention The test coil is electronically monitored to detect
by experienced technicians. the changes of magnetic field caused by the inter-
action between the eddy currents and the initial
(b) Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very field. Any changes in the eddy currents due to
small, or inhomogeneous are difficult to inspect. inhomogeneities in the material are detected; there-
fore, any surface or subsurface discontinuities that
(c) Reference standards are needed for cali- appreciably alter the normal flow of eddy currents
brating the equipment and for characterizing can be detected by ET inspection. Because ET
discontinuities. inspection is an electromagnetic induction tech-
nique, it does not require direct contact between
(d) Interpretation requires experienced probe and the material being tested. The method is
technicians. based on indirect measurement, and the correlation
between the instrument readings and the structural
(3) Applicable documents. characteristics of the material being inspected must
be carefully established.
(a) ASTM A435/A435M-90: Standard Speci-
fication for Straight-Beam Ultrasonic Examination (1) Advantages.
of Steel Plates (ASTM 1990a).
(a) Since direct contact between probe and the
(b) ASTM A577/A577M-90: Standard Speci- material is not required, painted, or coated, mater-
fication for Ultrasonic Angle-Beam Examination of ials can be inspected.
Steel Plates (ASTM 1990c).
(b) ET inspection is adaptable to high-speed
(c) ASTM E114-90: Standard Practice for inspection.
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Examination
by the Contact Method (ASTM 1990d). (2) Disadvantages and limitations.

(d) ASTM E164-90: Standard Practice for (a) The test material must be an electrical
Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments conductor.
(ASTM 1990e).
(b) Some internal discontinuities cannot be
(e) ASTM E214-68: Standard Practice for detected by eddy-current inspection.
Immersed Ultrasonic Examination by the Reflection
Method Using Pulsed Longitudinal Waves (ASTM
1991j).

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(c) Since many variables can affect an eddy-


current signal, variables of no concern must be
separated from those of interest.

(3) Applicable documents.

(a) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology


for Nondestructive Examination (ASTM 1992f).

(b) ANSI/AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Non-


destructive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986).

6. Acceptance Criteria for NDT Results

a. The common weld discontinuities detected


from various NDT methods can be classified into
planar and nonplanar types. Planar type discontinu-
ities include cracks, delaminations or laminar tear-
ing, and sometimes incomplete joint penetration or
incomplete fusion. The nonplanar type discontinu-
ities are volumetric weld discontinuities which
include porosity, slag or tungsten inclusions, under- Figure 4-1. Weld discontinuities (ANSI/AWS
cut, underfill, and overlap. Figure 4.1 shows these 1986; copyright permission granted by American
common types of weld discontinuities defined by Welding Society)
ANSI/AWS B1.10-86, Guide for the Nondestructive
Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986). loading case. Weld profile is a code compliance for
weld quality. Inspection for this code compliance is
b. The results obtained from various NDT usually made by visual inspection with the aid of a
inspections are usually assessed according to the weld gauge. The purpose of this code compliance
code acceptance criteria. The recommended accep- is to provide information on the structural fitness of
tance criteria for weld discontinuities are presented the welds. However, weld profile noncompliance
in the ANSI/AWS D1.1-92 Structural Welding may be acceptable if an engineering assessment is
Code (ANSI/AWS 1992). Repair or replacement of conducted.
structural members or connections which contain
unacceptable discontinuities (i.e. flaws) may be d. The code acceptance criteria recognize the
required. However, fracture mechanics analysis effect of dynamic loading on the structures as
may be conducted to reassess these unacceptable opposed to the statically loaded case. Planar type
discontinuities. A maintenance schedule may be discontinuities are not acceptable in either case.
developed in lieu of immediate repair or replace- Permissible conditions on nonplanar type disconti-
ment of the distressed members or connections nuities are specified in the code criteria with smaller
using the damage-tolerance fracture control plan allowances for the dynamically loaded structures.
(Enclosure 6). Engineering analyses may be conducted to assess
the structural significance of the unacceptable
c. The ANSI/AWS D1.1-92 Structural Welding discontinuities in both instances. A damage-
Code acceptance criteria for various NDT inspection tolerance fracture control plan may be used rather
results can be summarized in three perspectives: than repair or replacement of the distressed
weld profile, static loading case, and dynamic members or connections.

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MATERIAL AND WELD TESTING

1. Purpose of Testing provide a basis of similarity to other known struc-


tural materials for characterizing the properties of
a. Distressed gate members and connections the unknown gate materials. This information can
identified from NDT inspection may continue to be used to assist in selecting appropriate NDT
perform the structural functions with adjustments in methods, assessing corrosion problems, conducting
load conditions or under a reduced safety factor fracture analyses, and assessing material weldability
without load adjustment. Engineering assessments for possible repair. A chemical analysis for mate-
should include fracture and fatigue analysis as rial compositions should be in conformance with
discussed in Enclosure 6. Mechanical properties of ASTM E30-89 and E350-90 (1989b, 1990f).
the structural members and welds are usually
needed in the analysis.
4. Tension Test
b. For lock gates fabricated in recent years, the
materials used for the structural members and welds a. Tension tests on the base metal and weld
are usually well documented and can be identified metal can provide information on the strength and
from the design drawings. For older gates, how- ductility of materials under uniaxial tensile stress.
ever, information on mechanical properties of the Transverse rectangular tension tests of weld samples
structural materials or welds may not be readily show the effect of material inhomogeneity and weld
available. Mechanical tests of these materials and quality on the test results. The pertinent data
welds are sometimes required to determine neces- obtained from a tension test are ultimate tensile
sary information for fracture and fatigue analyses. strength, yield strength, Young’s Modulus, percent
In addition, it may be required to determine the elongation, percent reduction of cross-sectional area,
chemical composition of unknown materials to stress-strain curve, and location and mode of final
assist in selecting the appropriate NDT inspection fracture.
method, performing corrosion assessment, and con-
ducting fracture evaluation. b. The transverse rectangular tension speci-
mens are machined from a butt welded plate, with
the weld crossing in the midsection of the specimen
2. Selection of Samples from Existing (AWS B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), Figure C-2). When
Structure weldment thickness is beyond the capacity of test
equipment, the weldment is divided through its
Material information that is frequently required to thickness into as many specimens as required to
structurally evaluate a welded gate includes chemi- cover the full weld thickness. The results of the
cal composition, tensile strength, bend ductility, partial thickness specimens are averaged to deter-
fillet weld shear strength, hardness, and fracture mine the properties of the full thickness joint.
toughness. The test samples may be taken from the
materials left from original fabrication, removed c. Excessively deep machine cuts that will
from existing gate members or connections, or cause specimen bending during testing or that leave
obtained from weldments made of similar materials tears in the surface of the finished dimensions
with welding procedures similar to those used in the should be avoided. Imperfections present in the
original fabrication. guage length, which are incidental to welding,
should not be removed.

3. Chemical Analysis d. The base metal and weld metal tests are
performed on a tensile testing machine in accor-
When the chemical composition of an existing gate dance with the requirements of ASTM E8-91
material is not available, it may be necessary to (1991f). The machine should be calibrated in
perform a chemical analysis. This is an important accordance with ASTM E4-89 (1989a). The
initial task in the overall material and weld testing testing procedure is as specified in ASTM E8-91
program. The information from this analysis will (1991f). The rate of straining should be

Enclosure 5 5-1
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between 0.05 and 0.5 in. per inch of guage length, determine incomplete fusion, cracking, delamina-
per minute. tion, effect of bead configuration, and macrodefects
of welded joints. The quality of welds can be eval-
e. Material properties are calculated as follows: uated as a function of ductility to resist cracking
during bending. The top and bottom surfaces of a
(1) Ultimate tensile strength = maximum welded plate are designated as the face and root
load/original cross-sectional area in the guage surfaces, respectively. Face bends have the weld
length. face on the tension side of the bent specimen, and
the weld root is on the tension side for root bends.
(2) Yield strength = load at 0.2% offset/original For thick plates, transverse slices are cut from the
cross-sectional area in the guage length. welded joint, and one of the cut side surfaces
becomes the tension side of the bent specimen.
(3) Percent elongation = (Final guage length -
original guage length)/original guage length × 100. b. When the plate thickness is less than or
equal to 3/8 in., two specimens are tested for face
(4) Reduction of area: Fit the ends of the frac- bend and two specimens are tested for root bend.
tured specimen together and measure the thickness When the thickness of the plate is greater than
and width at the minimum cross section. Calculate 3/8 in., four specimens are tested for side bend.
the reduced area.
c. Transverse side bend test specimens (AWS
At least two specimens should be tested for each B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), Figure A-5) are used for
sample type. The result of the tension test is the plates that are too thick for face bend or root bend
average of the results of the specimens. specimen. The weld is perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal axis of the specimen. The side showing more
f. Applicable documents. significant discontinuities should be the tension sur-
face of the specimen.
(1) ANSI B46.1-85: Surface Texture (ANSI
1985). d. For a transverse face bend specimen (AWS
B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), Figure A-6a), weld is perpen-
(2) ASTM E4-89: Standard Practices for Load dicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen. The
Verification of Testing Machines (ASTM 1989a). weld face becomes the tension surface of the speci-
men during bending. For transverse root bend
(3) ASTM E8-91: Standard Test Methods for specimen (AWS B4.0-85, Figure A-6b), weld is
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the speci-
1991f). men. The root surface of the weld becomes the
tension surface of the specimen during bending.
(4) AWS A2.4-86: Standard Symbols for For all types of bend tests, face, root, and side, the
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination specimen is tested at ambient temperature, and
(AWS 1986). deformation should occur in a time period between
1/2 and 2 min.
(5) AWS A3.0-89: Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions (AWS 1989). e. During the test, the convex surface of the
bent specimen should be examined frequently for
(6) AWS B4.0-85 - Part C: Tension Testing of cracks or other open defects. If a crack or open
Welded Joints (AWS 1985). defect is present after bending, exceeding a speci-
fied size measured in any direction, the specimen is
considered to be failed (AWS B4.0-85 (AWS
5. Bend Test 1985)). Cracks occurring on the corners of the
specimen during testing are not considered to fail a
a. Guided bend tests are used to evaluate the specimen unless they exceed a specified size or
ductility and soundness of welded joints and to show evidence of defects (AWS B4.0-85).

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f. Applicable documents. effective weld throat area (i.e. theoretical throat


thickness times total length of fillet weld sheared).
(1) ANSI B46.1-85: Surface Texture (ANSI At least two specimens are tested. The result of the
1985). shear test is the average of the results of the speci-
mens. A test is considered invalid if the failure is
(2) ASTM E190-92: Standard Test Method for caused by a base metal defect. The fracture loca-
Guided Bend Test for Ductility of Welds (ASTM tion must also be included in the report.
1992d).
e. Applicable documents.
(3) AWS A2.4-86: Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination (1) ASTM E4-89: Standard Practices for
(AWS 1986). Load Verification of Testing Machines (ASTM
1989a).
(4) AWS A3.0-89: Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions (AWS 1989). (2) ASTM E8-91: Standard Test Methods for
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM
(5) AWS B4.0-85 - Part A: Bend Testing of 1991f).
Welded Joints (AWS 1985).
(3) AWS A2.4-86: Standard Symbols for
Welding and Nondestructive Testing (AWS 1986).
6. Fillet Weld Shear Test
(4) AWS A3.0-89: Standard Welding Terms
a. The fillet weld shear test is used to deter- and Definitions (AWS 1989).
mine the shear strength of fillet welds. The test
specimens are usually made from a weld sample (5) AWS B4.0-85 - Part E: Fillet Weld Shear
with welding procedures similar to that used in the Test (AWS 1985).
original fabrication. During testing, a tensile load is
placed on the specimen to shear the fillet welds.
The shear strength of the weld is reported as load 7. Hardness Test
per unit weld length.
a. Hardness tests are used in weld evaluations
b. For longitudinal shear strength, the specimen to provide information on the generic weld proper-
is prepared in accordance with AWS B4.0-85 (AWS ties. Hardness measurements provide indications of
1985), Figure E-1. For transverse shear strength, metallurgical changes caused by welding, metallurg-
the test specimen is prepared in accordance with ical variations and abrupt microstructural discon-
AWS B4.0-85, Figure E-2. The surface contour tinuities in weld joints, brittleness, and relative
and size of the fillet welds should be in accordance sensitivity to cracking under structural loads.
with the applicable code or standards.
b. Specimens for hardness testing include
c. The test is performed on a tensile machine in as-welded partial or complete assemblies, weld-
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E8-91 ments from which the reinforcement has been
(ASTM 1991f). The machine should be calibrated removed, and weld joint cross sections. For hard-
in accordance with ASTM E4-89 (ASTM 1989a). ness tests of existing lock gates, the weld reinforce-
The specimen is positioned in the testing machine ment may or may not be removed. When it is
so that the tensile load is applied parallel to the removed, a local area of the reinforcement is
longitudinal axis of the specimen. The length, ground smooth before testing. For large assemblies,
average throat dimension, and legs of each weld portable hardness testers are available that can be
should be measured and reported. The welds are transported for use in the field. Microhardness
sheared under tensile loads and the maximum ten- testing of weld is usually performed on ground,
sile loads are reported. polished, or polished and etched transverse cross
sections of the weld joints.
d. Shear strength in pounds per square inch is
calculated by dividing the maximum load by the

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c. Hardness testing methods include Brinell, from different test methods can be correlated
Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop tests. Selection of through a conversion chart (ASTM E140-88
test method depends on hardness or strength of the (ASTM 1988)).
material, the size of the welded joints, and the type
of information desired. The Brinell test produces a g. For each type of hardness test performed, at
large indentation and is suited for large welds in least five indentations should be made for each
heavy plates, which is suitable for field evaluations. region. The result of the hardness test is the aver-
The Rockwell test produces much smaller indenta- age of the indentations.
tions than the Brinell test and is more suited for
hardness traverses. The Rockwell hardness test is h. Applicable documents.
also suitable for field inspection if a portable tester
is used. The Vickers and Knoop tests make rela- (1) ASTM E10-84: Standard Test Method for
tively small indentations and are suited for hardness Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM
measurements of the various regions in the weld 1984).
heat-affected zone and for fine-scale traverses. The
Brinell and Rockwell tests are generally used for (2) ASTM E18-92: Standard Test Methods
hardness measurements of fusion-welded joints in for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial
laboratory condition or field environment. Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM 1992a).

d. The Brinell hardness test is performed in (3) ASTM E92-82: Standard Test Method for
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E10-84 Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM
(ASTM 1984). It is an indentation hardness test 1987a).
using calibrated machines to force a hard ball into
the surface of the material and to measure the diam- (4) ASTM E110-82: Standard Test Method
eter of the resulting impression after removal of the for Indentation Hardness of Metallic Materials by
load. The Brinell hardness number, HB, is related Portable Hardness Testers (ASTM 1987b).
to the applied load and to the surface area of the
permanent impression made by a ball indenter.
8. Fracture Toughness Test
e. The Rockwell hardness test is performed in
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E18-92 Fracture toughness is a material property which
(ASTM 1992a). This test is an indentation hard- indicates its resistance to fracture. Fracture tough-
ness test to force a diamond spheroconical indenter ness testing provides a measure of resistance to
or hard ball indenter into the surface of the material crack initiation or propagation. Test methods
in two operations and to measure the difference in include Charpy V-notch test (CVN), Plane-Strain
depth of the indentation. The Rockwell hardness Fracture Toughness test (KIc), and Crack-Tip
number, HR, is a number derived from the net Opening Displacement test (CTOD). The CVN test
increase in the depth of indentation as the force is is used to measure the ability of a material to
increased from a preliminary test force to a total absorb energy. The KIc or CTOD tests are used to
test force and then returned to the preliminary test determine critical crack size that a material can
force. The higher the number the harder the tolerate without fracture when loaded to a specific
material. stress level. The welding process and welding
procedure have a significant effect on the fracture
f. The Vickers hardness test is performed in toughness of a weld joint. The same welding pro-
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E92-82 cess and procedure must be used for the structure
(ASTM 1987a). The Vickers hardness test is an and test specimens. Fracture toughness test speci-
indentation hardness test to force a squarebased mens should be selected from a distressed gate
pyramidal diamond indenter with specified face member or connection so that the test results are
angles into the surface of the material to measure representative of the gate. As an alternative, test
the diagonals of the resulting impression after samples may be made of similar materials and
removal of the load. Vickers hardness number is welding procedures to that used in the original
related to the applied load and the surface area of fabrication. Orientations of the test specimens
the permanent impression. The hardness values taken from gate samples should follow the

5-4
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

provisions specified by AWS B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), (5) The fracture appearance can be quantified
Figure D-3. Test specimens should not contain by measuring the length and width of the cleavage
metal that has been affected thermally as a result of portion of the fracture surface or comparing the
cutting or preparation nor welding stops or starts. appearance of the fractured surface with a fracture
The weld metal width-to-specimen thickness rela- appearance chart (ASTM E23-92 (1992b)).
tionship provisions are given in AWS B4.0-85,
Figure D-4. When an evaluation of the base metal b. Plane-strain fracture toughness test.
or heat affected zone is required, the location of the
notch should be specified. (1) The property KIc characterizes the resis-
tance of a material to fracture in the presence of a
a. Charpy V-notch test. sharp crack under severe tensile stress. This value
may be used to estimate the relation between failure
(1) The CVN test provides information about stress and defect size for a material in service
behavior of metal when subjected to a single appli- wherein the conditions of high tensile stress would
cation of a load resulting in multiaxial stresses be expected. The values of KIc can be used for
associated with a notch coupled with high rates of inspection and discontinuity assessment criteria,
loading. For some materials and temperatures, when used in conjunction with fracture mechanics
impact tests on notched specimens have been found analyses.
to predict the likelihood of brittle fracture better
than tension tests or other tests used in material (2) The plane-strain fracture toughness can be
specifications. experimentally determined using compact tension
test specimen or bend test specimen. The specimen
(2) The specimen preparation and test proce- preparation and test procedures must be in accor-
dure for the CVN test is described by ASTM dance with ASTM E399-90 (ASTM 1990g), Figures
E23-92 (ASTM 1992b). When specified, the sur- A4-1 and A3-1, respectively. For a result to be
face finish of the V-notch of the Charpy impact considered valid, it is required that both the speci-
specimen is 20 µin., or less. The testing machine is men thickness and the crack length exceed
a pendulum type of rigid construction and of capac- 2.5(KIc/σys), where σys is the 0.2-percent offset yield
ity more than sufficient to break the specimen in strength and KIc is the fracture toughness of the
one blow. The test is performed at various speci- material at test temperature and loading rate. The
fied temperatures. initial selection of a size of specimen may be based
on an estimated value of KIc for the material to be
(3) Five specimens should be tested for each tested.
test condition and the amount of energy absorbed
by the specimen at fracture should be recorded. (3) The ASTM requirement for plane-strain
The highest and lowest values are discarded, and condition can be expressed in terms of Irwin’s
the result is taken as the average of the remaining plane-strain βIc value (ASTM E399-90 (ASTM
three specimens tested. If any specimen fails to 1990g)) as follows:
break or jams in the machine, the data of that speci-
men is not included in the calculation of the  2
average. 1  KIc  (5-1)
βIc ≤ 0.4
t  σys 
(4) In addition to the absorbed energy, other
test indicators, such as lateral expansion of the where
fractured specimen and appearance of the fractured
surfaces, can also be used to characterize the t = thickness
fracture toughness of the test material. The amount
of expansion on each side of each half can be σys = material yield strength
measured using a lateral expansion gage. The two
broken halves must be measured individually and If βIc is 0.4, or less, the specimen size is sufficiently
the larger value is used. large to ensure plane-strain behavior and LEFM can

5-5
ETL 1110-2-346
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be applied. Otherwise, elastic-plastic fracture (6) AWS B4.0-85 - Part D: Fracture Tough-
mechanics (EPFM) must be employed in the frac- ness Testing of Welds (AWS 1985).
ture analysis. The crack-tip opening displacement,
as discussed in the following section, is usually the e. CVN-KIc correlations.
material toughness parameter for EPFM assessment.
Due to ease of testing and cost considerations, CVN
c. Crack-tip opening displacement test. test results are more available than KIc test results.
An approximation of KIc may be obtained through
(1) CTOD is the displacement of the crack the two-stage CVN-KIc transition method as discus-
surfaces normal to the original (unloaded) crack sed by Barsom and Rolfe (1987).
plane at the tip of the fatigue precrack. The CTOD
values vary with material toughness depending upon (1) Determine impact CVN test results in the
the amount of plastic deformation at the crack tip transition temperature region at test temperatures
under load. Therefore, CTOD at fracture incipient approximately Ts above the expected minimum ser-
load indicates the fracture toughness of the test vice temperature, To. Ts is the temperature shift
material. (expressed in degrees Fahrenheit) between fracture
toughness under dynamic loading, KId, and fracture
(2) The CTOD values may be used to charac- toughness at slow loading rate, KIc. Transition
terize the toughness of materials that are too ductile temperatures and Ts are described in Enclosure 6.
or lack sufficient size to be tested for KIc. The
different values of CTOD characterize the resistance Ts 215 1.5 σys (5-2)
of a material to crack initiation and early crack
extension at a given temperature. The values of where
CTOD can be used for inspection and fracture
assessment criteria, when used in conjunction with Ts = degrees Fahrenheit
fracture mechanics analyses.
σys = yield strength expressed in kips per
(3) CTOD tests use three-point bend specimens. square inch
Preparation of test specimen and test procedure is
described in ASTM E1290-89 (ASTM 1989d). The (2) Determine KId by the following
critical CTOD values are derived from measure- relationship
ments of load and clip gauge displacement.

KId 5 E (CVNIMP ) (5-3)


d. Applicable documents.

(1) ASTM E23-92: Standard Test Methods for where


Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials
(ASTM 1992b). E = Young’s modulus expressed in units of
pounds per square inch
(2) ASTM E399-90: Standard Test Method for
Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Mater- KId = critical stress-intensity factor under
ials (ASTM 1990g). dynamic loading (dynamic fracture
toughness) expressed in units of
(3) ASTM E1290-89: Standard Test Method pounds per square inch-√ in.
for Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Frac-
ture Toughness Measurement (ASTM 1989d). CVNIMP = Impact CVN test result in units of
foot-pounds
(4) AWS A2.4-86: Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination (3) Shift the KId values at each temperature by
(AWS 1986). Ts (Equation 5-2) to determine the KIc values as a
function of desired minimum service temperature:
(5) AWS A3.0-89: Standard Welding Terms KIc(To) = KId(To+Ts).
and Definitions (AWS 1989).

5-6
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Figure 5-1 illustrates the method graphically. This foot-pounds is less than about one-half of the yield
procedure is limited to the lower end of the transi- strength in kips per square inch.
tion curve, where the impact CVN value in

Figure 5-1. Two-stage CVN-KIc correlation process

5-7
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FRACTURE AND FATIGUE EVALUATION

1. Purpose of Evaluation fracture. Below the NDT temperature, the fracture


toughness remains relatively constant with changing
a. When inspections reveal discontinuities (i.e. temperature. For impact loading, the NDT tempera-
cracks or flaws), it is necessary to establish accep- ture approximately defines the upper limit of the
tance levels to determine if repairs are needed to plane-strain condition as shown in Figure 6-1.
prevent fracture. The critical discontinuity (i.e.
defect) size may be determined through a fracture
mechanics evaluation for a given set of loads, envi-
ronmental factors, geometry, and material proper-
ties. If the size of the discontinuity (crack or flaw)
is less than the critical defect size, the expected
remaining life and rate of crack propagation may be
determined by a fatigue analysis. Fracture and
fatigue evaluation requires identification of discon-
tinuity parameters, material properties, and accep-
tance levels. The engineering decision on appropri-
ate repair or planned maintenance is based on the
concept of fitness for service of the distressed gate
structure.
Figure 6-1. Relation between notch toughness
b. A lock gate is fit for service when it func- and loading rates (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE
tions satisfactorily during its lifetime without reach- AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUCTURES:
ing any serious limit state. The repair of harmless Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 110.
Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
discontinuities may introduce more harmful, and
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
less easily detectable discontinuities. Repair welding
is often difficult to carry out satisfactorily, since the
b. For steel, the NDT temperature depends on
repair welds are usually made under unfavorable
material thickness and applied loading rate. The
conditions. The needs to repair detected discontinu-
anticipated level of structural performance (i.e.
ities must be determined in accordance with fitness-
brittle or ductile) can be determined from the frac-
for-service concepts.
ture toughness test results performed at tempera-
tures around the transition temperature. With an
additional consideration of the geometric constraint
2. Fracture Behavior of Steel Materials
effect due to material thickness (i.e. β factor,
Equation 5-1), the appropriate fracture parameter
a. The service temperature under which a lock
KIc, Kc, or CTOD can be selected for fracture
gate operates has a significant effect on the fracture
analysis. For structures subject to static or dynamic
behavior of the steel. For low and intermediate
loading, the respective fracture toughness-to-
strength steels, the material changes from brittle
temperature relations (i.e. KIc for static loading and
fracture behavior (i.e., KIc applies) to ductile frac-
KId for dynamic loading) must be used to charac-
ture behavior (i.e., Kc or CTOD applies) at a certain
terize the fracture behavior. Figure 6-1 shows the
transition temperature. This temperature is called
schematic relationships between level of structural
the nil-ductility transition (also abbreviated as NDT
performance and service temperature for various
which should not be confused with nondestructive
loading rates (Barsom and Rolfe 1987).
testing) temperature and is measured by the drop
weight test (ASTM E208-91 (ASTM 1991i)). The
NDT temperature is defined as the highest tempera-
3. Fracture Analysis
ture at which a standard specimen breaks in a brittle
manner under dynamic loading. At temperatures
a. For lock gates operating under the mini-
above the NDT temperature, the material has suffi-
mum service temperature below the nil-ductility
cient ductility to deflect inelastically before total

Enclosure 6 6-1
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

transition temperature, linear elastic fracture Institution 1980, Burdekin et al. 1975, and ASME
mechanics analysis (LEFM and KIc) needs to be 1978). Discontinuities are classified as through
performed for assessing the discontinuities revealed thickness (may be detected from both surfaces),
from inspections. For gates with discontinuities embedded (not visible from either surface), or sur-
operating at temperatures above nil-ductility transi- face (may be observed on one surface) as illustrated
tion temperature, elastic-plastic fracture analysis in Figure 6-3. To determine the effective dimen-
(EPFM and CTOD) needs to be conducted. In any sions of a discontinuity(ies):
case, LEFM may be used as an initial evaluation
tool, since it is simple to apply and generally gives (a) Resolve the discontinuity(ies) into a plane
a conservative answer. Fatigue analysis is needed normal to the principal stresses as shown in
when the remaining gate life and the crack growth Figure 6-4. Effective dimensions for various iso-
rate are necessary for developing the inspection and lated discontinuity types are shown in Figure 6-3.
maintenance scheduling for the distressed gates.
This section presents a procedure for fracture analy- (b) Check interaction with neighboring discon-
sis of distressed lock gates. tinuities to obtain the idealized discontinuity dimen-
sions; idealizations for interaction of discontinuities
b. In LEFM analysis, the applied stress- are shown in Figures 6-5 and 6-6.
intensity factor (KI) shall always be less than the
critical stress-intensity factor (KIc). The critical (c) Check interaction with surfaces by recate-
discontinuity size is related to material fracture gorization as shown in Figure 6-7 for surface or
toughness (critical stress-intensity factor KIc, KId, or embedded discontinuities (idealized or actual).
Kc) for a given applied load and loading rate at the
minimum service temperature. (d) Determine final idealized effective dimen-
sions for fracture analysis.
 2
1  KIc or KId or Kc  (6-1)
acr   (3) Determine the stress level by an appropri-
FS  Cσ  ate structural analysis, assuming no crack exists.
Structural loading can be divided into primary
where stresses, σp, and secondary stress, σs. The primary
stress consists of membrane stresses, σm, and bend-
acr = critical discontinuity size, inches ing stress σb, due to imposed loading. Examples of
secondary stresses include stress increase due to
KIc (or KId or Kc) = fracture toughness of the gate stress concentration imposed by geometry of the
material, kips per square detail under consideration, thermal, and residual
inch-√in. stress. For discontinuities at nonheat treated welds,
the residual tensile stress should be taken as the
σ = applied nominal stress in kips per square inch yield stress. An estimate of the residual stress
should be used for postheat treated weldments. The
FS = factor of safety (e.g. 2) applied stress is the sum of primary σp and second-
ary σs stresses. If the applied stress is greater than
C = constant which is a function of discontinuity the yield stress, EPFM must be employed. If
and joint geometry and loading type as shown applied stress is less than the yield stress and the
in Figures 6-8 through 6-16 plane-strain factor β < 0.4 (Enclosure 5, paragraph
8), LEFM should be used based on KIc. When the
c. The procedure of fracture assessment of applied stress is less than the yield stress and β >
discontinuities may be described by the following 0.4, Kc (a function of plate thickness) should be
steps and the flow chart is shown in Figure 6-2: used instead of KIc, if available, otherwise, EPFM
based on CTOD analysis must be employed.
(1) Determine the actual shape, location, and
size of the discontinuity by NDT inspection. (4) Determine material properties including
σys, E and KIc (based on the level of applied stress
(2) Determine the effective discontinuity and the value of βIc), Kc, or CTOD. KIc may be
dimensions to be used for analysis (British Standard

6-2
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-2. Fracture and fatigue assessment procedure

6-3
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-3. Required dimensions of a discontinuity (after British Standards Institution 1980)

Figure 6-4. Resolution of a discontinuity (after


British Standards Institution 1980)

estimated from CVN test values by the transition


method (Enclosure 5, paragraph 8) if direct KIc test
data are not available.

(5) Perform fracture assessment to determine


the critical discontinuity size.

(6) If the discontinuity is noncritical, determine


the remaining life using a fatigue analysis in this
enclosure, paragraph 6.

These steps are further discussed in the following


sections.

d. Fracture mechanics may be used to establish Figure 6-5. Interaction of coplanar discontinu-
acceptance levels for various discontinuities by ities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are repro-
comparing the discontinuity(ies) size with the criti- duced with the permission of BSI. Complete
cal discontinuity (defect) size. Each case is unique copies of the standard can be obtained by post
from BSI Publications, Linford Wood,
depending on a given set of loads, environmental
Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)
factors (e.g. temperature), geometry, and material
properties. The critical discontinuity size is deter- factor KI or CTOD should always be less than the
mined using fracture mechanics principles which critical stress-intensity factor KIc , Kc , or the critical
relate stress, discontinuity size, and fracture tough- CTOD value δcrit , respectively.
ness to existing conditions. The stress-intensity

6-4
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

KI Cσ a (6-2)

where

C = dimensionless correction factor for a given


geometry

If C is known, KI can be computed for any combi-


nation of σ and a. Stress-intensity factors for vari-
ous types of geometries can be calculated using the
information included in Figures 6-8 through 6-16
(Barsom and Rolfe 1987). Barsom and Rolfe and
Tada, Paris, and Irwin (1985) contain compilations
of solutions for a wide variety of configurations.
After the stress-intensity factor is determined by
Equation 6-2, it should be compared to the critical
stress-intensity factor, KIc (determined as described
Figure 6-6. Interaction of noncoplanar
in Enclosure 5, paragraph 8). An FS = 2.0 applied
discontinuities
to crack length is considered appropriate to prevent
fracture. Therefore, the crack is considered to be
acceptable if KI < KIc/√2. To determine the allow-
able maximum crack size or nominal stress for a
given KIc, substitute KIc for KI and solve for a or σ
using Equation 6.2. The critical discontinuity size a
structural member can tolerate at a given stress σ
and KIc with FS of 2.0 is:

 2
1  KIc  (6-3)
acr  
2  Cσ 

b. An approximate method to account for


stress gradients is to linearize the stress distribution,
Figure 6-7. Interaction of discontinuities with
and divide it into membrane stress σm and bending
surfaces
stress σb. The stress-intensity factor for each com-
ponent of stress can be calculated separately and
then added together. The total applied stress (σp
4. Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics and σs) can be linearized and resolved into σm and
σb as shown in Figure 6-17.
a. Fundamental concepts of LEFM are
described by Barsom and Rolfe (1987). LEFM is
valid only under plane-strain conditions, when
5. Elastic-Plastic Fracture Assessment
βIc ≤ 0.4. The basic principle of LEFM is that
incipient crack growth will occur when the stress-
Rearranging Equation 5-1 (Enclosure 5, paragraph
intensity factor KI (the driving force) equals or 8b(3)), the upper limit of plane-strain behavior may
exceeds the critical stress-intensity factor KIc (the be determined as
resistance). KI characterizes the stress field in front
of the crack and is related to the nominal stress σ
and crack dimension a for a given load rate and KIc t (6-4)
temperature by σys 2.5

6-5
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-9. Double-edge crack (Barsom/Rolfe,


FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUC-
TURES: Applications of Fracture Mechan-
ics,©1987, p 40. Reprinted by permission of
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

Figure 6-8. Through-thickness crack (copyright


ASTM. Reprinted with permission)

6-6
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-11. Cracks growing from round holes


Figure 6-10. Single-edge crack (copyright ASTM. (copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission)
Reprinted with permission)

6-7
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

(2) For surface discontinuities, a is deter-


mined by Figure 6-18.

(3) For embedded discontinuities, a is deter-


mined by Figure 6-19.

b. Determine allowable discontinuity parame-


ter am which is calculated by:

δ 
am C  crit  (6-5)
 εy 

where

εy = yield strain of the material

δcrit = critical CTOD (determined according to


Enclosure 5, paragraph 8)

C = values determined by Figure 6-20

In determination of C, if the sum of primary and


secondary stresses, excluding residual stress, is less
than 2σys, the total stress ratio (σp + σs)/σys (includ-
ing residual stress) is used as the abscissa in
Figure 6-12. Cracks growing from elliptical holes
(Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CON- Figure 6-20. If this sum exceeds 2σys, an elastic-
TROL IN STRUCTURES: Applications of Fracture plastic stress analysis should be carried out to deter-
Mechanics,©1987, p 43. Reprinted by permission mine the maximum equivalent plastic strain which
of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.) would occur in the region containing the discontinu-
ity if the discontinuity were not present. The value
of C may then be determined using the strain ratio,
When this upper limit is exceeded, extensive plastic ε/εy as the abscissa in Figure 6-20.
deformation occurs at the crack tip (crack tip blunt-
ing) and a nonlinear EPFM model must be used for c. If the effective discontinuity parameter a is
analysis. (LEFM analysis using Kc may be used if smaller than the allowable discontinuity parameter
the applied stress is less than yield stress.) Crack am, then the discontinuity is acceptable. Using the
growth criteria for nonlinear fractures can be procedure described in paragraph 5b, this enclosure,
modeled by an R-curve, J-integral, or CTOD analy- results in an FS of approximately 2.0 in the deter-
sis (Barsom and Rolfe 1987). The CTOD method mination of am; Figure 6-20 was developed as a
is the recommended method of EPFM analysis for design curve. Therefore, the calculated critical
evaluating steel lock gates. The recommended crack size would be equal to 2.0 am (British Stan-
procedure for cases where the applied stress dards Institution 1980).
(σp + σs) is greater than the yield stress (British
Standards Institution 1980) is as follows:
6. Fatigue Analysis
a. Determine the effective discontinuity
parameter a. This is the equivalent through thick- a. Fatigue is the process of cumulative dam-
ness dimension which would yield the same stress age caused by repeated cyclic loading. Fatigue
intensity as the actual discontinuities under the same damage occurs at stress-concentrated regions where
load. the localized stress exceeds the yield stress of the
material. After a certain number of cyclic loads,
(1) For through-thickness discontinuities, the accumulated damage causes the initiation and
a = /2. propagation of a crack.

6-8
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-13. Edge-notched beam in bending (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN
STRUCTURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 45. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

b. The total fatigue life is the sum of the fatigue life predictions should be used as a means to
fatigue crack-initiation life and the fatigue crack- evaluate a reliable service life, not to actually pre-
propagation life to a critical size (Barsom and Rolfe dict when a structure will fail.
1987).
NT = Ni + Np (6-6)
7. Fatigue Crack-Propagation (Barsom and
where Rolfe 1987)
NT = total fatigue life
The fatigue crack-propagation behavior for metals is
Ni = initiation life shown in Figure 6-21. Figure 6-21 is a plot (log10
scale) of the rate of fatigue crack growth per cycle
Np = propagation life
of load (da/dN) versus the variation of the stress-
c. All steels have microscopic discontinuities, intensity factor (∆KI). The parameter a denotes
and welded structures always contain larger discon- crack length, N the number of cycles, and ∆KI the
tinuities due to the welding process. Thus, the main stress-intensity factor range, KImax to KImin. Based on
concern in fatigue assessment of welded structures Figure 6-21, fatigue-crack behavior for steel can be
is to determine the crack-propagation life before characterized by three regions:
reaching the critical crack size which results in
brittle fracture. The life of a structural component a. Region I: In region I, for levels of ∆KI
which contains a crack is governed by the rate of below a certain threshold, cracks do not propagate
subcritical crack propagation. under cyclic stress fluctuations. Conservative esti-
mates of fatigue threshold, ∆Kth, can be determined
d. Fatigue analysis methods described in para- by
graphs 7 and 8 are based on extensive analyses of
test results from numerous specimens. Variation in ∆Kth = 6.4(1 - 0.85R) ksi-√
in. for R > 0.1
test data is large, and inherent uncertainty exists in
defining load and strength parameters. Therefore, ∆Kth = 5.5 ksi-√
in. for R < 0.1 (6-7)

6-9
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-14. Embedded elliptical or circular crack (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN
STRUCTURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 47. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

6-10
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

Figure 6-15. Surface crack (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUCTURES: Appli-
cations of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 48. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

where for ferrite-pearlite steels

R = stress ratio (i.e. fatigue ratio) and


expressed as
da/dN = 0.66x10-8 (∆KI)2.25 (6-10)
R = σmin / σmax (6-8)
for martensitic steels
Residual stress should be considered for a crack
near weld area. If ∆KI is less than ∆Kth, cracks do (1) For Equations 6-9 and 6-10, a is in units
not propagate. of inches, and ∆KI in units of kips per square
inch-√in. ASTM A36-91 and A572-91 (1991b and
b. Region II: The fatigue crack-propagation d) Grade 50 steels are classified as ferrite-pearlite
behavior for ∆KI > ∆Kth in region II (i.e. linear steels, while ASTM A514-91/517 (ASTM 1991c
portion of the plot on Figure 6-21) may be repre- and 1990b, respectively) steels are martensitic
sented by steels. The above equations were based on analyses
in air, at room temperature.
da/dN = 3.6x10-10 (∆KI)3 (6-9)

6-11
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Figure 6-16. Cracks with wedge forces (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUC-
TURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 52. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)

Figure 6-17. Linearization of stresses (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of
BSI. Complete copies of the standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton
Keynes, MK14 6LE)

6-12
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Figure 6-18. Relation between dimensions of a discontinuity and the parameter a for surface discontinu-
ities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete copies of the
standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)

6-13
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-19. Relation between dimensions of a discontinuity and the parameter a for embedded disconti-
nuities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete copies of the
standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)

6-14
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30 Sep 93

(2) Extensive fatigue-crack growth rate data


for weld metals and heat-affected-zones (HAZ)
show that the fatigue rate in weld metals and HAZ
are equal to or less than that in the base metals.
Thus, the above equations can be used for conserva-
tive estimates of fatigue-crack growth rates in base
metals, weld metals, and HAZ’s.

c. Region III: Region III is characterized by a


significant increase in the fatigue-crack growth rate
per cycle over that predicted for Region II. At a
certain value of ∆KI, the crack growth rate acceler-
ates dramatically. For materials of high fracture
toughness, the stress-intensity factor range value
corresponding to acceleration in the fatigue-crack
growth rate (i.e. transition from Region II to
Region III) for zero to tension loading can be
determined by

KT = 0.04 (E σys)1/2 (6-11)

When the KIc of the material is less than KT, accel-


eration in the fatigue rate occurs at a stress-intensity
Figure 6-20. Values of constant C for different factor value slightly below KIc. Due to the acceler-
loading conditions (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 ation in crack growth rate, a significant increase in
are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Com-
fracture toughness of a steel above KT may have a
plete copies of the standard can be obtained by
negligible effect on total fatigue life. Additionally,
post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton
Keynes, MK14 6LE) extrapolation of Region II behavior to Region III
may overestimate the total fatigue life significantly.

8. Fatigue Assessment Procedures

The procedure to analyze Region II crack growth


behavior in steels and weld metals using fracture
mechanics concepts as recommended by Barsom
and Rolfe (1987) is as follows:

a. On the basis of the inspection data, deter-


mine the maximum initial discontinuity size ao
present in the member being analyzed and the
associated KI.

b. Knowing KIc and the nominal maximum


design stress, calculate the critical discontinuity
size, acr (Equation 6-1), that would cause failure by
brittle fracture.

c. Determine fatigue crack growth rate for


type of steel (Equations 6-9 and 6-10) (i.e
ferrite-pearlite or martensitic steel).
Figure 6-21. Fatigue-crack growth in steel

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30 Sep 93

d. Determine ∆KI using the appropriate expres- radially and eventually protrudes a surface at which
sion for KI, the estimated initial discontinuity size time it should be treated as a surface discontinuity
ao, and the range of live load stress ∆σ (i.e. cyclic of length .
stress range). For cases of variable amplitude load-
ing, a spectrum of various discrete stress ranges ∆σi (3) See Figure 6-3c for surface discontinuities.
exists. In these cases, an effective stress range ∆σe Initial propagation will result in a semicircular
should be used in determining ∆KI. ∆σe can be shape. Further propagation will result in the dis-
calculated as the root-mean-cube of the discrete continuity reaching the other surface at which time
stress ranges ∆σi, it should be treated as a through thickness
discontinuity.
m 1/3
 ni (∆σi)3  (6-12)
∆σe  
i 1 N  9. Development of Inspection Schedules

Inspection schedules can be developed from crack


where length versus fatigue life curves. Figure 6-22
shows a typical crack length-fatigue life (a - N)
ni = number of cycles corresponding to ∆σi
curve, which can be obtained from Equation 6-9
N = total number of cycles considered or 6-10. Critical crack length is determined based
on KIc and maximum design stress as discussed in
m = number of discrete stress ranges considered
paragraph 8, this enclosure. The time when repair
A live load stress range ∆σ, which is due to cyclic is needed can be determined considering FS, i.e.,
compression stresses, may be detrimental in regions ar = acr/(FS). Remaining loading cycles before
where tensile residual stress exists. In these repair are then determined from ai and ar using an
regions, cracks may propagate, since the addition of a-N curve as shown in Figure 6-22. Inspection
tensile residual stresses will result in an applied intervals for a gate can be determined from the
stress range of tension and compression. remaining fatigue life of the members (Common-
wealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Transporta-
e. Integrate the crack growth rate expression tion 1988).
(i.e. Equations 6-9 and 6-10) between the limits of
ao (at the initial KI) and acr (at KIc) to obtain the
life of the structure prior to failure. To identify
inspection intervals, integration may be applied with
the upper limit being tolerable discontinuity size at.
An arbitrary safety factor based on analysis uncer-
tainties may be applied to acr to obtain at (for
example, FS = 2.0 was used in Equation 6-3).
Another consideration to specifying a tolerable
discontinuity size is crack growth rate. The at
should be chosen so that da/dN is relatively small
and a reasonable length of time remains before the
critical size is reached.

f. For a determination of ao.

(1) See Figure 6-3a for through-thickness


discontinuities.
Figure 6-22. Development of maintenance
(2) For embedded discontinuities (Figure 6-3b), schedule
assume that the discontinuity grows until it reaches
a circular shape (b= /2). Subsequently, it grows

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30 Sep 93

10. Example Fracture Analysis a


a/b = 0.17 and k   = 1.06; therefore,
b
Cracks of various shapes were revealed on two
tension members on a lock gate by NDT inspection. a
iteration is needed for acr and k   . After
One member has the cross-sectional dimensions of b
4 in. thick by 12 in. wide. The other member is
1 in. thick by 12 in. wide. The crack types and a
iteration, acr = 0.92 in. ( k   = 1.05)
shapes include: a) single-edge crack; b) through- b
thickness center crack; c) surface crack along the
12-in. side (a/2c = 0.1 and 0.2), and d) embedded With FS = 2.0, acr = 0.5 (0.92) = 0.46 in.
circular cracks.
for dynamic loading:
The material properties at the minimum service
temperature of 30 oF were determined by material  2
0.5  KId 
testings and are summarized as follows: acr   0.23 in.
π  1.12σ 
σys = 50 ksi σult = 80 ksi (2) Through-thickness center crack
E = 30,000 ksi in.
KIc = 60 ksi-√ (Figure 6-8).

KId = 40 ksi-√in. δcrit = 0.002 in. (static)


δcrit = 0.001 in. (dynamic) 2b  πa 
KI σ πa tan 
πa  2b 
From structural analysis, the maximum applied
tensile stress is 30 ksi. For each cracked member,
the critical crack size will be determined for each assume 2b  πa 
tan  1.0
cracking condition under static loading and dynamic πa  2b 
loading, respectively:
 2
a. Example for 4- by 12-in. plate: 1  KIc 
acr   1.27 in.;
π σ 
 2
1  KIc  1  60  2
βIc   0.36 (Equation 5 1) 2b  πa 
t  σys  4  50  tan   1.02
πa  2b 
βIc < 0.4 ; therefore, LEFM is applicable.
After iteration, acr = 1.22 in.
With FS = 2.0, acr = 1.22/2 = 0.61 in.
(1) Single-edge crack (see Figure 6-10).
for dynamic loading:
a
KI 1.12σ π a k  
b  2
0.5  KId 
a acr   0.28 in.
C 1.12 π k   in Equation 6 2 π  σ 
b
(3) Surface crack along the 12-in. side (see
assume k  a  1.0
Figure 6-15).
b
 2 a
KI 1.12σ π MK
1  KIc  Q
acr   1.02 in.
π  1.12σ 
(a) a/2c = 0.1
(Equation 6 1 with no FS)

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30 Sep 93

σ 30 b. Example for 1- by 12-in. plate:


0.6
σys 50
 2
1  KIc  1  60  2
βIc   1.44
from Figure 6-14, Q = 1.02 B  σys  1  50 
assume Mk = 1.0

 2 βIc > 0.4; therefore, EPFM is applicable.


Q  KIc 
acr   1.04 in.
π  1.12 σ  Determine the allowable discontinuity parameter am
(this enclosure, paragraph 5b):
(a/t = 0.26; Mk = 1.0)
With FS = 2.0, acr = 1.04/2 = 0.52 in.
δ 
for dynamic loading: am C  crit  (Equation 6 5)
 εy 
 2
0.5 Q  KId 
acr   0.23 in.
σys
π  1.12 σ  50
εy 0.0017
E 30,000
(b) a/2c = 0.2
σ 30
from Figure 6-14, Q = 1.24 0.6
σys 50
assume Mk = 1.0

 2 from Figure 6-20, C = 0.44


Q  Ic 
K
acr   1.26 in.
π  1.12 σ  For static loading,

(a/t = 0.32; Mk = 1.0)  0.002 


am 0.44  0.52 in.
With FS = 2.0, acr = 1.26/2 = 0.63 in.  0.0017 

for dynamic loading: For dynamic loading,

 2  0.001 
0.5 Q  KId  am 0.44  0.26 in.
acr   0.28 in.  0.0017 
π  1.12 σ 

(4) Embedded circular crack (see Figure 6-14).


Critical crack lengths can be determined for various
crack shapes from the allowable discontinuity
parameter am (this enclosure, paragraph 5a).
a
KI σ π
Q
11. Example Fatigue Analysis
a/2c = 0.5; from Figure 6-14, Q = 2.4

 2 This example shows how to apply fatigue analysis


0.5 Q  KIc  to determine expected life given an initial flaw size,
With FS 2.0. acr   1.53 in.
π  σ ai. For this case, consider an initial surface flaw of
the type shown in Figure 6-15 with a/2c = 0.25.
for dynamic loading: The member is a 4- in.-thick plate of ASTM
A572-91 (1991d) Grade 50 steel. The critical stress
 2 intensity factor (fracture toughness) KIc of this steel
0.5 Q  KId 
acr   0.68 in. in. at the minimum service temperature.
is 60 ksi-√
π  σ 

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The maximum stress level is 30 ksi and the mini-


mum stress is 0 ksi. A curve relating the initial
surface flaw size ai to number of cycles to failure
Np will be developed. From Figure 6-15

a
KI 1.12σ π MK
Q

σ 30
0.6 and Q 1.39 ( Figure 6 14 )
σys 50

assume Mk = 1.0.

 2 Figure 6-23. Fatigue life (N)-initial crack-length


Q  KIC  (ai) curve
With FS 2.0, acr 0.5   0.71 in.
π  1.12σ 

vary from 18 ksi to 27 ksi. The fatigue life can be


(for crack sizes up to a = 0.71 in., Mk = 1.0) calculated using the following crack growth equa-
for ferrite-pearlite steel, da/dN = 3.6×10-10 (∆KI)3 tion (Equation 6-9):
(Equation 6-9)
da
3.6 × 10 10(∆KI)3
a dN
∆KI 1.12 ∆σ π 50.5 a
Q
where
Fatigue life can be determined as:
a
⌠a cr da KI 1.12σ πa k  
N b
⌡a (3.6×10 10)(∆K )3
i
I
By integrating the crack growth equation, the life of
N
1 ⌠ acr
a 3/2
da
the propagating crack can be determined for any
(3.6×10 10)(50.5)3 ⌡a i crack length.

 1 1  ⌠a da
N (4.31×104)   N
cr

 a ⌡a (3.6×10 10)(∆K )3
 i acr  i
I

where
The curve for fatigue life N as a function of initial
crack length ai for this example is shown in KI = stress-intensity factor which is a function
Figure 6-23. of crack length

ai = initial crack length


12. Example of Fracture and Fatigue
Evaluation
 2
1  KIc 
a. Single-edge crack. Figure 6-24 shows a acr =   (Equation 6 1)
π  1.12σk(a/b) 
horizontal girder with a single-edge crack. The
initial crack length is assumed to be 1/8 in.. The
flange plate containing the edge crack is assumed to With KIc assumed to be 35 ksi-√ in. and a maximum
be under a cyclic load from zero to maximum ten- stress of 18 ksi, acr = 0.89 in. using the procedure
sion (i.e., fatigue ratio R = 0). The stress ranges described in paragraph 10a(1).

6-19
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-24. A single-edge cracked girder

6-20
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-25a shows the calculated crack growth


versus life cycle for a stress range of 18 ksi
(1/2 σys). The remaining life N, calculated by the
above equation, is 207,700 cycles. If the structure
operates 10,000 times per year, then the remaining
life of the girder is:
207,700
20.8 years
10,000

Critical crack length (determined by Equation 6-1)


is a function of external loading as shown in
Figure 6-25b. Figure 6-25c shows the fatigue life
for stress ranges varying from 18 ksi to 27 ksi
calculated using the crack growth equation with
variable stress and acr. The remaining life of the
girder flange containing a 1/8-in. initial crack is
shown in the figure as a function of stress.

b. Double-edge crack. A girder flange contain-


ing double-edge cracks is shown in Figure 6-26.
The crack growth curves were calculated for stress
ranges varying from 10 to 20 ksi. The same inte-
gration procedure as used for the single-edge crack
case is employed for calculating the fatigue life. A
1/8-in. initial crack length is also assumed in this
case. The predicted crack growth curve for stress
range of 18 ksi is shown in Figure 6-27a. The
remaining life of the girder flange plate for various
stress ranges is also shown in Figure 6-27c.

c. Surface crack. Figure 6-28 shows a crack


for which it is assumed initiated in the diagonal
bracing member from a surface crack at the corner
of the bracket. It is assumed that the crack propa-
gated through the thickness of the bracing member
and then grew toward the edge of the flange plate.
A single-edge crack condition similar to the first
example case was developed. The fracture and
fatigue analysis of this example consists of three
propagation steps.

(1) The first step is to analyze the crack prop-


agation of a hemispheric surface crack having an
Figure 6-25. Curves for fatigue life of a girder
initial radius of 1/16 in. When the surface crack
with a single-edge crack
breaks through the surface on the other side of the
plate (i.e., the radius of hemispheric crack becomes
the same as the plate thickness, 3/8 in.), a through-
of the plate, the single-edge crack condition is
thickness crack condition is reached.
developed.
(2) The second step is to analyze crack growth
(3) The third step is to analyze crack growth
of a plate containing a through-thickness crack.
of the edge crack. The total remaining life of the
Once the through-thickness crack reaches the edge

6-21
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-26. A double-edge cracked flange

6-22
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

13. Recommended Solutions

a. The recommended solutions to the cracking


problems can be addressed in short- and longterm
solutions. The short-term solution is to repair the
fractured members using qualified welding proce-
dures and improved fatigue details or bolted cover
plates. This temporary measure will ensure contin-
uous operation of the structure without catastrophic
failure.

b. A long-term solution will involve detailed


inspection and evaluation of the critical members
and connections. Structural analysis using a finite
element model may be necessary to identify the
critical structural members and connections. Vari-
ous loading conditions determined during the course
of previous activities need to be considered in the
analysis. The fatigue category of various welded
connections should be assessed according to the
American Association of State Highway and Trans-
portation Officials (AASHTO) Standard Specifica-
tion for Highway Bridges (AASHTO 1989) or the
ANSI/AWS D1.1-92 Structural Welding Code
(ANSI/AWS 1992). The expected life of the criti-
cal connections can be estimated in accordance with
the respective fatigue category.

c. To maintain satisfactory performance of a


structure, a maintenance plan needs to be devel-
oped. This maintenance plan should include peri-
odic inspections and evaluations. For the worst
loading situation, the maximum stress range can be
predicted from an appropriate structural analysis.
The inspection intervals can be determined from a
crack growth curve of maximum stress range. The
inspection intervals shall be a fraction of the
remaining life cycles of the critical members and
connections. These fraction life cycles shall corre-
spond to a crack size less than one-half of the criti-
cal crack length (i.e. FS = 2.0).
Figure 6-27. Curves for fatigue life of a flange
with a double-edge crack
d. Recommended inspection intervals may be
computed using fatigue principles as described in
paragraph 9, this enclosure. Using the example
diagonal bracing member from the initial hemi- found in paragraph 12a of this enclosure, the
spheric surface crack can be determined by adding inspection schedule can be determined from the
the three propagation lives. The calculated crack fatigue life curve of the single-edge crack in the
growth curve for a stress range of 18 ksi is shown primary member. The maximum stress range is
in Figure 6-29a. The total remaining life and criti- assumed as 18 ksi. The procedure is shown in the
cal crack length are also shown in Figures 6-29b, following steps.
and c, for stress ranges varying from 10 to 20 ksi.

6-23
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-28. A stiffening member with a crack

6-24
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30 Sep 93

Figure 6-29. Curves for a fatigue life of a stiffening member with a


surface crack

6-25
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93

(1) Determine critical crack length:

acr = 0.89 in. (this enclosure, paragraph 12a)


(2) Determine crack length when repair is
needed (Figure 6-22):

ar = 0.89/2 = 0.45 in. (FS = 2.0)

(3) Determine fatigue life from fatigue life N


versus crack length a curve:

N = 160,000 cycles

160,000/10,000 = 16 years (10,000 cycles/year)

Therefore, the girder should be inspected within


16 years after the initial crack (ai = 1/8 in.) was
found.

6-26
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