Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Technical
Letter No. 1110-2-346 30 September 1993
b. ER 1110-2-101, Reporting Evidence of Dis- d. The six enclosures to this ETL provide
tress of Civil Works Projects. detailed methods for inspection and evaluation of
existing steel lock gates. These enclosures provide
c. EM 1110-2-2105, Design of Hydraulic Steel specific recommendations for inspection techniques,
Structures. evaluation of detected flaws, and prediction of
remaining life. These concepts are also applicable
d. EM 1110-2-2703, Lock Gates and Operating to a wide range of other structures, including almost
Equipment. any steel structure in a civil works project.
4. Discussion 5. Action
b. If cracks are detected during periodic c. These actions should also be implemented
inspections, the cracked elements and other critical for other steel features of civil works projects when
locations should be evaluated using the methods deemed appropriate by the structural engineer.
defined in the enclosure.
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30 Sep 93
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Enclosure 1 1-1
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30 Sep 93
vertically to open or close the lock chamber. The not detailed enough to detect initial cracks nor were
load developed by water pressure acting on the lift fatigue and fracture analyses performed for these
gate skin plate is transmitted along horizontal structures prior to, and often not subsequent to,
girders into the walls of the lock monolith. Lift failure. The following brief examples, all taken
gates can be operated under moderate heads but not from a single district, illustrate the potential results
under reverse head conditions. of casual inspection combined with inattention to
fatigue and fracture concepts during design.
e. Submergible tainter gates are used infre-
quently as lock gates. This type of gate pivots a. Miter gate anchorage.
similar to a spillway tainter gate but is raised to
close the lock chamber and lowered into the cham- (1) The project utilized vertically framed
ber to open it. The load developed by water pres- downstream miter gates, 45 ft high, with a 110-ft
sure acting on the submergible tainter gate skin lock width. The upper embedded gate anchorage
plate is transmitted along horizontal girders to struts failed unexpectedly while the chamber was at tail-
recessed in the lock wall. The struts are connected water elevation. Failure occurred by fracture at the
to and rotate about trunnions anchored to each lock gudgeon pin hole. The anchor was a structural steel
wall. assembly of two channels and two 1/2-in.-thick
plates. The use of a channel with up-turned legs
causes ponding of water and results in pitting and
3. Strength and Serviceability Requirements scaling corrosion. Since the anchor is a nonredun-
dant tension member, failure caused the leaf to fall
a. Lock gates are designed according to to the concrete sill, though it remained vertical.
requirements of appropriate EM’s and design codes
as listed in EM 1110-2-2105, "Design of Hydraulic (2) The failure surfaces were disposed of
Steel Structures." Lock gates are designed to have without an examination to determine the cause of
design strengths at all sections equal, at least, to the failure. To make the lock operational as quickly as
required strengths calculated for the critical combi- possible, repairs were implemented without any
nation of loads and forces. Various gate members evaluation or recommendations from the Engineer-
must be designed to resist axial forces, bending ing Division. These repairs consisted of butting and
forces, and combined bending and axial forces. welding a new channel section to the remaining
These members are fabricated from bars, plates, embedded section and bolting a 1-in. cover plate to
standard rolled shapes, and built-up sections the channel webs. The bolt and plate materials are
depending on geometrical requirements, loading, not known.
and economics. Structural inspection and evalua-
tion are required to assure that adequate strength (3) The same type of anchorage is used on at
and serviceability are maintained at all sections least two other projects with a total of 16 similar
during the life of the gate. anchors.
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(2) Quick repairs were performed by operations (3) Repair procedures were designed by engi-
personnel, without input from engineering person- neering personnel for this gate. However, the
nel. The web crack was filled with weld. The specified weld procedures were not used by the
flange cracks were gouged and welded, then two contractor, and the welders were not properly quali-
small bars were fillet welded across the crack. The fied per AWS requirements. These facts may have
bar material is unknown. These repairs served to caused inadequate repair welds, which duplicates
get the gate back into service immediately. How- part of the causes of the original cracking problem.
ever, reliable long-term repairs also should be
developed and implemented.
5. Summary
c. Submersible lift gate.
The preceding examples represent only a few of the
(1) This project has a submersible lift gate as steel cracking problems which have occurred on
the main, operational, upstream lock gate. The gate Corps of Engineers projects. It is evident that steel
consists of two leaves with six horizontal girders fatigue and fracture are real problems. Engineering,
spanning 110 ft. Several cracks were discovered in construction, and operations personnel should be
one leaf while the lock was out of service for other aware of this and of the preventive procedures
repairs. Subsequent detailed inspection identified needed to minimize such problems. Prevention is
over 100 cracks in girder flanges and bracing mem- best accomplished through proper design and con-
bers. One crack extended through the downstream struction, followed by adequate maintenance and
flange of a horizontal girder and 3 ft into the inspection. However, many existing steel structures
8-ft-deep web. may be susceptible to fatigue and fracture problems.
When cracks are discovered, engineering personnel
(2) This gate was subjected to a detailed inves- should evaluate the reliability or remaining life of
tigation of the cause of the cracking. The study the structure, determine the need for repairs, and
identified several contributing factors: the original develop adequate repair plans. When fractures
design had ignored a loading case and had included occur, operations and engineering personnel should
improper loading assumptions; limit switches were work together to investigate the causes and develop
improperly stopping the gate before it reached its reliable repair plans. Enclosures 2 through 6 pre-
supports; the design ignored higher stresses caused sent methods for inspection and evaluation of exist-
by eccentric connections on the downstream face; ing steel lock gates. These procedures should be
most of the original welds did not meet current followed to identify and correct deficiencies before
American Welding Society (AWS) quality stan- they result in serious failures.
dards; the steel for the gate had a low fracture
toughness, ranging from 5 ft-lb at 32 oF to 15 ft-lb
at 70 oF.
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CAUSES OF DETERIORATION
a. General corrosion is characterized by an Lock gates are designed to resist loads from self
uniform attack over the entire exposed surface with weight, hydraulic, and boat impact as discussed in
minimal variation in the depth of damage. The rate EM 1110-2-2703. Dynamic loading due to hydrau-
of attack is usually predictable, and catastrophic lic flow and impact loading due to vessel collision
failure does not often result. Galvanic corrosion is currently unpredictable. The dynamic loading
occurs when two or more dissimilar metals are in may be caused by hydraulic flow at the seals or
contact and placed in an electrolyte such as water. when lock gates are used to supplement chamber
A potential difference in the metals causes a flow filling or skim ice and debris. Impact loading can
of current between them, and the more active metal occur from malfunctioning equipment on the vessel
(anode) undergoes accelerated corrosion whereas or operator error. Furthermore, unusual loadings
corrosion in the less active metal (cathode) is may occur from malfunctioning limit switches or
retarded or eliminated. Galvanic corrosion can be debris trapped at interfaces between moving parts.
minimized by use of coatings and by keeping the In addition, unusual loads may develop on gates
anode large relative to the cathode. Pitting is a supported by walls that are settling or moving.
form of localized corrosion where the attack is These unusual loads can cause overstressing and
confined to numerous small cavities on the metal lead to deterioration of the lock gates.
surface. The length/depth ratio of the pit is usually
equal to or greater than 1. The pitts can act as
stress risers and promote nucleation of fatigue 3. Fatigue
cracks. Failure due to pitting corrosion may be
rapid and without warning. Crevice corrosion is a. Most structures are subjected to repeated
associated with confined spaces (< 0.001 in.) cyclic loading. Fatigue is the process of cumulative
formed by close fitting mechanical configurations damage caused by repeated cyclic loading. Fatigue
such as tapped joints, washers, and lap joints. damage occurs at stress concentrated regions where
the localized stress exceeds the yield stress of the
b. Stress corrosion involves the occurrence of material. After a certain number of cyclic loads,
both chemical and mechanical interactions. Four the accumulated damage causes the initiation and
basic requirements are necessary to cause stress propagation of a crack.
corrosion cracking: a susceptible alloy, an aggres-
sive environment, applied or residual tensile stress, b. Total fatigue life is the sum of the crack
and time. The rate of attack is rapid at the crack initiation and the crack propagation to a critical size
tip and much less rapid at the sides. (Barsom and Rolfe 1987). The main concern in
fatigue assessment of welded lock gates is to deter-
c. The paint system and cathodic protection mine the time required for failure to occur. The
systems should be inspected to assure that protec- propagation life is governed by the rate of subcriti-
tion is being provided against corrosion. The effect cal crack growth. Refer to Enclosure 6 for
of corrosion on the strength, stability, and service- additional discussion on fatigue.
ability of lock gates must be evaluated. The type of
Enclosure 2 2-1
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conditions, and structural members may now be welds which may not be acceptable according to
undersized. To properly evaluate existing lock current standards.
gates, it is important that the analysis and design
information for the gate be reviewed to assure no
design deficiencies exist. 7. Operation and Maintenance
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PERIODIC INSPECTION
Enclosure 3 3-1
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DETAILED INSPECTION
a. If distressed gate members or connections a. NDT methods are essential for field inspec-
are identified in the periodic inspection or deteriora- tion of existing lock gates. NDT can be used to
tion in structural performance is assessed from the improve structural reliability by detecting discon-
initial evaluation, then the entire gate should receive tinuities for appropriate repair. NDT methods differ
a more detailed inspection of the distressed mem- from destructive testing methods which damage or
bers, and connections should be evaluated. This impair the serviceability of the items tested.
enclosure presents a summary of various inspection
methods, guidance in selecting inspection methods, b. The six NDT methods commonly used in
inspector qualifications, code acceptance criteria, today’s industries are visual (VT), penetrant (PT),
and applicable source documents that may aid in magnetic-particle (MT), radiographic (RT), ultra-
performing a detailed inspection. sonic (UT), and eddy-current (ET). Selection of an
NDT method for inspection depends on a number of
b. Detailed inspections may be also used as variables, including the nature of the discontinuity,
part of a damage-tolerance fracture control plan accessibility, joint type and geometry, material type,
which has been used to optimize the use of welded detectability and reliability of the inspection
structures in many industries. This fracture control method, inspector qualifications, and economic
concept is based on the fact that presence of crack- considerations. A general guide for selecting NDT
like discontinuities in the structural members or methods for field inspection is given in Table 4-1,
connections does not necessarily mean the end of this enclosure.
the structure’s service life. An integrated approach
using scheduled inspections on the flawed members
and analysis of fracture/fatigue resistance of the 3. Inspector Qualifications
same members can maintain satisfactory structural
performance. The cost for repair or replacement of For an inspection to be worth performing, the
the flawed members can therefore be balanced inspector must be qualified. Corps personnel are
against the inspection cost. often not adequately trained in inspection methods;
therefore, inspections are often performed via con-
c. To develop schedules for inspection when tract with inspection specialists. The following
the damage-tolerance fracture control plan is used, qualification requirements apply to all inspectors,
fracture mechanics theories must be applied. The whether government or contractor employees.
inspection periods can be determined by fatigue
propagation analysis of the cracked structural mem- a. Qualification in NDT methods.
bers. The crack growth history from a detectable
size to the critical size can be predicted using the (1) The effectiveness of NDT depends on the
propagation laws (e.g. Paris’s crack growth law). capabilities of the person who performs the test.
Time interval between inspections should be a Inspectors performing NDT should be qualified in
fraction of this crack growth life. The optimum accordance with the American Society for Non-
nondestructive testing (NDT) intervals vary with destructive Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice
service conditions and the discontinuity conditions. No. SNT-TC-1A (ASNT 1980). The SNT-TC-1A
These inspection intervals should be short enough document is a guide to establish practices for train-
that the nondetectable cracks at the preceding ing, qualification, and certification of NDT person-
inspections do not have time to propagate to failure nel. Three basic levels of qualification are defined
before the next scheduled inspection. in SNT-TC-1A as follows:
d. A procedure for planning the inspection (a) NDT Level I: An NDT Level I individual
schedules from the crack growth analysis is shall be qualified to properly perform specific cali-
presented in Enclosure 6. brations, specific NDT, and specific evaluations for
Enclosure 4 4-1
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Table 4-1
Selection Guide for Inspection Method
Method Applications Advantages Disadvantages
Visual Surface discontinuities Economical, fast. Limited to visual acuity of the inspector.
Liquid Surface cracks and porosity Relatively inexpensive and Cleaning is needed before and after
penetrant reasonably rapid. inspection. Surface films hide defects.
Magnetic Surface discontinuities and Relatively economical and Applicable only to ferromagnetic
particle large subsurface voids expedient. materials.
Ultrasonic Most discontinuities Sensitive to planer type Small, thick parts may be difficult to
discontinuities. High inspect. Requires a skilled
penetration capability. operator.
Eddy current Surface and subsurface Painted or coated surfaces Many variables can affect the test
discontinuities can be inspected. signal.
High speed.
acceptance or rejection determinations according to (a) A welding inspector must be familiar with
written instructions and to record results. engineering drawings and able to interpret
specifications.
(b) NDT Level II: An NDT Level II individual
shall be qualified to set up and calibrate equipment (b) A welding inspector should be familiar
and to interpret and evaluate results with respect to with welding processes and welding procedures.
applicable codes, standards, and specifications. The
NDT Level II individual shall be able to organize (c) A welding inspector should be able to
and report the results of NDT. maintain adequate records.
(c) NDT Level III: An NDT Level III indivi- (d) A welding inspector should have passed
dual shall be capable of establishing techniques and an eye examination with or without corrective
procedures; interpreting codes, standards, and proce- lenses to prove:
dures; and designating the particular NDT methods,
techniques, and procedures to be used. • Near vision acuity of Snellen English, or
equivalent, at 12 in.
(2) Certification of all levels of NDT personnel
is the responsibility of the employer. The employer • Far vision acuity of 20/40, or better.
must establish a written practice for the control and
administration of NDT personnel training, examina- (2) In addition, one of the following three
tion, and certification. requirements is necessary to qualify an individual as
a weld inspector for a lock gate:
b. Qualification in weld inspection.
(a) Current or previous certification as an
(1) Welding inspectors are responsible for AWS Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) in accor-
judging the quality of the product in relation to dance with the provisions of AWS QC1-88, Stan-
some form of written specification. The following dard and Guide for Qualification and Certification
qualifications are necessary for individuals to ade- of Welding Inspectors (ANSI/AWS 1988).
quately inspect welds:
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(b) Current or previous qualification by the is simple, quick, and easy to apply. It requires no
Canadian Welding Bureau (CWB) to the require- special equipment other than good eyesight, some-
ments of the Canadian Standard Association (CSA) times assisted by simple and inexpensive
Standard W178.2, Certification of Welding equipment.
Inspectors (CSA 1917).
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. A major
(c) An engineer or technician who, by training, disadvantage of VT inspection is the need for an
experience, or both, in metals fabrication, inspection inspector who has considerable experience and
and testing, is competent to perform inspection of knowledge in many different areas. Although VT
the work. inspection is an invaluable method for detecting
surface discontinuities, it is less reliable in detecting
and quantifying small surface discontinuities or
4. Inspection Reporting detecting subsurface discontinuities.
A report should be completed by the inspector at (3) Applicable document. Material pertaining
the time of inspection. It should show the location, to VT inspection is included in ANSI/AWS
size, orientation, and classification of each disconti- B1.10-86, "Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection
nuity. The following information should be identi- of Welds" (ANSI/AWS 1986).
fied and recorded in the report:
b. Penetrant inspection (PT).
a. Identification and location of inspected
structures. PT inspection is also a method used to detect and
locate surface discontinuities. Liquid penetrants can
b. Date and time of inspection. seep into various types of minute surface openings
by capillary action. Therefore, this process is well
c. Type of inspection. suited for detecting discontinuities such as surface
cracks, overlaps, porosity, and laminations. PT
d. Inspection procedure. inspection can be performed using visible dye or
fluorescent dye visible with ultraviolet light. Three
e. Inspection system (equipment). different penetrants commonly used with either dye
are water washable, solvent removable, and post
f. Inspector identity and level. emulsifiable. The various penetrant inspection
systems are listed in an order of decreasing inspec-
g. Record of discontinuities detected. tion sensitivity and operational cost as follows:
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generally is simpler and less costly than that for inspection. MT inspection is generally faster and
most other NDT methods. more economical than penetrant inspection. Com-
pared to PT inspection, MT inspection has the
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. The major advantage of revealing cracks filled with foreign
limitation of PT inspection is that it can detect only material.
discontinuities that are open to the surface. Another
disadvantage is that the surface roughness of the (2) Disadvantages and limitations. MT
object being inspected may affect the PT inspection inspection is limited to ferromagnetic material. For
results. Extremely rough or porous surfaces may good results, the magnetic field must be in a direc-
produce false indications. Some substances in the tion that will intercept the direction of the discon-
penetrants can affect structural materials. If pene- tinuity. Large currents sometimes are required for
trants are corrosive to the gate material, they should very large parts. Care is necessary to avoid local
be avoided. heating and burning of surfaces at the points of
electrical contact. Demagnetization is sometimes
(3) Applicable documents. necessary after inspection. Discontinuities must be
open to the surface or must be in the near subsur-
(a) ASTM E165-91: Standard Test Method for face to create flux leakage of sufficient strength to
Liquid Penetrant Examination (ASTM 1991h). accumulate magnetic particles. If a discontinuity is
oriented parallel to the lines of force, it will be
(b) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology essentially undetectable.
for Nondestructive Examinations (ASTM 1992f).
(3) Applicable documents.
(c) AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Nondestruc-
tive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986). (a) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology
for Nondestructive Examinations (ASTM 1992f).
c. Magnetic particle inspection (MT).
(b) ASTM E709-91: Standard Guide for
MT inspection is used to detect surface or near- Magnetic Particle Examination (ASTM 1991l).
surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic fields can be generated by yokes, coils, (c) ANSI/AWS B1.10-86 (ANSI/AWS 1986):
central conductors, prod contacts, and induced cur- Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds.
rent. When the material is magnetized, magnetic
discontinuities that lie in a direction generally trans- d. Radiographic inspection (RT).
verse to the direction of the magnetic field will
cause a leakage field at the surface of the material. RT inspection is based on differential absorption of
The presence of this leakage field is detected by the penetrating radiation by the material being
use of fine ferromagnetic particles applied over the inspected. Radiation from the source is absorbed
surface, some of the particles being gathered and by the test piece as the radiation passes through it.
held by the leakage field. This collection of parti- The discontinuity and its surrounding material
cles indicates the discontinuities. Several magnetic absorb different amounts of penetrating radiation.
particle materials commonly used for MT inspection Thus, the amount of radiation that impinges on the
are dry powders (i.e. suitable for field inspection of film in the area beneath the discontinuity is differ-
large object), wet magnetic particles suspended in ent from the amount that impinges in the adjacent
water or light oil (i.e. suitable for very fine or shal- area. This produces a latent image on the film.
low discontinuities), magnetic slurry suspended in When the film is developed, the discontinuity can
heavy oil, and magnetic particles dispersed in the be seen as a shadow of different photographic den-
liquid polymers to form solid indications. sity from that of the image of the surrounding
material. Evaluation of the radiograph is based on
(1) Advantages. The MT inspection is a sensi- a comparison of these differences in photographic
tive means of detecting small and shallow surface density. The dark regions represent the more easily
or near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic penetrated parts (i.e. thin sections and most types of
materials. The cost of MT inspection is consider- discontinuities) while the lighter regions represent
ably less expensive than radiographic or ultrasonic the more difficult areas to penetrate (i.e. thick
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sections). An essential element to the radiographic (e) ASTM E747-90: Standard Test Method
process is film, a thin transparent plastic base for Controlling Quality of Radiographic Examina-
coated with fine crystals of silver bromide tion Using Wire Penetrameters (ASTM 1990h).
(emulsion).
(f) ASTM E999-90: Standard Guide for Con-
(1) Advantages. trolling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Film
Processing (ASTM 1990i).
(a) RT inspection has an ability to detect sur-
face and internal discontinuities. (g) ASTM E1025-84: Standard Practice for
Hole-Type Image Quality Indicators Used for
(b) It is generally not restricted by the type of Radiography (ASTM 1989c).
material or grain structure.
(h) ASTM E1032-92: Standard Method for
(c) It provides a permanent record for future Radiographic Examination of Weldments (ASTM
review. 1992e).
(2) Disadvantages and limitations. (i) ANSI/AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Non-
destructive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986).
(a) Discontinuities must be favorably aligned
with the radiation beam for reliable detection. (j) ANSI/AWS D1.1-92: Structural Welding
Code-Steel (Chapter 6: Inspection) (ANSI/AWS
(b) It presents a potential radiation hazard to 1992).
personnel.
e. Ultrasonic inspection (UT).
(c) The cost of radiographic equipment, facili-
ties, and safety programs is relatively high. UT inspection is a nondestructive method which
uses high-frequency sound waves to detect surface
(d) Accessibility to both sides of the parts to be and internal discontinuities. The sound waves
inspected is required. travel through the materials to be inspected and are
reflected from surfaces refracted at a boundary
(e) It is difficult to apply for field inspections. between two substances and diffracted at edges or
around obstacles. The reflected sound beam is
(f) It is a time consuming process compared to detected and analyzed to define the presence and
other NDT methods. location of discontinuities. Cracks, laminations,
shrinkage cavities, pores, and other discontinuities
(3) Applicable documents. that act as metal-gas interfaces can be easily
detected. Inclusions and other inhomogeneities in
(a) ASTM E 94-91: Standard Guide for the metal can also be detected. All surfaces of the
Radiographic Testing (ASTM 1991g). part to be examined should be free of weld spatter,
dirt, grease, oil, paint, and loose scale. UT inspec-
(b) ASTM E142-92: Standard Method for tion is usually performed with longitudinal waves or
Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing (ASTM shear waves (i.e. angle beam). Most UT inspec-
1992c). tions for discontinuities are performed using angle-
beam technique. The pulse-echo method with
(c) ASTM E242-91: Standard Reference A-scan is most commonly used for inspection of
Radiographs for Appearances of Radiographic welds. The most commonly used frequencies are
Images as Certain Parameters are Changed (ASTM between 1 and 5 MHz, with sound beams at angles
1991k). of 0, 45, 60, and 70 deg.
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(a) Superior penetrating power allows the (f) ASTM E1316-92: Standard Terminology
detection of discontinuities deep in the part. for Ultrasonic Examination (ASTM 1992f).
(b) High sensitivity permits the detection of (g) AWS B1.10-86: Guide for the Nonde-
small discontinuities. structive Inspection of Welds (ANSI/AWS 1986).
(c) Great accuracy in determining the size, (h) ANSI/AWS D1.1-92: Structural Welding
position, and the shape of discontinuities. Code-Steel (Chapter 6: Inspection) (ANSI/AWS
1992).
(d) Almost instantaneous indications of dis-
continuities provided. f. Eddy-current inspection (ET).
(d) ASTM E164-90: Standard Practice for (a) The test material must be an electrical
Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments conductor.
(ASTM 1990e).
(b) Some internal discontinuities cannot be
(e) ASTM E214-68: Standard Practice for detected by eddy-current inspection.
Immersed Ultrasonic Examination by the Reflection
Method Using Pulsed Longitudinal Waves (ASTM
1991j).
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3. Chemical Analysis d. The base metal and weld metal tests are
performed on a tensile testing machine in accor-
When the chemical composition of an existing gate dance with the requirements of ASTM E8-91
material is not available, it may be necessary to (1991f). The machine should be calibrated in
perform a chemical analysis. This is an important accordance with ASTM E4-89 (1989a). The
initial task in the overall material and weld testing testing procedure is as specified in ASTM E8-91
program. The information from this analysis will (1991f). The rate of straining should be
Enclosure 5 5-1
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30 Sep 93
between 0.05 and 0.5 in. per inch of guage length, determine incomplete fusion, cracking, delamina-
per minute. tion, effect of bead configuration, and macrodefects
of welded joints. The quality of welds can be eval-
e. Material properties are calculated as follows: uated as a function of ductility to resist cracking
during bending. The top and bottom surfaces of a
(1) Ultimate tensile strength = maximum welded plate are designated as the face and root
load/original cross-sectional area in the guage surfaces, respectively. Face bends have the weld
length. face on the tension side of the bent specimen, and
the weld root is on the tension side for root bends.
(2) Yield strength = load at 0.2% offset/original For thick plates, transverse slices are cut from the
cross-sectional area in the guage length. welded joint, and one of the cut side surfaces
becomes the tension side of the bent specimen.
(3) Percent elongation = (Final guage length -
original guage length)/original guage length × 100. b. When the plate thickness is less than or
equal to 3/8 in., two specimens are tested for face
(4) Reduction of area: Fit the ends of the frac- bend and two specimens are tested for root bend.
tured specimen together and measure the thickness When the thickness of the plate is greater than
and width at the minimum cross section. Calculate 3/8 in., four specimens are tested for side bend.
the reduced area.
c. Transverse side bend test specimens (AWS
At least two specimens should be tested for each B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), Figure A-5) are used for
sample type. The result of the tension test is the plates that are too thick for face bend or root bend
average of the results of the specimens. specimen. The weld is perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal axis of the specimen. The side showing more
f. Applicable documents. significant discontinuities should be the tension sur-
face of the specimen.
(1) ANSI B46.1-85: Surface Texture (ANSI
1985). d. For a transverse face bend specimen (AWS
B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), Figure A-6a), weld is perpen-
(2) ASTM E4-89: Standard Practices for Load dicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen. The
Verification of Testing Machines (ASTM 1989a). weld face becomes the tension surface of the speci-
men during bending. For transverse root bend
(3) ASTM E8-91: Standard Test Methods for specimen (AWS B4.0-85, Figure A-6b), weld is
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials (ASTM perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the speci-
1991f). men. The root surface of the weld becomes the
tension surface of the specimen during bending.
(4) AWS A2.4-86: Standard Symbols for For all types of bend tests, face, root, and side, the
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination specimen is tested at ambient temperature, and
(AWS 1986). deformation should occur in a time period between
1/2 and 2 min.
(5) AWS A3.0-89: Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions (AWS 1989). e. During the test, the convex surface of the
bent specimen should be examined frequently for
(6) AWS B4.0-85 - Part C: Tension Testing of cracks or other open defects. If a crack or open
Welded Joints (AWS 1985). defect is present after bending, exceeding a speci-
fied size measured in any direction, the specimen is
considered to be failed (AWS B4.0-85 (AWS
5. Bend Test 1985)). Cracks occurring on the corners of the
specimen during testing are not considered to fail a
a. Guided bend tests are used to evaluate the specimen unless they exceed a specified size or
ductility and soundness of welded joints and to show evidence of defects (AWS B4.0-85).
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5-3
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c. Hardness testing methods include Brinell, from different test methods can be correlated
Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop tests. Selection of through a conversion chart (ASTM E140-88
test method depends on hardness or strength of the (ASTM 1988)).
material, the size of the welded joints, and the type
of information desired. The Brinell test produces a g. For each type of hardness test performed, at
large indentation and is suited for large welds in least five indentations should be made for each
heavy plates, which is suitable for field evaluations. region. The result of the hardness test is the aver-
The Rockwell test produces much smaller indenta- age of the indentations.
tions than the Brinell test and is more suited for
hardness traverses. The Rockwell hardness test is h. Applicable documents.
also suitable for field inspection if a portable tester
is used. The Vickers and Knoop tests make rela- (1) ASTM E10-84: Standard Test Method for
tively small indentations and are suited for hardness Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM
measurements of the various regions in the weld 1984).
heat-affected zone and for fine-scale traverses. The
Brinell and Rockwell tests are generally used for (2) ASTM E18-92: Standard Test Methods
hardness measurements of fusion-welded joints in for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial
laboratory condition or field environment. Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM 1992a).
d. The Brinell hardness test is performed in (3) ASTM E92-82: Standard Test Method for
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E10-84 Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM
(ASTM 1984). It is an indentation hardness test 1987a).
using calibrated machines to force a hard ball into
the surface of the material and to measure the diam- (4) ASTM E110-82: Standard Test Method
eter of the resulting impression after removal of the for Indentation Hardness of Metallic Materials by
load. The Brinell hardness number, HB, is related Portable Hardness Testers (ASTM 1987b).
to the applied load and to the surface area of the
permanent impression made by a ball indenter.
8. Fracture Toughness Test
e. The Rockwell hardness test is performed in
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E18-92 Fracture toughness is a material property which
(ASTM 1992a). This test is an indentation hard- indicates its resistance to fracture. Fracture tough-
ness test to force a diamond spheroconical indenter ness testing provides a measure of resistance to
or hard ball indenter into the surface of the material crack initiation or propagation. Test methods
in two operations and to measure the difference in include Charpy V-notch test (CVN), Plane-Strain
depth of the indentation. The Rockwell hardness Fracture Toughness test (KIc), and Crack-Tip
number, HR, is a number derived from the net Opening Displacement test (CTOD). The CVN test
increase in the depth of indentation as the force is is used to measure the ability of a material to
increased from a preliminary test force to a total absorb energy. The KIc or CTOD tests are used to
test force and then returned to the preliminary test determine critical crack size that a material can
force. The higher the number the harder the tolerate without fracture when loaded to a specific
material. stress level. The welding process and welding
procedure have a significant effect on the fracture
f. The Vickers hardness test is performed in toughness of a weld joint. The same welding pro-
accordance with the requirements of ASTM E92-82 cess and procedure must be used for the structure
(ASTM 1987a). The Vickers hardness test is an and test specimens. Fracture toughness test speci-
indentation hardness test to force a squarebased mens should be selected from a distressed gate
pyramidal diamond indenter with specified face member or connection so that the test results are
angles into the surface of the material to measure representative of the gate. As an alternative, test
the diagonals of the resulting impression after samples may be made of similar materials and
removal of the load. Vickers hardness number is welding procedures to that used in the original
related to the applied load and the surface area of fabrication. Orientations of the test specimens
the permanent impression. The hardness values taken from gate samples should follow the
5-4
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provisions specified by AWS B4.0-85 (AWS 1985), (5) The fracture appearance can be quantified
Figure D-3. Test specimens should not contain by measuring the length and width of the cleavage
metal that has been affected thermally as a result of portion of the fracture surface or comparing the
cutting or preparation nor welding stops or starts. appearance of the fractured surface with a fracture
The weld metal width-to-specimen thickness rela- appearance chart (ASTM E23-92 (1992b)).
tionship provisions are given in AWS B4.0-85,
Figure D-4. When an evaluation of the base metal b. Plane-strain fracture toughness test.
or heat affected zone is required, the location of the
notch should be specified. (1) The property KIc characterizes the resis-
tance of a material to fracture in the presence of a
a. Charpy V-notch test. sharp crack under severe tensile stress. This value
may be used to estimate the relation between failure
(1) The CVN test provides information about stress and defect size for a material in service
behavior of metal when subjected to a single appli- wherein the conditions of high tensile stress would
cation of a load resulting in multiaxial stresses be expected. The values of KIc can be used for
associated with a notch coupled with high rates of inspection and discontinuity assessment criteria,
loading. For some materials and temperatures, when used in conjunction with fracture mechanics
impact tests on notched specimens have been found analyses.
to predict the likelihood of brittle fracture better
than tension tests or other tests used in material (2) The plane-strain fracture toughness can be
specifications. experimentally determined using compact tension
test specimen or bend test specimen. The specimen
(2) The specimen preparation and test proce- preparation and test procedures must be in accor-
dure for the CVN test is described by ASTM dance with ASTM E399-90 (ASTM 1990g), Figures
E23-92 (ASTM 1992b). When specified, the sur- A4-1 and A3-1, respectively. For a result to be
face finish of the V-notch of the Charpy impact considered valid, it is required that both the speci-
specimen is 20 µin., or less. The testing machine is men thickness and the crack length exceed
a pendulum type of rigid construction and of capac- 2.5(KIc/σys), where σys is the 0.2-percent offset yield
ity more than sufficient to break the specimen in strength and KIc is the fracture toughness of the
one blow. The test is performed at various speci- material at test temperature and loading rate. The
fied temperatures. initial selection of a size of specimen may be based
on an estimated value of KIc for the material to be
(3) Five specimens should be tested for each tested.
test condition and the amount of energy absorbed
by the specimen at fracture should be recorded. (3) The ASTM requirement for plane-strain
The highest and lowest values are discarded, and condition can be expressed in terms of Irwin’s
the result is taken as the average of the remaining plane-strain βIc value (ASTM E399-90 (ASTM
three specimens tested. If any specimen fails to 1990g)) as follows:
break or jams in the machine, the data of that speci-
men is not included in the calculation of the 2
average. 1 KIc (5-1)
βIc ≤ 0.4
t σys
(4) In addition to the absorbed energy, other
test indicators, such as lateral expansion of the where
fractured specimen and appearance of the fractured
surfaces, can also be used to characterize the t = thickness
fracture toughness of the test material. The amount
of expansion on each side of each half can be σys = material yield strength
measured using a lateral expansion gage. The two
broken halves must be measured individually and If βIc is 0.4, or less, the specimen size is sufficiently
the larger value is used. large to ensure plane-strain behavior and LEFM can
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be applied. Otherwise, elastic-plastic fracture (6) AWS B4.0-85 - Part D: Fracture Tough-
mechanics (EPFM) must be employed in the frac- ness Testing of Welds (AWS 1985).
ture analysis. The crack-tip opening displacement,
as discussed in the following section, is usually the e. CVN-KIc correlations.
material toughness parameter for EPFM assessment.
Due to ease of testing and cost considerations, CVN
c. Crack-tip opening displacement test. test results are more available than KIc test results.
An approximation of KIc may be obtained through
(1) CTOD is the displacement of the crack the two-stage CVN-KIc transition method as discus-
surfaces normal to the original (unloaded) crack sed by Barsom and Rolfe (1987).
plane at the tip of the fatigue precrack. The CTOD
values vary with material toughness depending upon (1) Determine impact CVN test results in the
the amount of plastic deformation at the crack tip transition temperature region at test temperatures
under load. Therefore, CTOD at fracture incipient approximately Ts above the expected minimum ser-
load indicates the fracture toughness of the test vice temperature, To. Ts is the temperature shift
material. (expressed in degrees Fahrenheit) between fracture
toughness under dynamic loading, KId, and fracture
(2) The CTOD values may be used to charac- toughness at slow loading rate, KIc. Transition
terize the toughness of materials that are too ductile temperatures and Ts are described in Enclosure 6.
or lack sufficient size to be tested for KIc. The
different values of CTOD characterize the resistance Ts 215 1.5 σys (5-2)
of a material to crack initiation and early crack
extension at a given temperature. The values of where
CTOD can be used for inspection and fracture
assessment criteria, when used in conjunction with Ts = degrees Fahrenheit
fracture mechanics analyses.
σys = yield strength expressed in kips per
(3) CTOD tests use three-point bend specimens. square inch
Preparation of test specimen and test procedure is
described in ASTM E1290-89 (ASTM 1989d). The (2) Determine KId by the following
critical CTOD values are derived from measure- relationship
ments of load and clip gauge displacement.
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Figure 5-1 illustrates the method graphically. This foot-pounds is less than about one-half of the yield
procedure is limited to the lower end of the transi- strength in kips per square inch.
tion curve, where the impact CVN value in
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Enclosure 6 6-1
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transition temperature, linear elastic fracture Institution 1980, Burdekin et al. 1975, and ASME
mechanics analysis (LEFM and KIc) needs to be 1978). Discontinuities are classified as through
performed for assessing the discontinuities revealed thickness (may be detected from both surfaces),
from inspections. For gates with discontinuities embedded (not visible from either surface), or sur-
operating at temperatures above nil-ductility transi- face (may be observed on one surface) as illustrated
tion temperature, elastic-plastic fracture analysis in Figure 6-3. To determine the effective dimen-
(EPFM and CTOD) needs to be conducted. In any sions of a discontinuity(ies):
case, LEFM may be used as an initial evaluation
tool, since it is simple to apply and generally gives (a) Resolve the discontinuity(ies) into a plane
a conservative answer. Fatigue analysis is needed normal to the principal stresses as shown in
when the remaining gate life and the crack growth Figure 6-4. Effective dimensions for various iso-
rate are necessary for developing the inspection and lated discontinuity types are shown in Figure 6-3.
maintenance scheduling for the distressed gates.
This section presents a procedure for fracture analy- (b) Check interaction with neighboring discon-
sis of distressed lock gates. tinuities to obtain the idealized discontinuity dimen-
sions; idealizations for interaction of discontinuities
b. In LEFM analysis, the applied stress- are shown in Figures 6-5 and 6-6.
intensity factor (KI) shall always be less than the
critical stress-intensity factor (KIc). The critical (c) Check interaction with surfaces by recate-
discontinuity size is related to material fracture gorization as shown in Figure 6-7 for surface or
toughness (critical stress-intensity factor KIc, KId, or embedded discontinuities (idealized or actual).
Kc) for a given applied load and loading rate at the
minimum service temperature. (d) Determine final idealized effective dimen-
sions for fracture analysis.
2
1 KIc or KId or Kc (6-1)
acr (3) Determine the stress level by an appropri-
FS Cσ ate structural analysis, assuming no crack exists.
Structural loading can be divided into primary
where stresses, σp, and secondary stress, σs. The primary
stress consists of membrane stresses, σm, and bend-
acr = critical discontinuity size, inches ing stress σb, due to imposed loading. Examples of
secondary stresses include stress increase due to
KIc (or KId or Kc) = fracture toughness of the gate stress concentration imposed by geometry of the
material, kips per square detail under consideration, thermal, and residual
inch-√in. stress. For discontinuities at nonheat treated welds,
the residual tensile stress should be taken as the
σ = applied nominal stress in kips per square inch yield stress. An estimate of the residual stress
should be used for postheat treated weldments. The
FS = factor of safety (e.g. 2) applied stress is the sum of primary σp and second-
ary σs stresses. If the applied stress is greater than
C = constant which is a function of discontinuity the yield stress, EPFM must be employed. If
and joint geometry and loading type as shown applied stress is less than the yield stress and the
in Figures 6-8 through 6-16 plane-strain factor β < 0.4 (Enclosure 5, paragraph
8), LEFM should be used based on KIc. When the
c. The procedure of fracture assessment of applied stress is less than the yield stress and β >
discontinuities may be described by the following 0.4, Kc (a function of plate thickness) should be
steps and the flow chart is shown in Figure 6-2: used instead of KIc, if available, otherwise, EPFM
based on CTOD analysis must be employed.
(1) Determine the actual shape, location, and
size of the discontinuity by NDT inspection. (4) Determine material properties including
σys, E and KIc (based on the level of applied stress
(2) Determine the effective discontinuity and the value of βIc), Kc, or CTOD. KIc may be
dimensions to be used for analysis (British Standard
6-2
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6-3
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Figure 6-3. Required dimensions of a discontinuity (after British Standards Institution 1980)
d. Fracture mechanics may be used to establish Figure 6-5. Interaction of coplanar discontinu-
acceptance levels for various discontinuities by ities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are repro-
comparing the discontinuity(ies) size with the criti- duced with the permission of BSI. Complete
cal discontinuity (defect) size. Each case is unique copies of the standard can be obtained by post
from BSI Publications, Linford Wood,
depending on a given set of loads, environmental
Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)
factors (e.g. temperature), geometry, and material
properties. The critical discontinuity size is deter- factor KI or CTOD should always be less than the
mined using fracture mechanics principles which critical stress-intensity factor KIc , Kc , or the critical
relate stress, discontinuity size, and fracture tough- CTOD value δcrit , respectively.
ness to existing conditions. The stress-intensity
6-4
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KI Cσ a (6-2)
where
2
1 KIc (6-3)
acr
2 Cσ
6-5
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6-6
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6-7
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δ
am C crit (6-5)
εy
where
6-8
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Figure 6-13. Edge-notched beam in bending (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN
STRUCTURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 45. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
b. The total fatigue life is the sum of the fatigue life predictions should be used as a means to
fatigue crack-initiation life and the fatigue crack- evaluate a reliable service life, not to actually pre-
propagation life to a critical size (Barsom and Rolfe dict when a structure will fail.
1987).
NT = Ni + Np (6-6)
7. Fatigue Crack-Propagation (Barsom and
where Rolfe 1987)
NT = total fatigue life
The fatigue crack-propagation behavior for metals is
Ni = initiation life shown in Figure 6-21. Figure 6-21 is a plot (log10
scale) of the rate of fatigue crack growth per cycle
Np = propagation life
of load (da/dN) versus the variation of the stress-
c. All steels have microscopic discontinuities, intensity factor (∆KI). The parameter a denotes
and welded structures always contain larger discon- crack length, N the number of cycles, and ∆KI the
tinuities due to the welding process. Thus, the main stress-intensity factor range, KImax to KImin. Based on
concern in fatigue assessment of welded structures Figure 6-21, fatigue-crack behavior for steel can be
is to determine the crack-propagation life before characterized by three regions:
reaching the critical crack size which results in
brittle fracture. The life of a structural component a. Region I: In region I, for levels of ∆KI
which contains a crack is governed by the rate of below a certain threshold, cracks do not propagate
subcritical crack propagation. under cyclic stress fluctuations. Conservative esti-
mates of fatigue threshold, ∆Kth, can be determined
d. Fatigue analysis methods described in para- by
graphs 7 and 8 are based on extensive analyses of
test results from numerous specimens. Variation in ∆Kth = 6.4(1 - 0.85R) ksi-√
in. for R > 0.1
test data is large, and inherent uncertainty exists in
defining load and strength parameters. Therefore, ∆Kth = 5.5 ksi-√
in. for R < 0.1 (6-7)
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Figure 6-14. Embedded elliptical or circular crack (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN
STRUCTURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 47. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
6-10
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Figure 6-15. Surface crack (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUCTURES: Appli-
cations of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 48. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
6-11
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Figure 6-16. Cracks with wedge forces (Barsom/Rolfe, FRACTURE AND FATIGUE CONTROL IN STRUC-
TURES: Applications of Fracture Mechanics,©1987, p 52. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
Figure 6-17. Linearization of stresses (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of
BSI. Complete copies of the standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton
Keynes, MK14 6LE)
6-12
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Figure 6-18. Relation between dimensions of a discontinuity and the parameter a for surface discontinu-
ities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete copies of the
standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)
6-13
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Figure 6-19. Relation between dimensions of a discontinuity and the parameter a for embedded disconti-
nuities (Extracts from PD 6493: 1980 are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Complete copies of the
standard can be obtained by post from BSI Publications, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE)
6-14
ETL 1110-2-346
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6-15
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d. Determine ∆KI using the appropriate expres- radially and eventually protrudes a surface at which
sion for KI, the estimated initial discontinuity size time it should be treated as a surface discontinuity
ao, and the range of live load stress ∆σ (i.e. cyclic of length .
stress range). For cases of variable amplitude load-
ing, a spectrum of various discrete stress ranges ∆σi (3) See Figure 6-3c for surface discontinuities.
exists. In these cases, an effective stress range ∆σe Initial propagation will result in a semicircular
should be used in determining ∆KI. ∆σe can be shape. Further propagation will result in the dis-
calculated as the root-mean-cube of the discrete continuity reaching the other surface at which time
stress ranges ∆σi, it should be treated as a through thickness
discontinuity.
m 1/3
ni (∆σi)3 (6-12)
∆σe
i 1 N 9. Development of Inspection Schedules
6-16
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6-17
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2 0.001
0.5 Q KId am 0.44 0.26 in.
acr 0.28 in. 0.0017
π 1.12 σ
6-18
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30 Sep 93
a
KI 1.12σ π MK
Q
σ 30
0.6 and Q 1.39 ( Figure 6 14 )
σys 50
assume Mk = 1.0.
1 1 ⌠a da
N (4.31×104) N
cr
a ⌡a (3.6×10 10)(∆K )3
i acr i
I
where
The curve for fatigue life N as a function of initial
crack length ai for this example is shown in KI = stress-intensity factor which is a function
Figure 6-23. of crack length
6-19
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6-20
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6-21
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6-22
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6-23
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6-24
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6-25
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N = 160,000 cycles
6-26
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k. American Society for Testing and Materials. t. American Society for Testing and Materials.
(1984). "Standard test method for Brinell hardness (1990b). "Standard specification for pressure vessel
R-1
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93
plates, alloy steel, high-strength, quenched, and dd. American Society for Testing and Mater-
tempered," Designation: A517/A517M-90, ials. (1991c). "Standard specification for high-
Philadelphia, PA. yield-strength, quenched and tempered alloy steel
plate, suitable for welding," Designation:
u. American Society for Testing and Materials. A514/A514M-91, Philadelphia, PA.
(1990c). "Standard specification for ultrasonic
angle-beam examination of steel plates," Designa- ee. American Society for Testing and Mater-
tion: A577/A577M-90, Philadelphia, PA. ials. (1991d). "Standard specification for high-
strength low-alloy Columbian-Vanadium steels of
v. American Society for Testing and Materials. structural quality," Designation: A572/A572M-91,
(1990d). "Standard practice for ultrasonic pulse- Philadelphia, PA.
echo straight-beam examination by the contact
method," Designation: E114-90, Philadelphia, PA. ff. American Society for Testing and Mater-
ials. (1991e). "Specification for straight beam
w. American Society for Testing and Materials. ultrasonic examination of rolled steel structural
(1990e). "Standard practice for ultrasonic contact shapes," Designation: A898/A898M-91,
examination of weldments," Designation: E164-90, Philadelphia, PA.
Philadelphia, PA.
gg. American Society for Testing and Mater-
x. American Society for Testing and Materials. ials. (1991f). "Standard test methods for tension
(1990f). "Standard test methods for chemical testing of metallic materials," Designation: E8-91,
analysis of carbon steel, low-alloy steel, silicon Philadelphia, PA.
electrical steel, ingot iron, and wrought iron,"
Designation: E350-90, Philadelphia, PA. hh. American Society for Testing and Mater-
ials. (1991g). "Standard guide for radiographic
y. American Society for Testing and Materials. testing," Designation: E94-91, Philadelphia, PA.
(1990g). "Standard test method for plane-strain
fracture toughness of metallic materials," Designa- ii. American Society for Testing and Mater-
tion: E399-90, Philadelphia, PA. ials. (1991h). "Standard test method for liquid
penetrant examination," Designation: E165-91,
z. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
(1990h). "Standard test method for controlling
quality of radiographic examination using wire jj. American Society for Testing and Mater-
penetrameters," Designation: E747-90, ials. (1991i). "Standard method for conducting
Philadelphia, PA. drop weight test to determine nil-ductility transition
temperature of ferritic steels," Designation: E208-
aa. American Society for Testing and Materials. 91, Philadelphia, PA.
(1990i). "Standard guide for controlling the quality
of industrial radiographic film processing," Designa- kk. American Society for Testing and Mater-
tion: E999-90, Philadelphia, PA. ials. (1991j). "Standard practice for immersed
ultrasonic examination by the reflection method
bb. American Society for Testing and Materials. using pulsed longitudinal waves," Designation:
(1991a). "Specification for general requirements for E214-68 (Reapproved 1991), Philadelphia, PA.
rolled steel plates, shapes, sheet piling, and bars for
structural use," Designation: A6/A6M-916, ll. American Society for Testing and Mater-
Philadelphia, PA. ials. (1991k). "Standard reference radiographs for
appearance of radiographic images as certain
cc. American Society for Testing and Materials. parameters are changed," Designation: E242-91,
(1991b). "Standard specification for structural Philadelphia, PA.
steel," Designation: A36/A36M-91, Philadelphia,
PA.
R-2
ETL 1110-2-346
30 Sep 93
mm. American Society for Testing and Materials. uu. British Standards Institution. (1980).
(1991l). "Standard guide for magnetic particle "Guidance on some methods for the derivation of
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(1992a). "Standard test methods for Rockwell hard- Kanazawa, T., Mashida, S., Ekwall, B.,
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(1992b). "Standard test methods for notched bar
impact testing of metallic materials," Designation: ww. Canadian Standards Association. (1917).
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pp. American Society for Testing and Materials.
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(1992d). "Standard test method for guided bend yy. Headquarters, Department of the Army.
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R-3