Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
• All students must bring their VCU identification cards, #2 pencils, and know
their “V” number to record on the Scantron sheet.
• The exam will have 100 multiple choice questions, 60 questions on the new
material and 40 questions on the old material. About 12 questions in the
chapter.
• Chapter 1
• An individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.
The head is level, and the yes look forward towards the observer. The
arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and
the thumbs pointing away from the body.
• Proximal, Distal
• Axial: Includes the head, neck and trunk; it forms the main
vertical axis of the body
• Both cavities are lined with thin serous membranes which are
composed of 2 layers: Parietal layer lines the internal surface of the
body wall and a visceral layer covers the external surface of the
organs. Between these layers of serous membrane is a thin serous
cavity that is “potential space”. This contains serous fluid (lubricant)
• Compare and contract each of the serous cavities: pericardial, pleural and
peritoneal.
• Chapter 4
• The types of connective tissue are very diverse, all of them share 3
basic components: Cells, protein fibers, and ground substance.
Connective tissue is designed to support, protect, and bind organs.
1. Areolar
2. Adipose
3. Reticular
1. Dense Regular
2. Dense Irregular
3. Elastic
• CT Proper: Loose CT
• CT Proper: Dense CT
• Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage and bones are this type. Form a
strong framework.
1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic
1. Compact
2. Spongy
o Synovial Membrane: some joints of skeletal system are lined with this
membrane.
• Cardiac: Cells are short, bifurcated and striated, with one or two
centrally located nucleus. Intercalated discs between cells. Involuntary
contration.
• Epidermis
• Stratum Spinosum
• Stratum Granulosum
• Stratum Lucidum
• Dermis
• Tactile Cells: Few in number, but these cells are sensitive to touch
• Hair: Found almost everywhere but on the palms of the hands, side
and soles of feet, the lops, and the sides of fingers and toes, and
portions of the external genitalia. Hair protect, help with heat
retention, allow for facial expressions, sensory reception, visual
identification and chemical signal dispersal (attract opposite sex:
pheromones)
• Sweat Glands
• Chapter 6
• List the three major types of cartilage tissue and where they are located in
the adult body
• Hyaline: Most abundant type. Found in trachea, portions of the larynx,
the articular joint cartilage on bones, epiphyseal plates, coastal
cartilage, and in nose.
• Fibrocartilage: has thick collagen fibers that help resist stretching. Acts
as a shock absorber. Located where strength is required. Intervertebral
discs, pubic symphasis, Mensicus (knee joint) padding.
• Elastic: highly branched elastic fibers within the ECM. Found in regions
requiring a highly flexible form of support: auricle of ear, external
auditory canal, and the epiglottis.
• Appositional Growth
• Interstitial Growth
3. Cells begin to synthesize and secrete new cartilage matrix, they are pushed apart
• Chapter 9
• Be able to classify joints according to structure and well as function.
• Structure:
• Fibrous Joint: occurs where bone are held together by dense regular
CT
• Function:
• Chapter 10
• Skeletal muscles are not the only place muscle tissue is found. Muscle
tissue is distributed all over the body
• Endomysium: innermost CT
• Thick and think filaments maintain their same length, whether the
muscle is relaxed or contracted. However, during muscle fiber
contraction, the relative position between the thick and think filaments
within the sacromeres changes markedly. Thick filaments in
neighboring sacromeres move closer together, as do the thin filaments
on either end of one sacromere.
• Describe cardiac muscle tissue with its unique features: intercalated discs,
striations, and contractility
• Cardiac Muscle Tissue: Arranged in thick bundles within the heart wall.
Cells are striated like skeletal, but shorter and thicker. They have only
one or two nuclei. The cells for a “Y” shape branches @ junctions
called intercalated discs. The ANS controls the rate of contraction.
Cardiac muscle cells are autorythmic: individual cells can generate
muscle impulse without nervous stimulation.
• Chapter 22
Pulmonary
Comprised of the right side of the heart, the pulmonary arteries and
veins
Function: Conveys blood to the lungs and back to the left side of the
heart
Systemic
Comprised of the left side of the heart, arteries and veins
Function: Conveys blood to most body tissues and back to the right side
of the heart
• Distinguish between the following: Atrium and auricle, atrium and ventricle,
pectinate muscle and trabeculae carnae, bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve
Right Atrium
Right atrioventricular valve tricuspid valve
Separates the right atrium from the right ventricle
Deoxygenated venous blood flows from the right atrium to the right
ventricle through the right atrioventricular valve
The right atrioventricular valve is forced closed when the right ventricle
begins to contract, preventing blood backflow into the right atrium.
• Describe blood flow through the heart and include valves and heart sounds
• Conduction System
• Chapter 23
The three classes of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries and veins
Both artery and vein walls have three layers called tunics. From outer to
inner:
Tunica externa (adventitia) – connective tissue that helps anchor the
blood vessel to an organ. Larger blood vessels require their own blood
supply . The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called
vasa vasorum which runs through the tunica externa
Tunic media – comprised of circularly arranged smooth muscle.
Sympathetic input causes this smooth muscle to contract resulting in
vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic input results in vasodilation.
Tunica intima (interna) – composed of an endothelium (simple
squamous epithelium lining the inside of the arteries and veins) and a
subendothelial layer of areolar connective tissue
Elastic Arteries
Largest of the arteries (aorta, pulmonary, brachiocephalic, common
carotids, subclavians)
Most examples are near the heart
The elastic fibers present in all three tunics allows these arteries to stretch
under the increased pressure generated by bloodflow from the heart
Elastic arteries branch into muscular arteries
Muscular Arteries
Medium diameter arteries
Possess elastic fibers in two concentric rings between the three tunics:
The internal elastic lamina which separates the tunica intima and tunica
media
The external elastic lamina which separates the tunica media and the
tunica externa
Muscular arteries have a proportionately thicker tunica media
Arterioles
Smallest arteries
Have less than six cell layers of smooth muscle in their tunica media
Sympathetic innervation to the muscle fiber cells of the tunica media
causes vasoconstriction resulting in elevation of blood pressure
Parasympathetic innervation causes vasodilation and a lowering of blood
pressure
• Describe a capillary bed (the role of precapillary sphincters and the pathway
of blood flow)
Blood pressure in veins is too low to overcome the forces of gravity and
possess valves
Valves are formed from the tunica intima and prevent blood from pooling in
the limbs
The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called vasa vasorum which
runs through the tunica externa
• Chapter 14
• Define CNS and PNS
• Explain the following types of sensory and motor information carried by the
nervous system: somatic sensory, somatic motor, visceral sensory, visceral
motor
Somatic sensory
Voluntary
Components
General somatic senses - touch, pain, pressure, vibration and
proprioception
Special senses – taste, vision, hearing, balance and smell
Visceral sensory
Involuntary
Components
Transmit nerve impulses from blood vessels and viscera to the CNS
Somatic motor
Voluntary nervous system
Conducts impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, causing them
to contract
Autonomic motor
Involuntary nervous system
impulses from the CNS that regulate smooth and cardiac muscle and
glands
Two subdivisions
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
• Define reflex arc including its basic features: sensory neuron, interneuron
and motor neuron
Sensory (afferent)
transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
Motor (efferent)
Transmit impulses from CNS to muscles or glands
Interneurons
facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons
Reflex Arc
Is the neural “wiring” of a single reflex
Always begins at a receptor in the PNS
Communicates with the CNS
Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or gland) cell
The number of intermediate steps varies depending on the complexity of the reflex
Gray matter
Houses
Motor neuron cell bodies
Interneuron cell bodies
Dendrites
Telodendria
Unmyelinated axons
White matter
lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex
made up of myelinated axons
Myelination
The process by which part of an axon is wrapped with a myelin sheath
Myelin sheath
a protective fatty coating that gives the axon a glossy-white
appearance
supports, protects, and insulates an axon
composed of the lipoprotein myelin
Concentric layers of myelin
No change in voltage can occur across the membrane in the insulated
portion of an axon
In the PNS, myelin sheaths form from neurolemmocytes
In the CNS, they form from oligodendrocytes
• Name six types of glial cells and describe them by their shape and function
Astrocytes
Most abundant glial cells in the CNS
Functions
Help to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
Regulate tissue fluid composition
Form a structural network
Replace damaged neurons
Assist development of fetal neurons
Ependymal Cells
Ciliated cuboidal epithelial cells
Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
In conjunction with other glial cells, the ependymal cells produce
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and form the choroid plexus
Microglial Cells
Small cells that are motile
Wander through the CNS and exhibit phagocytic activity, removing
cellular debris from dead or dying cells
Oligodendrocytes
Associated with CNS axons only
Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped
around a wire
Produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity
Neurolemmocytes
Also called Schwann cells
Associated with PNS axons only
Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped
around a wire
produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity
Same structure and function as oligodendrocytes
• Chapter 15
• Describe the gross anatomy of the cerebrum including sulci, gyri, fissures,
and lobes
Cerebrum
Divided into two halves (superior view)
left cerebral hemisphere
right cerebral hemisphere
Each hemisphere is subdivided into five functional areas called lobes
Cerebrum
Outer surface of an adult brain
exhibits folds called gyri (gyrus)
shallow depressions between the gyri called sulci (sulcus)
• Locate the ventricles of the brain and describe the flow of CSP from the
lateral ventricles to the arachnoid villi
Ventricles
Cavities or expansions within the brain that are derived from the lumen
(opening) of the embryonic neural tube
continuous with one another and the central canal of the spinal cord
Third ventricle
Smaller ventricle within the diencephalon
each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an
opening called the interventricular foramen
Fourth ventricle
located between the pons and cerebellum
CSF Circulation
CSF produced by choroid plexus in the ventricles
CSF flows from
Lateral ventricles interventricular foramina 3rd ventricle
mesencephalic aqueduct 4th ventricle lateral (2) and median
apertures subarachnoid space (& central canal)
CSF leaves ventricles and enters subarachnoid space
But CSF must be continuously removed from this space
Arachnoid vili (arachnoid granulations) extend through dura mater; CSF
drains and mixes with the blood within the dural venous sinus
• Name the distinctive Cerebral (basal) nuclei and describe their general
function
are paired irregular masses of gray matter buried deep within the central white matter in the basal
region of the cerebral hemispheres inferior to the floor of the lateral ventricles
Caudate Nucleus -- produces patterned arm and leg movements associated with walking
Amygdaloid body -- expression of emotions, control of behavioral activities, development of
moods
Lentiform Nucleus is composed of:
The putamen -- subconscious muscular movement
The globus pallidus -- excites and inhibits activities of thalamus to control and adjust muscle tone
Claustrum -- processes visual information at a subconscious level
Corpus Striatum -- striped appearance of internal capsule as it passes among the caudate
nucleus and lentiform nucleus
Cerebellum
Composed of left and right cerebellar hemispheres
Each hemisphere consists of two lobes
the anterior lobe
the posterior lobe
are separated by the primary fissure
Partitioned into three regions
An outer gray matter layer of cortex
An internal region of white matter, called the arbor vitae
Cerebellar nuclei in the deepest layer of gray matter
Cerebellar Functions
Coordinates and fine-tunes skeletal muscle movements
Ensures that skeletal muscle contraction follows the correct pattern leading
to smooth, coordinated movements
Stores memories of previously learned movement patterns
Adjusts skeletal muscle activity to maintain equilibrium and posture
Receives proprioceptive (sensory) information from the muscles and joints
and uses this information to regulate the body’s position
Monitors the position of each body joint and its muscle tone
Chapter 16
Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord including the location, enlargements
and conus medullaris
Length: 42-45 cm
Roughly cylindrical, slightly flattened posteriorly and anteriorly
Two longitudinal depressions on external surface
Posterior median sulcus
Swallow groove on posterior surface
Anterior median fissure
Deeper groove on anterior surface
Conus medullaris
The tapering inferior end of the spinal cord
is the official “end” of the spinal cord proper, usually at the level of the first
lumbar vertebra
The cervical enlargement
located in the inferior cervical part of the spinal cord
Contains neurons that innervate the upper limbs
The lumbar enlargement
extends through the lumbar part of the spinal cord
Contains neurons that innervate the lower limbs
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Provides a vital link between the brain and the rest of the body
Functions of spinal cord and attached spinal nerves
Provide a pathway for sensory and motor impulses
Responsible for reflexes
are the quickest reactions to a stimulus
Describe the meningeal coverings of the spinal cord and the epidural, subdural and
subarachnoid spaces
Gray Matter is centrally located, and its shape resembles an “H”. May be
subdivided into the following components:
• Anterior Horns
• Lateral Horns
• Posterior Horns
White Matter External to the gray matter. Is partitioned into three regions:
• Posterior Funiculus
• Anterior Funiculus
• Lateral Funiculus
• White Commissure
Introduction: The organ of vision is the retina of eye. The sensory receptors
are called photoreceptors. When photoreceptors are
stimulated, impulses travel within the optic nerve (CN II) to the
visual (occipital) cortex for interpretation
1. protection
Ciliary muscles which control the shape of the lens (i.e. Accommodation);
2. If light rays are entering the eye from a distant object, the
lens is flat.
1. Intro: Incoming light rays are refracted (bent) onto the retina
due to the convex surface of both the cornea and the lens.
a. cornea
b. aqueous humor
c. lens
d. vitreous humor
e. photoreceptors in retina.
• SENSE OF HEARING
• Intro: The organ of hearing is the Organ of Corti which is present in the
cochlea of inner ear. The sensory receptors are called mechanoreceptors.
Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, the impulse travels on the
cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerve which leads to the
primary auditory cortex (temporal cortex) of the cerebrum.
• A. EAR STRUCTURE:
• 1. External Ear:
• 3. Inner Ear:
• 3. Inner Ear:
• f. There are membranes that separate the cochlear duct from the
bony compartments:
• 1. auricle
• 3. tympanic membrane
• 4. malleus
• 5. incus
• 6. stapes
• 7. oval window
• A. Static Equilibrium functions to sense the position of the head and help
us maintain posture while motionless.
• When the head is moved, the gelatin sags due to gravity and the
hair cells bend.
c. When the head is moved, the gelatin stays put due to inertia,
causing the hair cells to bend. This triggers a sensory impulse
which travels on the vestibular branch of the VC nerve to the
pons which directs the impulse to the cerebellum for
interpretation.
Chapter 20
Testes Testosterone
Heart Atriopeptin
o. a. Peptide Hormones
i. Produced by all except adrenal cortex, ovaries and
testes.
ii. Activate existing enzymes in cells, therefore relatively
rapid acting.
p. b. Steroid Hormones
i. Produced by adrenal cortex, ovaries or testes.
ii. Complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
iii. Trigger synthesis of new proteins, therefore slower
acting but more sustained effect.
• Function along with the nervous system to coordinate and regulate body
activities.
• Compared to nervous system, endocrine system is slower due to diffusion of
hormone in bloodstream to organs.
o Fluid that is pushed out into the interstitial space due to capillary blood
pressure. The LS Carries interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream,
transports dietary lipids
- Why are fluids lost from the bloodstream: At the arterial end of a
capillary bed, blood pressure forces fluid from the blood into the interstitial
spaces around cells. This fluid is called the interstitial fluid.
o Lymph vessels that transports from the small intestine to the thoracic
duct
o cisterna chyli- sac like feature that collects the fatty material from
the small intestine; stores in sac.. Transporation of fatty material to
small intestine.
- Lymphatic Capillaries
- Lympathetic vessels- Resemble small veins, in that both contain all three
tunics (intima, media, externa) and both have valves within the lumen
o Ducts: Lymphatic trunks drain into the largest vessels, called lymphatic
ducts
o At the end of the line there 2 ducts(R and L Lymphatic Ducts); taking
up fluid from the left side of the body and taking fluid from right side
body.
24.4- Thoracic duct; major duct; draining all the fluid from lime
green section body(left side of head/neck, left upper limb, left
thorax, and all body regions inferior to thorax; right lymphatic
duct is picking up the fluid: right side head/neck, right upper
limb, and right thorax.
o Lymphocytes are the most abundant cells in the LS. There are 3
types of lymphocytes(T,B, and NK Lymphocytes).
o Fig. 24.7- T lymphocytes are produced by all blood but they mature in
the thymus gland; endocrine gland that is superior to the heart. T-
lymphocytes matures and circulate in the blood cell and reside in
lymph nodules and lymph nodes
Fig. 24.8
• Has valves
o Germinal- B cells
Chapter 25
• Composed of the nose and nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharanyx, and
associated structures
• Nose: main conducting airway for inhaled air. Supported by nasal bones
o The nasal cavity is continuous with the nasopharynx via paired opening
called choanae
Fig. 25. 2
Paranasal Sinuses
Nasopharynx
• In the lateral walls of the nasopharynx, paired auditory tubes connect the
nasopharynx to the middle ear
o 3 Individual Pieces
Thyroid
Cricoid
Epigottis
Arytenoid
Corniculate
Cuneiform
Trachea: Flexible, slightly rigid tubular organ. The anterior walls are supported by
the tracheal cartilages.
o The trachea bifurcates into two smaller tubes: R and L Primary Bronchi
o The Terminal Bronchioles are the final segment of the conducting pathway.
They give rise to:
Lungs
o Wide, concave base which rests inferiorly upon the muscular diaphragm.
o Hilum: through which bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves
pass.
Thoracic Cavity
Boyle’s Law: movement of gases into and out of the respiratory system follows
this law.
“Fig 25.17- there are 2 areas w/in the brainstem- that regulate breathing rates;
strength the breath”
DI: INSPIRE
VE: EXPIRE
o Pneumotaxic Center: Inhibits both the activity of the DRG and that of
the apeneustic center.
Chapter 26
Digestive System
o Includes the organs that ingest the food, transport the ingested material,
digest the material into smaller useable components, absorb necessary
digested nutrients into the bloodstream, and expel the waste products from
the body.
o Digestive Organs
o Not apart of the GI tract, but often develop as outgrowths from and are
connected to the tract
o 6 Main Functions:
Salivary Glands:
Teeth
o 32 permanent teeth
Pharynx
Abdominal GI Organs
o Parietal Peritoneum: Portion of the serous membrane that lines the inside
surface of the bosy wall
o Four layers
o Mucosa: 3 components
o Advetniots (Serosa):
o Longitudinal (outer)
o Circular(middle)
o Oblique (inner)
Small Intestine:
o Plicae Circulares: mucosal and submucosal tunics are thrown into these folds.
Liver
o Made up of hepatic lobules Are the classic structural and functional units of
the liver
o At the center of each lobule is a central vein drains blood from the lobule.
Merge throughout the liver to form numerous hepatic veins that eventually
dump into the IVC
Hepatic Portal vein- carries blood from the small intestine to the liver
GallBladder
Pancreas
o Retroperitoneal organ
Chapter 27:
Urinary System
o Storage of urine
o Excretion of urine
Trace blood
Cortical nephron:
o 85% of nephrons
o Reside in cortex
Juxtamedullary nephron:
Renal Corpuscle
o The cells of the proximal convoluted tubule actively reabsorb almost all
nutrients, ions, and vitamins.
Nephron Loop
o Descending limb: extending from the cortex and into the medulla
Female Urethra;
o 6 cm in female
Male Urethra:
o 19 cm in male
Chapter 28:
Perineum
Principle gonad?
o ovaries
o Testes
Ovarian Follicles:
o Corpus luteum breaks down, turns white, is then called the corpus albicans.
Will be reabsorbed.
Female child has all the potential eggs she will need at birth.
Follicular Phase
Ovulation: occurs on day 14. Defined as the release of the secondary oocyte from
the vesicular follicle
Luteal Phase
o Remaining follicle cells in the ruptured vesicular follicle turn into corpus
luteum
o After this time, CL regresses, its levels of progesterone and estrogen drop
28.15
o Divide by mitosis