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B. Power Factor and Motor Load The total input electrical apparent power to the motor is given
as
From the equivalent circuit, the vector diagram is drawn for √
the IM operation, shown in Fig. 4. At no load, the stator current P̂ = 3V I (2)
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where V and I are the line voltage and current, respectively. The
active power, accounting for supplying the load, is given as
√
P = 3V I cos φ. (3)
The PF is then defined as
P
PF = = cos φ. (4)
P̂
As discussed in Section II-B, the motor current I would have
two components, Iactive and Ireactive . Active part of the cur-
rent (Iactive ) accounts for the torque, changing according to the
load (from no-load to full/over-load). Reactive part of the cur-
rent (Ireactive ) accounts for the magnetizing current of the IM,
without changing much from the no-load to the full-load condi-
tion, practically remaining constant [1], [2], [4]. This is because
for IM, the magnetizing circuit, i.e., the stator coil inductances
remain the same:
2
I = Iactive 2
+ Ireactive (5)
Fig. 5. Experimental setup.
Iactive = I cos φ (6)
Ireactive = I sin φ. (7)
Utilizing (4) in (7)
Ireactive = I sin(cos−1 PF). (8)
Equation (4) can be rewritten as
2
Ireactive
PF = cos φ = 1 − sin2 φ = 1− . (9)
I
As the reactive component remains constant, it can be
estimated from the nominal condition given by the manu-
facturer data and/or nameplate data using (8). Now, as the
motor load increases, the total motor current (I) in (9) would
increase, while Ireactive remains constant. Hence, the ratio
Fig. 6. Nameplate of the test motor.
(Ireactive /I) in (9) decreases, causing the PF to increase toward
unity. Theoretically, at no-load condition, there is no active
in Fig. 5. In Fig. 5, we have a test motor (2.2 kW) [12] supplied
current flow. So, at no-load, I = Ireactive , making the PF = 0,
from the 50-Hz mains. There is a second motor of slightly bigger
theoretically. That is, physically, at no-load, there is not much
size (7.5 kW) [12] directly coupled to the test motor, acting as a
mechanical resistance, so the whole circuit is mostly inductive
loading motor to the test motor. The loading motor is supplied
due to the stator coils, causing low power factor. Increase in
via an ABB drive [13] so that the torque of the loading motor
motor load is essentially similar to adding resistances to the
can be changed in order to test different loading conditions for
circuit, causing the PF to improve.
the test motor. In order to load the test motor, the direction of
Therefore, in the current-only PF estimation approach, we
rotation of the loading motor should be opposite to that of the
would estimate the Ireactive using (8) from the nominal PF out
test motor. This can be done via the drive, as indicated in Fig. 5.
of the nameplate data. Then, from the measured motor current
The test motor is an ABB three-phase, two pole pairs IM, type
and the constant Ireactive , using (9), we can estimate the oper-
M2AA LA4 [12]. Fig. 6 shows the nameplate ratings of the test
ating PF. It would not require synchronized voltage and current
motor. Stator winding of the motor was connected in star (Y).
measurement like in the displacement PF measurement princi-
The effective nameplate ratings are given in Table I.
ple. The displacement PF measurement principle uses the zero-
For the proposed PF measurement, the motor current of the
crossing (ZC) instants and compares the differences between
test motor is measured using a motor current measurement
the voltage and the current. It will be shown later in details for
module. To validate the proposed current-only PF estimation,
comparative analysis of the results using different approaches.
the actual PF also needs to be measured. For that purpose, a
high-resolution oscilloscope from Agilent [14] is used to make
IV. EXPERIMENT
synchronized measurement of the supply voltage and the motor
To verify the proposed method, we performed the following current. The oscilloscope has four input channels. So, two phases
experiment. The schematics of the experimental setup is shown of the supply voltage and two phases of the motor currents are
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TABLE I
NAMEPLATE RATING OF THE TEST MOTOR TYPE ABB M2AALA4
CONNECTED IN STAR (Y) FROM 50-HZ SUPPLY
TABLE II
MEASURED CURRENT, CALCULATED POWER FACTOR FROM
CURRENT-ONLY METHOD AT DIFFERENT LOAD
Fig. 7. Power factor measurement using displacement in the ZCs of the syn-
chronized supply voltage and motor current at 66% current load.
Value of the rated PF of the test motor is 0.81 (see Table I),
which is in between rows 4 and 5 in Table II for the rated current
measured and synchronized at the scope. For measuring the of 4.9 A, as a validation.
current, hall-sensor probes [15] are used, while for measuring
the supply voltage, high voltage probes from Tektronix [16] are
B. Power Factor: From Voltage, Current ZC
used.
During the experiment, the loading motor torque is controlled In the state of the art displacement method of estimating
via the drive starting from no-load to over-load conditions of the PF, synchronized measurement of the supply voltage and
the test motor. At each loading condition, the test motor current the motor current are done. Then, the displacements in the ZC
is measured, along with the synchronized supply voltage and timings between the voltage (taken as reference) and the current
current measurement at the scope. From the voltage and current signals are estimated, which would give the PF estimation, i.e.,
measurement at scope, the instantaneous power is measured. how much the current lags/leads w.r.t. the voltage signal.
For example, in the 50-Hz supply, the period of the voltage
V. APPLICATION RESULTS and current signals would be 1/50 Hz= 20 ms, which covers
A. Power Factor: From Measured Current 2π rad or 360◦ . If there is ±x ms deviation between the current
ZC w.r.t. the voltage ZC, then the PF is given as
From Table I, using (8), we get
Ireactive = 4.9 sin(cos−1 0.81) = 2.87 A. PF = cos
x
× 360◦ (10)
The measured current for the test motor at different loading (1/f0 )
conditions and the calculated PFs using (9) are shown in Table II. where f0 is the supply frequency. Whether the current ZC devi-
The loading conditions can be specified in terms of percentage ation is positive or negative w.r.t. the voltage would decide that
of the rated torque of the load motor (248.48 N·m, 7.5 kW) the PF is lagging or leading. An example of the displacement
which is given by the drive. If such load torque measurement PF estimation for the experimental setup (see Fig. 5) is shown
from the drive is not present, the loading can be approximated in Fig. 7 for one phase of the voltage and current.
by the motor current as percentage of the nominal current. The The synchronized measurement of the supply voltage and
latter is used in this paper and shown in Table II. For example, in the motor current is done in the oscilloscope. Fig. 7 shows the
the first row of Table II, the measured current is 3.01 A, which screenshot of the scope. The measurement shown in Fig. 7 cor-
is 61.43% (= 3.01/4.9) of the nominal current. Using (9), and responds to 66% I/Inom inal , i.e., for the second row in Table II.
the Ireactive = 2.87 A for the test motor, we get In Fig. 7, the vertical scale is 100 V/division (for voltage),
2 2 A/division (for current). From Fig. 7, the measured peak (pos-
2.87
PF = 1 − = 0.3. itive or negative half) voltage w.r.t. the X-axis is 325 V and the
3.01 measured peak (positive or negative half) current w.r.t. the X-
From the second row, for the measured current of 3.23 A axis is 4.25 A. Therefore, the root mean square (rms) √ values of
which is 65.92% of the nominal current, the supply√voltage and the motor current are 325/ 2 = 230 V
2 and 4.25/ 2 = 3 A, respectively.
2.87 In Fig. 7, the horizontal scale is given as 5 ms/division, i.e.,
PF = 1 − = 0.46.
3.23 each small division is 1 ms. Therefore, from Fig. 7, we get the
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Fig. 8. Power factor measurement using displacement in the ZCs of the syn- Fig. 9. Power factor measurement using instantaneous power from the mea-
chronized supply voltage and the motor current at 130% current load. sured synchronized supply voltage and the motor current at 66% current load.
TABLE III
RMS CURRENT, TIME DEVIATION BETWEEN ZC OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT, method utilizing the synchronized supply voltage V and the mo-
POWER FACTOR FROM DISPLACEMENT METHOD AT DIFFERENT LOAD
tor current I measurements in the oscilloscope. In this method,
from the synchronized supply voltage and the motor current
waveforms, we calculate the instantaneous power per phase
(i.e., point-by-point multiplication of the two waveforms). We
utilized the average power (P̄ ) per phase from the measurement
in the scope. Then, by this method, the PF is given as
P̄
PF = . (11)
VI
An example of the PF estimation from the instantaneous
power measurement for the experimental setup (see Fig. 5) at
66% current loading is shown in Fig. 9.
deviation of the current ZC to be +3.4 ms. Using (10), we get
The rms values of the supply voltage and the motor current
PF = cos[(3.4)/(20) × 360◦ ] = 0.48. for this loading are 230 V and 3 A, respectively. From Fig. 9,
the average instantaneous power, P̄ = 328.525 W. Using (11),
This is close to the value in the second row, third column in
we get
Table II.
Fig. 8 shows another example for an overload condition of 328.525
130% I/Inom inal , close to the sixth row in Table II. PF = = 0.476.
230 × 3
In Fig. 8, the vertical scale is 100 V/division (for voltage),
5 A/division (for current). From Fig. 8, the measured peak (pos- This is very well matching with the values in the second row
itive or negative half) voltage w.r.t. the X-axis is 325 V and the of Tables II and III.
measured peak (positive or negative half) current w.r.t. the X-axis PF estimation from the instantaneous power measurement
is 8.75 A. Therefore, the rms
√ values of the supply √ voltage and for the overload condition of 130% current loading is shown
the motor current are 325/ 2 = 230 V and 8.75/ 2 = 6.19 A, in Fig. 10. The rms values of the supply voltage and the motor
respectively. The deviation of the current ZC is +1.5 ms, giving current for this loading are 230 V and 6.19 A, respectively. From
a PF of 0.89, quite close to the estimated value in the sixth row, Fig. 10, the average instantaneous power, P̄ = 1.273 kW. Using
third column in Table II. (11), we get
PFs estimated using the displacement method, utilizing the
ZC time differences in (10), at different loading conditions are 1273
PF = = 0.89.
shown in Table III. 230 × 6.19
This is similar to the values in the sixth row of Tables II
C. Power Factor: From Instantaneous Power
and III.
In addition to the ZC time displacement method, we also PFs estimated using the instantaneous power method, at dif-
calculated the PF via the instantaneous power P measurement ferent loading conditions are shown in Table IV.
This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
Fig. 12. Power factor measurement using displacement in the ZCs of the
synchronized voltage and current (phase 2) signals at 66% current load.
Fig. 11. Underload protection using motor current [plot (i)], power factor [plot
(ii)].
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Abhisek Ukil (S’05–M’06–SM’10) received the
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for Bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering from
Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India, in 2000, and the
the constructive review, helping to upgrade this paper. M.Sc. degree in electronic systems and engineering
management from the University of Bolton, Bolton,
U.K., in 2004. He received the Ph.D. degree from the
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