TRANSPORTATION


Living organisms needs the exchange of
substances such as nutrients, waste
products and respiratory gases in order to
survive and grow

Unicellular organisms – the exchange of
substances takes place through diffusion
- have high total surface area/volume
- do not need specialised transporting
system within their body

Large multicellular organisms :
- small surface area/volume
-distance between the source of substances
and the cells is too far for a direct
exchange to take place effectively



Large multicellular organisms need
circulatory system:
- distribution of nutrients and oxygen
- removal of waste products
 Circulatory system

Functions:

- deliver oxygen to cells

- carries waste products away from the cells

- protects from infections

Component of circulatory system:

1. Blood – medium of transport

2. heart – pump that circulate blood

3. blood vessel – deliver blood to body
tissues
 Blood



Body cavity – haemocoel

Functions :
1. transportation
2. regulation
3. protection
Transportation
- oxygen, carbon dioxide
- nutrients, hormones, antibodies
- waste product
Regulates
- pH of body fluids
- body temperature
- water content of the cells
Protection
- blood clotting
- infections and diseases
Haemolymph
- Invertebrates blood
- transport water, inorganic salts, organic
compound
- does not transport respiratory gases
 The composition of human blood

55% plasma 45% cellular component

Cellular component :
- erythrocytes
-leucocytes
- platelets
 Plasma

Main transport medium

Constituent :
- water – solvent to transport dissolved
substances
- ions – sodium, potassium, magnesium,
●
calcium, chloride, bicarbonate
- maintains osmotic balance and pH of
the blood

-
Plasma proteins – albumin
– maintain osmotic balance between
blood and interstitial fluid
fibrinogen-blood clotting
immunoglobulins – antibodies
- hormones – control physiological activities
- dissolved substances - glucose, vitamins,
urea, respiratory
gases

– energy, growth, health, activity

 Cellular component

1. erythrocyte
− Biconcave shape
− No nucleus
− 7.5 micrometer - diameter
− Elastic membrane – squeeze easily into blood
capillaries

Contains – haemoglobin
− Oxygen carrying protein pigment
− Gives red colour to hemoglobin

Lifespan – 120 days

Destroyed in the liver and spleen

Produce in – bone marrow of long bones,
ribs, skull, vertebrae

2. Platelets
- fragment of large cells from the bone
marrow
- no nucleus
- Diameter – 2-3 micrometer

3. leukocytes
- have nuclei and mitochondria
- made by the stem cells in the bone
marrow
- Function – fight infections
- activities – in the interstital fluidand blood
capillaries
 leukocytes

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Neutrophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

Eosinophils

Neutrophils – engulf and digest bacteria,
dead cells

Eosinophils – release enzymes to combat
inflammation in allergic reactions, kills
parasitic worms

Basophils – combating inflammatory and
allergic reactions

Lymphocytes – produce immune response
against foreign substances
 Human blood vessel

Blood vessel

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Artery Capillaries vein
 Arteries

Wall – thick, muscular, elastic

Lumen – small

No valve

Blood pressure – high

Blood flow – from heart to organs

Blood content – oxygenated blood
 Capillaries

Wall– one cell thick, no muscle, not elastic

Lumen – very small

No valve

Blood pressure – very low

Blood flow – arteries to vein

Blood content – oxygenated blood

Function – gaseous exchange between blood
and the body cells by diffusion
 Veins

Wall – thin, less muscular, less elastic

Lumen – large

Have valve

Blood pressure – low

Blood flow – from all parts of the body to the
heart

Blood content – deoxygenated blood

Function – allow blood from the tissues to
return to the heart
Human Heart
 The circulation of blood in
humans
The pumping of heart

Heart – made up of cardiac muscle

 Cardiac muscle are interconnected – allows
electrical impulses to spread rapidly – cardiac
muscle contract in coordinated movement

Cardiac muscle– myogenic
- contract and relaxes without
stimulation by nerve impulses

Contractions of the heart are initiated and
coordinated by pacemaker
- generates electrical impulses which spread
rapidly over the walls of atria
- atria contract rhythmically
 impulses
Atrioventricular
Pacemaker node ( at the bottom
of the right atrium )

impulses

Ventricles
contract
Muscle fibre –
bundle of his fibres,
bundle branches,
purkinje fibre

Apex of the heart,

walls of ventricles

The pacemaker is controlled by the nervous
system and the endocrine system
- parasympathetic nerves speed up the
pacemaker
- symphathetic nerves speed up the
pacemaker
- adrenaline – increase the heartbeats – fear,
excitement, danger
 Contraction of skeleton muscles
around veins

The contractions of the skeletal muscles
around the vein help the movement of blood
circulation

Veins have one way valves that allow blood
to flow in one direction
 The regulatory mechanism of
blood pressure

When blood flows along a vessel it exerts
pressure against the wall of the blood vessel
– blood pressure

 Blood pressure is the force that pumps blood
along the arteries and capillaries

Healthy adult (at rest) – 120/80 mmHg

120 – systolic pressure (ventricle contract)

80 – diastolic pressure (the relaxation phase
of the heart beats

Blood pressure is regulated by negative
feedback mechanism

 Barroreceptor – pressure receptor in the arch
of aorta and carotid arteries
– Send nerve impulse to the medulla oblongata
to regulate the blood pressure
 Normal blood Physical activities -
pressure blood pressure increase

Baroreceptor are stimulated ,

Blood pressure decrease increased rate of
nerve impulse
sent to medulla oblongata

Effectors
- weaker cardiac muscle
contraction Cardiovascular centre
- lower heart beat rate sent nerve impulses
- smooth muscle of the arteries to to the effectors
relax – widening the blood vesel
- vasodilation
 Blood pressure decrease

Normal blood Decrease rate of nerve

pressure impulses sent to medulla
oblongata

Blood pressure increase Baroreceptor less

stimulated

Effectors Cardiovascular centre send nerve

- stronger cardiac muscle contraction impulses to the effectors
- increase heartbeat rate
- smooth muscle of the arteries contract – increase
the resistance of blood flow
- narrowing of blood vessel - vasoconstriction
 The circulatory system in insects, fish, amphibians
and human


Large multicellular organisms :
− Open circulatory system
− Closed circulatory system
 Open circulatory system

Insects

Blood is pumped directly into the body cavity

Consist of :
− One or more hearts
− Network of vessel
− Large open space within the body (haemocel)
 Circulatory system of insects

One or more hearts pump the haemolymph
through the vessels and haemocoel

Haemocoel contains soft internal organs and
filled with haemolymph

Chemical exchange between the
haemolymph and the body cells takes place

When the heart relax, the haemolymph flows
is drawn through pores called ostia back into
the heart

Ostia has valves – close when the hearts
contract
 The closed circulatory system

All vertebrates, invertebrates(molluscs,
annelids – earthworm)

Blood flows within the heart and vessels
 The circulatory system in fish

Heart – one atrium

- one ventricle

Single circulatory system – blood flows in
only one circuit (gill capillaries and
systemic capillaries)
− The oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
does not mix in the heart

Diagram of fish circulatory system
 The circulatory system in
amphibians

Heart – two atrium

- one ventricle

There is some mixing of oxygenated blood
and deoxygenated blood

Blood flows in two separate circuit
− Double circulatory system ( pulmonary circulation
and systemic circulation)
The circulatory system in humans

Heart – two atrium

- two completely separate
ventricle

Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood do not
mix
Four chambers – efficient and rapid delivery of
oxygenated blood to the organs
 Pulmonary circulation

Deoxygenated
blood from right Pulmonary arteries
ventricle

Lung
Left atrium
 Systemic circulation

Left ventricle Other parts of the body

except the lung

Left atrium

Double circulatory system

Blood flows through the heart twice

Find out the differences between the
circulatory system of insects, amphibians and
humans
 The mechanism of blood clotting

Blood clotting is a body mechanism to stop
or minimize blood loss from damaged blood
vessel

Prevent blood loss

Maintain blood pressure

Maintain circulation of blood

Prevent the entry of microorganism
 Mechanism of blood clotting
Blood vessel damaged
- connective tissue is exposed to blood
plasma
Platelets stick to the collagen fibre in
the connective tissue and release
clotting factors - surrounding platelets
sticky
Aggregation of platelets form a platelet plug
that stop blood loss if the cut is small
Damage vessel is severe, the plug reinforced
by a clot of fibrin
Clumped platelets, damaged cells and
clotting factors
Activators (thromboplastin + calcium ion +
vitamin K+ damaged cells + clotting factors)
convert prothrombin to thrombin
 Red blood cell

fibrinogen
prothrombin

platelet
 - Collagen fibre Form activators
- clumped platelet (thromboplastins)
- damaged cells
- clotting factors in
the plasma
Fibrin forms a
mesh of fibres
across the wound,
preventing loss of
Calcium ion blood
Vitamin K

Thrombin
Prothrombin Active plasma
(inactive plasma protein
protein)
Fibrin
Fibrinogen
Soluble Insoluble
protein
● Vitamin K is needed to form prothrombin
● Calcium ion is needed to convert prothrombin
to thrombin
Thrombin catalyse the conversion of
fibrinogen (soluble protein) into fibrin
(insoluble)
Fibrin (fibrous protein) aggregates to form a
mesh of long threads over the wound,
trapping red blood cells and sealing wound
Blood clot hardens when exposed to air to
form a scab
 Problems related to blood clotting

Haemophilia thrombosis

- Hereditary
- A blood clot formation
disease (thrombus)
- lack certain inside unbroken blood vessel
clotting factors
in the blood - Moving blood clot inside
- may die result of blood vessel – embolus
excessive - embolus block the blood
bleeding vessel lead to stroke,
heart attack
haemophilia
thrombosis
The lymphatic system
 The lymphatic system

The formation of interstitial fluid
- blood that enters the arterial end of
capillaries is under high pressure
-
fluid leak from the blood plasma into the
space between the cells
the fluid that fill the space between the cell
and is called interstitial fluid

The exchange of substances between the
blood capillaries and the body cells occurs in
the interstitial fluid

Nutrient and oxygen diffuse from the blood
through the interstitial fluid into the body cells

 Carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse
from the body cell through the interstitial fluid
into the blood

Composition of interstitial fluid :
- water, dissolved nutrients, hormones,
waste products, gases, small protein from
the blood (leucocytes)

Does not contain plasma protein,
erythrocytes, platelets – too large to pass
through the capillary wall

 Interstitial fluid must be returned to the
circulatory system to maintain the normal
blood volume
 The lymphatic system

Lymphatic system receives the unabsorbed
interstitial fluid from the space between the
cell and return it to the circulatory system

Lymphatic system is a one way sytem
consisting of network of lymph capillaries,
larger lymphatic vessel and lymph nodes

Interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed
into the bloodstream goes into the lymph
capillaries

 Inside the lymph capillaries the fluid is known a
lymphatic fluid

Lymph – transparent

Lymph capillaries converge into larger
lymphatic vessel
Lymph capillaries Lymph vesel

Has one way

valve, ensure the
continous flow of
lymph in one
direction
Lymph
vessel
Lymph nodes
- produce and store
lymphocytes
- help protect body
against infections
Thoracic duct Left subclavian
- receive lymph from left side of vein
the head, neck, chest, left upper
limb, entire body below the rib

Right subclavian
vein
 Left subclavian
vein

Right lymphatic duct

- recieves lymph from Right subclavian
right arm, shoulder area, vein
right side of thead and
neck

Lymph is drained back into the blood

 Lymphatic system does not have a pump to
move the lymph through the lymphatic system

Lymph moves with the help of:
- one way valves
- contraction of skeletal muscle
- intestinal movement
- changes in pressure during inhalation and
exhalation
 The role of lymphatic system in
transport

The lymphatic system helps maintain the
fluid balance in the body

Too much fluid in the body causes the body
tissues become swollen

Excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid
result in oedema – caused by blocked
lymphatic vessel

Water and nutrient is continuously leak out
from the blood capillaries into the body
tissues – these substances must be transport
to the lymphatic system to prevent from
swollen

Lacteal - Lymph capillaries that transport
lipid from small intestine to the blood stream
 The role of the circulatory system in the
defense mechanism of the body

Three lines of defense:

1. first line of defense

2. Second line of defense

3. third line of defense
 First line of defense

Consist of physical and chemical barrier

Prevent pathogens from entering the body

Non specific defense
Skin
- impenetrable to bacteria and virus
- secretes sebum that forms protective film over the
skin
- acid and oil in sebum prevent the growth of
microorganism
- sweat contain lysozyme, capable of breaking down
the cell walls of bacteria
Tears and saliva
- contain lysozyme
- hydrochloric acid
- secrete in the stomach destroys pathogens
Mucus membranes
- line the trachea, air passageways, urinary
tract, stop the entry of microorganisms
- mucus is secreted that contains
lysozyme
-
 Second line of defense

Pathogens that penetrate the first line of
defense will face the second line of defense

 Non specific defense
 Consist of Phagocytic white blood cells or
phagocytes can perform phagocytosis

Phagocytes engulf and ingest
microorganisms and other foreign particles

Two types of phagocytes:
− neutrophils
− monocytes
neutrophils

Neutrophils and monocytes migrate to the
infected area, attracted by the chemicals
release by damaged cells

 Enter the interstitial fluid by squeezing through
capillary walls

During migration the monocytes develop into
macrophages
 The stages of phagocytosis

Phagocyte is attracted by the chemicals
release by the bacteria or damaged cells

The phagocyte extend its pseudopodia
towards the bacteria and engulf it

Ingestion of the bacterium forms the
phagosome

lysozome is released into the phagosome

The bacteria inside the phagosome is killed
by the lysozome

The phagocyte release the digested products
from the cell
 The third line of defense

Involves the immune system

A specific or targeted defence

Recognise specific pathogen, cancer cells


Immunity – the body resistance to the
pathogen which causes specific disease

The external surface of an microorganisms
contains specific molecules called antigens

Antigens are usually protein

The immune system identifies the antigens
invading the bodies, stimulated to defend the
bodies against the antigens

Each antigens induces certain lymphocytes
to secrete specific antibodies that react
specifically to an antigen

Antibodies are protein found on the surface of
lymphocytes

The interactions of antibodies and the
antigens which result in the elimination of
antigen from the body is known as immune
response

Antibody molecule has antigen binding site
that is specific

Each binding site has a particular shape that
fits one found on the antigen

Lymphocytes are distributed in the blood,
lymph, thymus, lymph node and spleen

Lymphatic system also help the body to
defense against pathogen
 How antibodies work
1. Agglutination
- antibodies cause the pathogens to clump
together.
- clumping make it easy for the phagocytes to
capture and destroy the pathogens
2. Neutralisation
- antibody bind to the toxin molecule
- this prevent the toxin molecule from
attaching to a cell and causing damage
3. Opsonisation
- antibodies that binds to antigens to act as a
markers so that antigens can be easily
recognized and destroyed by phagocytes

marker
4. Lysis
- antibodies that bind to antigens and cause the
antigens to rupture
 Types of immunity

Active immunity Passive immunity

- the body produces - body receive antibodies

its own antibodies in from outside source
response stimulated
by antigen
Naturally acquired
passive immunity
Naturally acquired
active immunity Artificially acquired passive
immunity
Artificially acquired
active immunity
 Active immunity
Pathogen

Antigens stimulate Immune

Person an immune system
response produce
antibodies

Person permenantly
immune
Lymphocytes remain Person
in the body recover from
infection

Example – chicken pox

Person immune after he has been infected
by the pathogen
 Artificially acquired active immunity

Vaccine is Vaccine stimulate

injected to a the body to
person produce antibodies

Person is
immune from
certain disease

Vaccine prepared from dead, weakened or
non virulent pathogen that is not harmful to
person

Vaccine stimulates the body to produce
antibodies

The process of inducing immunity through the
use of vaccine is called immunisation

Example : a person becomes immune to the
measle virus after being inoculated with the
measles vaccine

Hepatitis B, tetanus

tetanus
measle
 Passive immunity

A fetus receive maternal antibodies naturally
from its mother through placenta

Babies also acquire immunity through
breastfeeding as the antibodies are found in
the mother's milk

Immunity is temporary because the
antibodies are eventually broken down in the
spleen and liver
 Artificially acquired passive
immunity

An immunity that is obtained through the
injection or transfusion of a serum containing
a specific antibody against the disease

Blood serum is blood plasma without
fibrinogen or the other clotting factors

Antiserum is blood serum containing
polyclonal antibodies

Serum contains antibodies or an antiserum
from donors that is injected into a person who
needs antibodies

These antibodies are temporary, only
effective for a few months of weeks

Example – serum for tetanus
 AIDS

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Cause by Human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)

Immune system are being destroyed
progressively
Aids victim

AIDS is the end stage of infection by the virus

Take 8 to 10 years for the the symptoms to
appear

The body is vulnerable to many type of
infections

Transmission :
− Through the transfer of body fluid (blood, semen,
placenta)
− Unprotected sex, contaminated needles (drugs or
tattoos)

Prevention:
− blood products used should be treated
− Educational programs
− Use condoms
− Stay away from sex with many partners
 Appreciating a healthy
cardiovascular system

Diseases linked to cardiovascular system :
− Coronary thrombosis
− Atherosclerosis
− Arteriosclerosis
− Hypertension
− Heart attack
− stroke
Coronary thrombosis
Atherosclerosis
 The transport of substances in
plant

The vascular tissues transport substances in
plants

Vascular tissue – xylem, phloem

Xylem – transport water and dissolved
mineral salt

Phloem – transport organic substances from
leaves to other parts of the plants
 The stem

Has epidermal layer that helps maintain the
shape of the stem
− Young plants – epidermal layer secrete cuticle
− Older plant – epidermis absent, replace by bark

Cortex layer
− Made up of collenchyma cells – support and
flexibility of the stem

Dicotyledonous plant – vascular tissues of
the stem are grouped together to form
vascular bundles

Monocotyledonous plants – vascular
bundles are scattered throughout the stem
 The root

The epidermis absorbs water and dissolved
mineral ions from the soil
− Do not have cuticle

Specialized epidermal cells grow outwards to
form root hairs
− Increase the surface area for water absorption

Vascular tissues is located in the vascular
cylinder

Dicotyledonous plants – xylem radiate from
the centre of the vascular cylinder, shape of
star

Monocotyledonous plants – vascular
tissues form a ring around the central core
(pith)
 The leaf

Vascular tissues are found in the leaf veins

Xylem forms the upper part of vascular
bundles

Phloem forms the lower part
 leaf

stem

root
 The structure of xylem

Contains four types of cells
− Xylem vessel
− Tracheids
− Fibres (sclerenchyma)
− Parenchyma

Parenchyma store food substances

Fibres – support for xylem

Xylem vesel and tracheids - water
conducting cells

The wall of xylem vessels and tracheids are
thickened with lignin
− strong, impermeable

Walls of xylem are perforated with holes
(pits)
− Allow water and mineral salt to pass sideways
between the cells

End walls of xylem vessels are open. Tthe
cells join end to end to form a long continous
hollow tube
 The structure of phloem

Composed of :
− Sieve tubes
− Companion cell
− Parenchyma
− Fibres
 Sieve tube


Organic substances (sucrose, amino acids)
are transported along the sieve tubes

Living cell

No nucleus when mature

End walls have pores to form sieve plates –
allow movement of substances
 Companion cell

Have nucleus, large number of mitochondria

Provide sieve tube with proteins, ATP and
nutrients
 Parenchyma

Store food substances
 Fibre

Provide support
 The transport of organic substances and
water in plants

Translocation – the transport of disolved
organic solutes (phloem sap)in the phloem

Movement – upwards and downwards

s/Buku Biology/Chapter 10/Blood circulation & transport/blood tr


Importance of translocation:
− Transport organic substances to the organs
− Storage of organic substances or coverted into
sugar
 Transport of water in plants

Transpiration – the los of water vapour
through evaporation in plants

Loss of water is replaced by the absorption
of water from soil by the plant roots

1% of water – for photosynthesis and turgidity

99% - evaporates through transpiration
 
Importance of transpiration:
− Absorption and tranport of water and minerals
ions from the roots to other parts of the plants
− Cooling effect
− Supply water for metabolic process
− Maintain cells turgidity

ts/Buku Biology/Chapter 10/Blood circulation & transport/blood t


Continous stream of flowing water from roots
to leaves is called transpiration stream
 The process of transpiration

The surfaces of the mesophyll are covered
by a thin layer of water

 Heat – water on the external surfaces of the
mesophyll cells evaporate
 Spongy
Mesophyll
cels

Water vapour saturated in the air spaces at
the mesophyll

Outside the stomata, the air in the
atmosphere is less saturated
Water vapour from the mesophyll cell diffuses
from the plant cells to atmosphere through
stomata

The loss of water from mesophyll makes the
cell hypertonic to an adjacent cell

Water from adjacent cell diffuses into the
cell by osmosis

Water continues to diffuse from the
neighbouring cells into the adjacent cells

Water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the
veins


A pulling force is created to pull up the
water inside the xylem vessel from the roots
to the leaves – transpirational pull
The external condition that affect the rate of
transpiration
1. Light intensity
- light intensity increase, the rate of
transpiration increae
-
2. Temperature
- incresae in temperature increae the rate of
transpiration
- the rate of evaporation of water from the
surfaces of the meophyll cells
3. Air movement
- faster air helps to remove the water vapour at
the stomata
- the concentration gradient between water
vapour in the leaf and that outside the leaf
increase
- this increase the transpiration rate
4. Relative humidity
- high humidity surrounding the leaves reduces
the evaporation of water from the stomata
- the rate of tranpiration decrease
 The movement of water from soil
to leaves

Movement of water from the root to the leave
is assisted by:
− Root pressure
− Capillary action
− Transpirational pull
Movement of water through the roots
- root hairs surrounded by soil particles
that are covered by a thin film of water
- cytoplasm of root hairs is usually hypertonic to
the surrounding soil water
- water enters the root hair cells through
osmosis
- the root hair cell is now hypotonic to the
adjacent cells
- water then diffuses into the adjacent cells
- water moves inwards from cell to cell until it
reaches the cortex
 - water flows to the parenchyma cells and into
the endodermis
-

parenchyma
 once it reaches the endodermal cells the water
moves through the cytoplasm and vacuoles
instead of cell walls
-
endodermal cell have Casparian strips which
line the sides of the endodermal cells
- the strip is impermeable to water
- water moves from the cytoplasm and the
vacuole in the endodermal cells to the xylem
vessels
 Guttation

Night – roots of the small plants continue to
transport ion and water into the xylem

 Root pressure increase
 Water is push all the way up to the stem and
out of the special pores hydathodes at the
edge of leaves

Also occur on cold humid mornings
 Movement of water through the
stem

Movement of water through the xylem vessel
is helped by the adhesion and cohesion of
water molecules

Xylem vessel – long, hollow, joined end to
end – form a continous column of water from
the roots tho the stem and leaves

Narrow diaeter of the xylem vessel increases
the force generated by capillarity/capillary
force

Capillary action is the result of the cohesive
and adhesive forces which enable water to
enter and move along the narrow columns

Water molecules adhere to one another by
cohesive force

Water molecules adhere to the wall of the
xylem vessels by adhesive orce

Cohesion and adhesion of water molecules
are due to hydrogen bonding
 Movement of water from the
leaves to the atmosphere

As water molecules evaporate into the
atmosphere , more water evaporate from the
thin layer of water on the mesophyll cells

The loss of water create a tension or a
pulling force in the water column because of
water cohesive properties

The pulling forces is known as transpirational
pull

Transpirational pull draws water from the
xylem in the leaves and stem

The cohesion of water hold the molecules
together when the water is pulled upwards

Prevent the water from breaking apart as it is
pulled upwards

The adhesion of the molecules to the walls of
the xylem vessels and tracheids prevents
gravity from pulling the water down the
column
 Movement of water
from the roots to
the leaves

Capillary action
Tranpirational
- adhesive and pull
cohesive
properties of
water molecules
 The mechanism of the opening and closing of
a stoma

The mechanism o the opening of a stoma

- daylight – light stimulates photosynthesis in
the guard cell
- generate glucose, energy
- guard cells accumulate potassium ions K+
- guard cells – hypertonic – water enter the
cells by osmosis
- becomes turgid
- inner walls are thicker than the outer walls
- guard cells bend outwards – stoma opens
The mechanism of the closing of stoma
- night – photosynthesis stop – potassium ions
exit the guard cells
-
 water also leaves the cells by osmosis
- guard cells become flaccid , stoma closes