LED Technology

for Lighting Folks

May 26, 14.00 to 17.00
Kevan Shaw BSc IALD PLDA MSLL

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 1

 Learning Objectives

Understand the Manufacturing process of LEDs and the

consequences for specific availability of LEDs in the market
Develop the ability to work out real life performance of LEDs
and LED products from marketing information
Critically asses suitability for lighting tasks and create meaningful
specifications

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 2

 What is Solid State Lighting?

Conventional Methods of converting electrical energy to light:

Heating up bits of wire

Passing Electricity through gas at near vacuum
Passing Electricity through gas above atmospheric pressure

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 3

 How About LED’s

Passing Electricity through small amounts of crystalline solids

Solid State device
Works well with other semiconductors
Initially used for panel indicators
Discovered in 1962 by Nick Holonyak
In 1963 he predicted white LEDS with 10X efficiency of
Incandescent

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 4

 Early LED colour

Initially red mass produced from 1969

GaAsP Gallium Arsenide Technology
produced red, amber and yellow
early green produced by IR and phosphor
GaAIA Gallium Aluminum Arsenide High
brightness red LEDs from 1984
Shuji Nakamura of Nichia 1993
InGaN Indium Gallium Nitride Technology
produced blue and green
Allowed development of White LED

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 5

 Current Technology

Based on InGaN and AlAnGaP

Many colours possible
Colour varies with growth temperature of active layer
Efficiency drops in Green
Different compositions behave differently
Reds and ambers have shorter life and greater colour shifts
Blues more stable, UV most stable

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 6

 Construction of LEDs

Standard 5mm LED

Epoxy body sometimes

colored
Leads identified for polarity
Reflector maximises light
output
Die, semiconductor that
emits light

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 7

 Construction of LEDs

High output LEDs

Large die with reflector

Mounted to Slug heat sink
Leads exit to side clear of light path
Moulded lens gathers and directs light
Various distribution patterns
Many different packages

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 8

 Heat Issues

Large heat sink necessary

Limit to efficiency of energy transfer
Contained energy becomes heat
Effective efficiency between 10% and 25%
Largest surface area to volume most efficient
Shape important due to light trapped by total internal reflection
Smallest dies are most efficient but create least lumens

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 9

 LED Colour

Each type of LED emits light in a narrow band width

Good for saturated colour
Limited for RGB mixed white

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 10

 White LEDs

Fluorescence; uses blue die with phosphor

Combination of Blue from die and Yellow from phosphor gives
visual white
Colour not even across LED
Warmer colours less efficient

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 11

 Phosphor technology

Best is Itrium Aluminium Garnate Cerium

Produces broad spectrum yellow
90% efficient converting blue to yellow
Deficient in Red
Strontium Sulphide Europium
Produces increased red
Much less efficient
Can create pink tinge in 2700K range
Importance of even thickness
Consistent colour
Match binning of phosphor with LED
Recent development of phosphor wafers or better control of
thickness

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 12

 Spectral Distribution of White
Cool White, 5000K

Warm White, 3500°K

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 13

 Ranges of White

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 14

 White Light LEDs
Research goal to create white light directly from die
ZnSe (Zinc Selenide) is a candidate technology not high output
Development as Zinc Oxide nanostructure semiconductor RGB

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 15

 LED Manufacturing Stages

Reasons for product variation

The Wafer
The Die
The Package

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 16

 The Wafer

Disk of the crystalline material that forms semiconductor

Grown on mineral substrate: Epitaxy
Saphire, Silicone Carbide 2” or 6” diameter
Aim to use 12” Silicone for economy
Tightly controlled conditions to achieve uniform result
First layer grown at 1000°C
Second at 700°C
Final at 1000° C
Risk of changes to middle layer
Substrates flex
Varies thickness of layers
Process takes 5 to 6 hours

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 17

 Inspection and Measurement

Initial assessment of manufacturing success

Visual Inspection

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 18

 The Wafer
Wafer Maps

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 19

 The Die

Wafer literally “diced” like carrots!

Dies “binned”
For colour (chromaticy)
For forward voltage
For output

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 20

 Packaging

Connections made to die

Die inserted in package
Many dies in same package

Device tested for:

forward voltage
colour (chromacity)
lumen output
LEDs then “Binned”

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 21

 Binning

Much discussed aspect of LEDs

At end of production line measurements made
fraction of a second
device at room temperature 25°C
fully automated process
First stage of quality control
possibly the most important
Aspects tested:
Color
Lumen Output
Forward Voltage

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 22

 Heat Issues

Temperature in die
determines LED survival
determines operating life
determines light output
determines efficiency
Higher the temperature
lower the life
lower light output
lower the efficiency
Critical temperature much lower than conventional lamps
TH lamp pinch 350°C
LED internal temperatures 100°C to 150°C absolute maximum depends on
chip

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 23

 Who Does What?

All stages protected by patents that affect final product

Multistage process undertaken by different companies
When specified, LED usually already in fitting
Quality and performance depends on integration in fitting
Fitting Manufacturer dependent on electronic component
supplier’s stock availability
Stock availability depends on manufacture results
Forward selling to favored customers

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 24

 Standards

Manufacturers have failed the specifier and end user

Manufacturers create own standards
measurement
binning
specification criteria
We have to learn to interpret information presented in different
formats
do your own research!

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 25

 Technology changes

New chips available last year show 2X efficiency gain

This is after 2-3 years of slow change
New technology, “flip-chip”
Substrate removed from die almost doubles light emitting area
Emitting Surface now at top of chip
Good package and reflector design allows this light to be
emitted usefully
Further major increases will require this kind of technical
advance.
Internal Quantum efficiency now 80% Blue 20% Green 50% Red

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 26

 OLEDs

Use organic compounds rather than crystalline

Potentially simpler to manufacture
Printing technique allows for complex patterns or arrays
Flexible substrate:
Incorporate in cloth
Roll up light fixtures!
Technology development:
Focused on flat panel displays & TVs
Lighting work funded by Govt.

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 27

 OLED issues

Limited life of organic material, 14,000 hours for blue

Sensitive to moisture and oxygen, sealing limits life
Current efficiencies 10Lm/W to 20LmW same as incandescent!
As power goes up colour goes green!
CRI currently in 70s at best

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 28

 OLED State of the Art

At Frankfurt Light and Build

Osram prototype product
Ingo Maurer fixture

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 29

 OLED Opportunities

Flexible and not size limited

Possibility for complex arrays, colour/ pattern changing
Simple printing techniques, potentially cheap production
Transparent substrates, at last the disappearing light-source
Possibility for combining light and photo-voltaic

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 30

 Continuous Improvement

Another problem dressed up as an advantage

Time scale of architectural projects longer than time for
changes in LEDs
Specified products frequently “improved” with new devices or
same device with “improved” output
Can create design problems with balance of light levels

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 31

 State of the Art

“Best “ bins of best LEDs achieve efficiency of approx. 60LmW

Highest output stock available LEDs produce:
Warm White Cree 73 Lm X 0.85 temp correction X 2.1 current = 130 Lm @1A
Cool White Cree 107 Lm X 0.85 temp correction X 2.1 current = 191 Lm @1A
Warm White Luxeon 130Lm X .87 temp correction = 113Lm @1.5A
Cool White Luxeon 100Lm X .87 temp correction = 87 Lm@ 1A
Stock of best LEDs expensive and limited
Favoured markets, automotive etc
Forward purchasing, big companies
Stock Holdings:
Luxeon Rebel
Luxeon K2TFFC

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 32

 Questions?

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 33

 LED Performance Data

Mostly measured at junction temperature of 25°C

Data samples taken on a pulse of power too short to heat chip
Results in overstatement of performance
Similar to tests for binning
Bins match published criteria
Bins DO NOT match at operating conditions
Fitting manufacturers must re-bin at operating temperatures
Out of tolerance LEDs a problem
Products made in batches that match, but each batch differs
Difficulty in replacing faulty fittings to match originals

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 34

 Bases of Measurement

Light Output : Lumens

Based on Human visual response V(λ) Curve
Colours in narrow wavelengths don’t fit well
Apparent output greater than indicated by measurement

Green Scotopic Black Photopic

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 35

 Colour Rendering Index

Originated in 1930s by CIE

Comparison between Black Body Radiator and Test Source
8 medium saturated colour samples 3 saturated, skin and leaf green
Range of colours selected for general illumination,
works very well for fluorescent sources
Doesn’t work well for LEDS
National Institute of Standards and Testing, Yoshi Ohno
Proposal for new measure Color Quality Scale (CQS)
Based on Saturated samples matched with source at same Color
Temperature

Test patch colours used for CRI

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 36
 How to Determine Real Life
Performance
Manufacturer’s data not in common format
Simple fitting, 3W LED emergency light
- 60lm (min!) @ 25° driven at 700ma
- Temperature de-rating :
- with small heat sink at 48°C assuming 16°C/W Thermal
resistance of package gives Tj 90°C = 78% = 47Lm

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 37

 How to Determine Real Life
Performance
Manufacturer’s data not in common format
Simple fitting, 3W LED emergency light
- 60lm (min!) @ 25° driven at 700ma
- Temperature de-rating :
- with small heat sink at 48°C assuming 16°C/W Thermal
resistance of package gives Tj 90°C = 78% = 47Lm
Fitting submitted to test house
measured output 39.4 lm driven at 700ma
LED only operating at 13lm/W

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 38

 Why the Discrepancy?

A crude experiment!
An LED from the same batch left in freezer at -10°C overnight
Measured at fixed point from a light meter gave 10Lux
A few hours later when left running at room temperature 9Lux
Then put in oven for a couple of hours at 100°C 8lux
Not a particularly good match for the published data!

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 39

 LED life

Early promises of 100,000 hours were wildly optimistic

Some effort to standardize through ASSIST (Alliance for Solid
State Illuminations and Technologies)
For illumination life is to 70% of initial Lumens
For display life is to 50% of initial Lumens

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 40

 Optics

LEDs have built in basic optics.

Lambertian distribution
Useful light distribution provided by separate optical elements
Typical distributions, spot, medium, wide and oval
Each type of LED requires unique optics
Each LED in fixture requires its own optic
Mounted at manufacture, not interchangeable

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 41

 Optics

Multiple optic units simplify manufacture

Tertiary optic to vary distribution
Specialized optics for particular applications

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 42

 Environmental Issues
Price per lumen of LED exceeds all other lightsource
$25 per KLm now, target for widespread adoption $5 per KLm
Incan less than $1 KLm, Fluro $8 KLm Retail Prices
revenues consumed by continuous development
Additional cost must be argued on basis of
low maintenance
low energy in use
System has finite life
not always determined before installation
whole system will require replacement at end of life
- Issues with WEEE for disposal and re-cycling

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 43

 Energy Efficiency

Much emphasis on energy in use to exclusion of other aspects

Example showed real world energy efficiency of 3 LmW!
LEDs mostly Low Output for Low Energy
Announcements of LEDs achieving 130 LmW in lab tests
No data provided to protect “intellectual property”
conclusion that only very small or highly cooled LEDs can be this
efficient
Order codes exist for 100 LmW chip at Tj25°C
at Tj 90°C = 80lm from data sheet
available chips not to special order are 74 Lm/W at Tj 25°C
at Tj 90°C = 58lm therfore 58lm/W which is reasonable

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 44

 Manufacturing Issues

Form factor of LEDs vary by manufacturer and by technology

limited interchangeability
fitting manufactures constantly need to redesign fittings and circuit
boards
Life of fitting determined by life of LED or Driver
life variable over wide range
LEDs not individually replaceable
technology shorter life than fittings
LED availability variable
Preferred supply, automotive and aeronautics
Production variable

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 45

 LED Fixtures

Manufacturers do different things as well!

Board production
Pick and place machines
Manual Assembly

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 46

 Fixtures and Power Supplies

High degree of manual assembly

Testing also manual and basic

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 47

 Quality Control

Vital part of the process

LED binning for colour
LED binning for output
Optical Alignment

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 48

 Determining Responsibility

Impossible to determine bin of LED installed on board

LED manufacturer cannot control thermal design of fittings
Light output, colour and life depend on thermal and electronic
design
Quality and warranty claims difficult to resolve
Rectification frequently only possible by total replacement of
fitting

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 49

 The State of the Art

Acceptable efficiencies for General Lighting applications

Wide range of output and efficiencies for each device
No way of determining Bin Specification for installed device
Cost versus Output for different bins of same LED
Information still requires working out to determine
performance
Poor fitting output data for most manufacturers

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 50

 Lamp Replacement Products

Is this a good idea?

MR16 replacement 8W 240Lm
Down-light retrofit 18 X 1W LEDs
LED fluorescent replacement
None match full luminous
characteristics of lamp!

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 51

 Specific Functional LED products

2’ X 2’ lay in or pendent 56 X 1 W 1850Lm

Neo-Neon 33Lm/W actual efficiency

Task Light using High Output LEDs

Luxo 11W LEDs to replace 18W CFL

Street Lighting
We-ef optic covers street pattern
Modular construction for maintenance

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 52

 How to Specify

Start with Lightsource - what do you want to achieve?

White Light - Single source
Colour temperature?
Colour quality, acceptable Bin Range
Acceptable variability, Direct view ? Mixed output?
White Light - Multi colour
Colour appearance
Colour rendition
3 source RGB or 4 source RGBA
Colour Mixing
Saturated colours RGB
Pastel colours or accurate matching RGBA or RGBW
Single colour
Bin specification.
Tuesday, 27 May 2008 53
 Fixture Specification

Determine required light output

Check fixture specification
Type of LED
Drive Current
Photometrics available of complete fitting?
Calculated output? Check for temperature correction of LED specification
Optical design
Check thermal design
Does construction appear to provide adequate heat sinking?
How hot does sample fitting get? Should be warm to touch but not too hot.
Manufacturer performance
Track record in lighting?
Experience with LEDs?
Prepared to provide extended warranty

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 54

 System Design

Performance specification:
Operating conditions
climate, particularly for outdoor fittings
Installation, insulated voids? Airflow around fitting?
Visible output
Fixtures lighting same surface?
Fixtures directly viewed?
Control system
Standard protocol? DMX
Compatible control gear
Describe operation in detail
Maintenance
Future availability of fittings and LEDs?
Are fittings repairable
Tuesday, 27 May 2008 55
 Controllability

LEDs easy to control - they are

an electronic component!
Facades of light easy to do
Imagery allows architecture to
change day and night
Reactive and interactive
surfaces, walls and ceilings

LEDs deliver colour easily and

efficiently compared with
other light sources

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 56

 The Future

Field of light products much more likely to be successful

optimizes use of LED and existing backlight technology
opens possibilities for fittings not to be rectangular or circular
no longer are fitting sizes restricted by set dimensions of lamps
First product recall,
High efficiency LEDs recalled from fittings manufacturers
Production halted for 4 months
Line voltage LEDs
Seol semiconductor Acriche
2W & 4W 120V and 230V warm and cool white
30LmW to 40 LmW headline efficacy
No transformer losses
Simplified Wiring

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 57

 The Future

Multi colour chips on same wafer - White by color mixing

Complex circuits on chip - Acriche?
Zinc Oxide Nanotechnology Semiconductor
LED materials can also produce energy from light
LED detectors / emitters
Development of Photovoltaics using InGaN junctions

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 58

 Conclusion

LEDs increasingly common in lighting applications

They remain the most complex light-source to design and
specify
Manufacturers are guardians of knowledge
Big players potential to monopolize design to installation

Professional Lighting Design community must learn more

Personal research and demanding information from suppliers
Professionals must determine the suitable light-source for every
application
LEDs will never be the universal light-source for all applications

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 59

 Thank you
and have fun with light!

Tuesday, 27 May 2008 60

 Index

About SSL
LED Manufacture
Who Does What
Continuous improvement
Standards
Real Life Performance
LED Life
Technology Changes
The Future
Environmental Issues
White Light LEDs
Conclusion
Tuesday, 27 May 2008 61