Technical drawing is the discipline of creating standardized technical drawing by architects,

CAD drafters, design engineers, and related professionals. Technical drawing includes the
various fields and technologies underpinning electronics, which has in turn revolutionized the art
with new tools in the form of Computer Aided Design (CAD).
A technical drawing or engineering drawing is a type of drawing and form of graphic
communication, used in the transforming of an idea into physical form. This type of drawing is
used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items, and is usually created in
accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance
(such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
The process of creating a technical drawing is called drafting or technical drawing. A person who
does drafting is known as a drafter. In some areas this person may be referred to as a drafting
technician, draftsperson, or draughtsperson. A technical drawing differs from a common drawing
by how it is interpreted. A common drawing can hold many purposes and meanings, while a
technical drawing is intended to concisely and clearly communicate all needed specifications of a
created object or objects.

Overview
Technical drawing, also known as drafting, refers to the discipline of producing precise
illustrations of things in fields like architecture and engineering. Generally, the term technical
drawing pertains to any kind of drawing fashioned with technical ideas. Good examples of
technical drawing are mechanical drawings, charts, and sketches.[1] Technical drawings are a
means of graphic communication, which aims to clearly and concisely communicate information
about transforming technical ideas or concepts into reality. A technical drawing often contains
both a graphic representation of its subject, and dimensions, notes and specifications.[2]
Today the mechanics of the drafting task have been greatly accelerated through the use of
computer-aided design and drafting systems, but regardless of whether a draft is drawn by hand
or with computer assistance, the field-use-drawing must be reproducible with a version control
system to maintain authorized and approved changes to the master document (or computer files,
the modern analog).
In some fields, particularly electronics, draftsmen are also known by the ambiguous "designer",
whose job would be distinct and separate from the engineers specifying and working out the
design details. In short, draftsmen are communicators that are part of an engineering team
charged with producing specialty documentation packaged as a design, which following the
standards of the field, can be understood by others with the same training.Technical drawing in
perspective is a universal picture language by which ideas and information may be readily
available for others.
[edit] History
Plan of Saint Gall. Reichenau, early 9th century.
Drawing to communicate technical ideas may predate the written language. The oldest drawing
instruments known, a drawing board inscripted with a temple plan, date from the 3th millennium
BC from the city of Lagash in Babylon. The ancient Greeks infuenced drawing through their
work in geometry, and tools such as the compass and triangles used in engineering were then
developed.[3]
One of few surviving medieval architectural drawing from the period between the fall of the
Roman Empire and the 13th century is the Plan of Saint Gall, a architectural drawing of a
monastic compound dating from the early 9th century. The Plan depicts an entire Benedictine
monastic compound including churches, houses, stables, kitchens, workshops, brewery,
infirmary, and even a special house for bloodletting. The Plan was never actually built, and was
so named because it was kept at the famous medieval monastery library of the Abbey of St. Gall,
where it remains to this day.

Design for a Flying Machine, Leonardo da Vinci, 1488.

The beginning of contemporary technical drawing originates from 15th century renaissance
artists like the Italian Architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who in about 1415 demonstrated the
geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various
Florentine buildings onto a mirror. Leonardo da Vinci further developed perspective and
technical drawing, using geometric principles from famous Greek mathematicians like
Pythagoras of Samos, and Euclid of Alexandria. In the 18th century the mathematician Gaspard
Monge developed descriptive geometry, when designing a complicated fortress in a star shape
using orthgraphic projection. Early 19th century isometric drawing was introduced by the
Englishman William Farish.[3]

18th century Cranes.[4]

Prior to the 18th century there was no need for interchangeable parts, the ability to select
components for assembly at random and fit them together within proper tolerances, and acurate
drawings were not necessary. Inventors, engineers and builders made each product one at a time,
and each product was unique. Many designs used through the 19th century were accomplished
by first completing a hand sketch of the object to build. These were them converted into wooden
models from which patterns were constructed . This practice followed well into the 20th century
by some. One of the first efforts to create a program to standardize drawing and establish a
mechanical drawing school came from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 1824.[5]
The 18th century architectural practice technical drawing had become the normal medium for
design. Architects were among the first design discipline to make use of conventions of plan,
elevation and section in design and production control. It was the scale of the projects and
number of crafts involved, that called for a separation between design and construction. By the
time the Industrial revolution began, these architectural conventions were readily available to
engineers.[6]
Since the Industrial Revolution specialized fields of engineering design have developed to meet
the needs of industry. Military and civil engineering were the first, from which others developed
such as mechanical, electrical, chemical, aerospace industrial engineering, and many others.[7]
Eventually the development of the computer had a mayor impact on the methods used to design
and create technical drawings.[3]
Fields of technical drawing
The field of technical drawing and drafting work is applied in many specialties, such as:[8]
• Aeronautical drafters : prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications
used in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts.
Architectural drawings of details of the Palace of Persepolis,Persia
• Architectural drawing : draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other
structures. These workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or
commercial, or in a kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or
timber. Architectural drawing can includes all architectural contracts and drawings such
as plot plans, floor plans, elevations, sections, details, schedules, etc., and any
architectural drawing that forms a part of the contract documents.[9]
• Civil drafters : prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major
construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood
control projects, and water and sewage systems.
• Electrical drafters : prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect,
install, and repair electrical equipment and wiring in communication centers, power
plants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings.
• Electronics drafters : draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics,
and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices
and components.
• Mechanical drafters : prepare drawings showing the detail and assembly of a wide variety
of machinery and mechanical devices, indicating dimensions, fastening methods, and
other requirements.
• Process piping or pipeline drafters : prepare drawings used in the layout, construction,
and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping
systems.
Further, special fields of technical drawings, such as the drawing of gears and cams, welding,
riveting, electrical components and circuits, piping, structures, and mapping and typography
have evolved to support the specialized fields of engineering.[3]
Types of technical drawings
Construction drawing
Construction drawing of a Machine tool part.
Construction drawing is a type of technical drawing, created within the engineering discipline,
and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items.
Construction drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for
layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or
a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information
that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.
Cutaway drawings

Cutaway drawing of a Nash 600.

A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which surface elements a three-dimensional
model are selectively removing, to make internal features visible, but without sacrificing the
outer context entirely.
The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid
opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of
outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a
piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to
spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and
facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering.[10]
Exploded view drawing
Gear pump exploded.
An exploded view drawing is a technical drawing of an object, that show the relationship or
order of assembly of various parts are permissible.[11] It shows the components of an object
slightly separated by distance, or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-
dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled
explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated an
equal distance away from their original locations.
An exploded view drawing is a type of drawing, that shows the indended assembly of
mechanical or other parts. It shows all parts of the assembly and how they fit together. In
mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center are assembled first, or is the
main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to disassembly of
parts, where the parts on the outsite normally get removed first.[12]
Patent drawing

Wright brothers Patent drawing, 1908.

A patent drawing is a technical drawing of an patent invention, that shows the nature of the
invention. The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is
required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form.
The applicant for a patent will be required by law to furnish a drawing of the invention whenever
the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention. This drawing must be filed
with the application. This includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or
processes, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes.[11]
The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by
the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on
which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the
making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are
printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues, and the drawings must also be
such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.[11]
Technical illustrations

Illustration of a drum set.

Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical
nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of
technical illustration is to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information
via the visual channel to the human observer.[13]
The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less
nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and
proportions, and should provide an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance
the viewer’s interest and understanding.[14]
Illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even a person with no technical
understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize
mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay
person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and
dimension to the subject matter.[13]

Sketch for a government building.

Technical sketches
A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. In
general, a sketch is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily
serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before undertaking a more
finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time consuming.
Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams.[15] These sketches, like metaphors,
are used by architects as a mean of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps
architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summerize their
complex patters, hereby enhancing the design process.[15]
Manual drafting
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface
with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drafting table. A sliding straightedge
known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of
the table, and over the surface of the paper.

A drafting table
"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical
pen along the T-square's edge, but more typically the T-square is used as a tool to hold other
devices such as set squares or triangles. In this case the draftsman places one or more triangles of
known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can
then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables (which have by
now largely been replaced by CAD workstations) come equipped with a parallel rule that is
supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on
both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.

Technical drawing instruments

Size chart with ANSI sizes

Stencils for correct technical writing.

In addition, the draftsperson uses several tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these
are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the: French curve, typically a
piece of plastic with complex curves on it. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can
be manually bent to most curves.
Drafting templates assist the draftsperson with creating recurring objects in a drawing without
having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using
common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will typically draw from:
the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common
fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors,
usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a draftsperson to create
their own templates.
Basic drafting system
Drawing Dimensions Drawing Dimensions
type "name" (width X height) type "name" (width X height)
8.5 by 11.0 inches 11.0 by 17.0 inches
A-size B-size
22 cm by 28 cm 28 cm by 43 cm
17.0 by 22.0 inches 22.0 by 34.0 inches
C-size D-size
43 cm by 56 cm 56 cm by 86 cm
34.0 by 44.0 inches 44.0 by 68.0 inches
E-size F-size
86 cm by 112 cm 112 cm by 173 cm
G-size 68.0 by 88.0 inches H-size 88.0 by 136 inches
 224 cm by 173 cm 173 cm by 345 cm
As can be seen in the series, the height of the previous drawing
size becomes double the height of the next size in the sequence.
This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of
the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly,
thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a
point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general drafting can be a
time consuming process.
A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an
application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these
situations) which allowed the draftsman to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page
quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing
the need for the triangles as well.
In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a
piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a
thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases
demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.
Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect—or even by shop
personnel such as a machinist—skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task
and are always in demand to some level.
Computer Aided Design

An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons.

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through
the use of Computer Aided Design systems (CAD). Computer-aided design is the use of
computer technology to aid in the design and particularly the drafting of a part or product,
including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-based method of
communication whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field.
Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting is the
integral communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-
discipline that underlies all involved technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-
dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, these objects have traditionally been
represented by three projected views at right angles.
CAD drafters
CAD drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from
manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures
such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipeline.
In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors,
triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. Now, most drafters use
Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently,
some drafters may be referred to as CADD operators.
With CADD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be
viewed, printed, or programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems. CADD systems
also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CADD
extensively, it is only a tool. Drafters still need knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in
addition to CADD skills. Despite the nearly universal use of CADD systems, manual drafting
and sketching are used in certain applications.[8]
Types of drawings
Varying according to the product or project, the set of drawings generally contains detail
drawings (also called working drawings), assembly drawings, section drawings, plans (top
views), and elevations (front views). For manufacturing a machine, the shape and size of each
individual part, except standard fasteners, are described in a detail drawing, and at least one
assembly drawing indicates how the parts fit together. To clarify interior details or the fitting
together of parts, it may be necessary to prepare a section drawing, showing a part or assembly
as though it had been cut by a plane, with a portion of the object removed. For constructing a
building, plans, elevations, section drawings, and detail drawings are necessary to convey the
information needed to estimate costs and then erect the structure. In this case the detail drawings
contain exact information about such features as elevators, stairways, cabinetwork, and the
framing of windows, doors, and spandrels. Different information appears in the set of drawings
for a bridge, a dam, or a highway, but in each case the differences are related to the best manner
of conveying the needed information.
Dimensions and tolerances
The sizes of parts and overall sizes of assemblies are conveyed by dimensions placed on the
drawing. The basic objective in dimensioning a drawing is to give the manufacturing or
construction personnel the dimensions they need to do their work without requiring them to add,
subtract, or estimate distances. If mass production is to be undertaken, special attention must be
given to the dimensions of interchangeable parts that fit together. To dimension a distance as,
say, two inches cannot require that it be exactly two (2.000 . . . ) inches, because no one can
machine material with such precision. Particularly for parts of machinery, the designer must
specify the acceptable range for the size of a hole, a shaft, or other feature requiring proper fit—
perhaps 1.995 to 2.005 inches. The difference between the acceptable maximum and minimum
dimensions given for a hole, shaft, or other feature is known as the tolerance. In the example
above the tolerance is 0.010 (that is, 2.005 − 1.995) inch. Unsatisfactory tolerancy of mating
parts ordinarily results in a machine with improper function or greatly reduced useful life. On the
other hand, the cost of production increases greatly as tolerances are made stricter. It is an
important design decision to require the correct level of tolerance for the functioning of any
particular product. Additional information on a set of drawings indicates the materials to be used
and the types of finish required on the surfaces.
Systems of representation » Perspective
The shapes of all the parts and their interrelation are exactly described by the representation of
that information in the set of drawings. Such description can be a lesser or greater challenge,
depending on the complexity of the design. In the 15th century some of the leading artists and
architects developed geometric schemes of perspective. Geometric perspective is a drawing
method by which it is possible to depict a three-dimensional form as a two-dimensional image
that closely resembles the scene as visualized by the human eye. The camera produces
photographs with such resemblance. Images produced by the eye, the camera, and systems of
perspective can all be interpreted in terms of what is known as central projection. Lines of sight
may be thought of as extending from the points of the object under observation to a central point
of convergence—the lens of the eye or the camera, or the reference point of the perspective
construction. In the case of the eye these lines of sight are focused by the lens into an image on
the curved retina. In the camera they pass through the lens to form an image on a flat piece of
film. In systems of geometric perspective the converging lines of sight form an image on an
imaginary picture plane located between the object and the central point of the construction.
Perspective drawings and photographs are easily interpreted because they closely resemble
visual images. This resemblance includes the diminution of the relative size of the
representations of portions of the object that recede from the viewer and the distortion of the
angular relations of the lines of the object. The object shown in perspective in Figure 1B

may be interpreted as a cube. The same object is represented in according to the

projectional system ordinarily used for engineering and architectural drawings; there it is evident
that the object is not a cube. Such projections are used because they convey accurate information
about the shape of the object.
Systems of representation » Orthographic projection
The projection used for engineering and architectural drawings is called orthogonal (“right-
angled”) or orthographic because the lines of sight from points on the object to the picture plane
of the image are perpendicular to that plane. Thus, the lines of sight, called projectors, are
parallel rather than convergent (as they are in the central projection of the eye, the camera, and
geometric perspective).
Systems of representation » Descriptive geometry

Monge’s reference system consisted of a vertical plane (V in Figures 2A, 2C )

and a horizontal plane (H) that intersected in a ground line. As in , Monge numbered the four
quadrants formed by V and H I, II, III, and IV. also shows two arrows, D1 perpendicular to H and
D2 perpendicular to V. Each arrow represents the direction of projection from points on any
object under study to one of the reference planes. Such an object is the L-shaped block located in
the first quadrant. Monge introduced the concepts of the reference system, the formation of
views by projectors perpendicular to the reference planes, the revolving of the H plane into
coincidence with the V plane about the ground line as indicated by the curved arrows, and the
retention of the images on the planes after the object had been removed and the H plane
revolved. illustrates the final result: the projection on V is regarded as the front view, and the
projection on H as the top view.
If the object were placed in the third quadrant (see ), the projections would be exactly the same,
but their relative locations on the paper would be reversed. If the object were located in the
second quadrant, the two projections would have the same shape and size as in . Depending on
the location of the object in the second quadrant, however, now either projection might be
located above the other or one projection might overlap the other. The same is the case if the
object were located in the fourth quadrant. This uncertainty is the reason that commercial use is
limited to first- or third-quadrant projection. First-quadrant projection is often referred to as first-
angle projection, and third-quadrant projection as third-angle projection.
Regardless of the quadrant (or angle) used, the views or projections are formed by the
intersection of the projectors and the reference planes. Established conventions determine which
points of the object are projected. If projectors were extended from every point on the object to
the reference planes, the views would be silhouettes and would fail in their purpose of defining
the object. The accepted rule is to project (1) all points on the edges between plane surfaces that
bound the object and (2) all points at which the projectors forming the view are tangent to curved

surfaces of the object. 3 illustrates these two sets of points. AB is the line of
intersection of the cylindrical surface and plane surface ABCD. CB is the line of intersection of
two plane surfaces. EF is not the line of intersection of two surfaces of the object, but projectors
forming the top view are tangent to the cylindrical surface along the straight path from E to F,
and thus EHFH properly appears in the top view. (The superscript H is used here to denote the
projection on the H plane, and, similarly, V is used to denote the projection on the V plane.) CD
is the line of intersection of the cylindrical surface and plane ABCD, but CHGH results from the
tangency of projectors along the cylindrical surface. Every line projected in the identical front
view of this object is a line of intersection of surfaces. AD, BC, and the plane ABCD all project
as the same straight line in the front view because the plane ABCD is parallel to the projectors for
that view.
Systems of representation » Ambiguity
Ambiguity must be avoided in the views, dimensions, and notes of a set of drawings. 4A

shows pictorial representations of three different objects for which the identical
front and top views in are correct. The ambiguity in the shape description provided by front and
top views alone can be eliminated by adding a third, or side, view obtained by projecting the
object onto a vertical plane perpendicular to V. In each set of three views describes only one of
the objects without ambiguity.
In commercial or industrial practice, sets of drawings ordinarily provide at least three views of
any part that is not a stamping, a gasket, a flat wrench, or other essentially two-dimensional
form. Depending on the shape of the part, there may be a left-side view, a right-side view, or
both. There may be reason for a back view, a bottom view, or both. Additional views are
discussed below.
Systems of representation » Hidden lines
It is standard practice to use dashes to represent any line of an object that is hidden from view. A
drafter—in deciding whether a line in a view should be represented as hidden or as visible—
relies on the fact that in third-angle projection the near side of the object is near the adjacent
view, but in first-angle projection the near side of the object is remote from the adjacent view. In
(third-angle projection) the top of the front view is near the top view; the front of the top view is

near the front view; and the front of the side view is near the front view. In first-

angle projection, however, the top of the front view is remote from the top view;

the front of the top view is remote from the front view, and the front of the side

view is remote from the front view. In a third-angle projection, what is remote in
an adjacent view cannot hide what is near in that view.

5 shows a pictorial representation of an object and the third-angle projections of

that object. The arrangement of the three views gives intuitive reinforcement to the correct
selection of the line shown as hidden in each view because it is blocked by portions of the object
that are nearer in the adjacent views. The number of hidden lines in a view of a complicated
object may be very great. For purposes of studying visibility, the direction of projection may be
thought of as always vertically downward for a top view, always horizontally from front to back

for a front view, and always horizontally right-to-left for a right-side view.
In the hidden lines in the views could be identified by visualizing the object, a process that can
be quite difficult for complicated objects. The following basic principle of descriptive geometry
is useful in analyzing such a problem:
I. If any point is projected orthogonally onto each of two perpendicular planes and the planes are
rotated into coincidence about their line of intersection, then the projections of the point on the
two planes will lie on a straight line perpendicular to the line of intersection.

Figure 6 demonstrates this statement. Although the ground line, or line of

intersection of H and V, is seldom drawn in the representations of front and top or of front, top,
and side views of objects, it is understood to be horizontal. Thus for any point P, PH and PV lie on
a vertical line of the drawing.
A tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) with vertices A, B, C, and D is shown in third-angle

projection in Figure 7 . The edges AC and BD do not intersect, although their

projections do. To determine which of these two edges is visible in the top view, the drafter
considers location M, where the H projection of a point on AC and the H projection of a point on
BD coincide. By principle I the V projections of these two points will lie on a vertical line from
the crossing of AHCH and BHDH. A vertical construction line in indicates that the point on BD is
nearer to the top of the tetrahedron than the point on AC. This means that BD crosses above AC,
so that BD must be visible in the top view and AC hidden. Similarly, to study the visibility of

these lines in the front view, the vertical construction line is drawn through Q, the
crossing of AVCV and BVDV; this procedure indicates that the point on BD is nearer to the front of

the tetrahedron than the point on AC. Thus BD crosses in front of AC, so that BD

is visible in the front view and AC is hidden.

Systems of representation » Auxiliary views

Figure 8 illustrates another basic principle of descriptive geometry that facilitates

the discussion of auxiliary views:
II. Given two planes (A and C) perpendicular to a third plane (B), a point P projected
orthogonally onto the three planes, and the rotation of A and C into B about their respective lines
of intersection with B (LA and LC), then PA is the same distance from LA as PC is from LC.
To convey complete and correct information many views may be necessary to show every plane
surface bounding the object in its true size and shape at least once. In choosing the principal
views, the drafter positions the object with reference to H and V so as to have the maximum
number of its surfaces parallel to H or V or R, a third plane perpendicular to both H and V.
Orthographic projection yields the true size and shape of every such surface in the front, the top,
or the side view. A surface parallel to H or V or R, the three principal planes, is perpendicular to
the other two. Additional or auxiliary views are necessary to represent the true size and shape of
other plane surfaces. A plane perpendicular to only one of the three principal planes is said to be
in an inclined position; a plane not perpendicular to any of the principal planes is said to be in an
oblique position.
Figure 9 illustrates the application of principle II to represent the true size and
shape of an inclined surface. The groove in surface ABCD makes an angle of 30° with a line (not
shown) parallel to the edge DC. An auxiliary view in which A, B, C, and D are labeled with
primes, obtained by projection onto a plane P, parallel to the surface ABCD, is the only one in
which the true shape of ABCD and the true size of the 30° angle are correctly shown. The
dimension indicated by the double-headed arrow is the same in the H (top) and auxiliary views,
as required by principle II. The plane of the auxiliary view and the plane of the H view are
perpendicular to the plane of the V view.
The true shape of an oblique surface can be shown correctly only on a second auxiliary view
prepared by an extension of the procedure used for a first auxiliary view.
Automobile bodies, aircraft and ship hulls, and the irregular terrain of the natural site of a dam,
bridge, or highway, are studied and detailed by means of contour lines on the surfaces. Three-
dimensional modeling is necessary if design is highly competitive, as with automobiles, or if
optimum streamlining is essential. Contour lines are projections of the intersections of the
surface under study and imaginary planes at the reference locations.
Systems of representation » Pictorial views
Although the emphasis on true descriptions of sizes and shapes requires orthographic projection
for working and construction drawings, pictorial representations may be useful. In architecture,
for example, the designer of the exterior of a building or the interior of an important space may
be guided by perspective drawings and other pictorial representations. The construction of major
projects may be preceded by the building of three-dimensional models, although these are
expensive and seldom used in the early stages of design. Pictorial representations often are used
for attracting investors or for advertising of new buildings and other products. Although a
specialist in marketing might be intimidated by working drawings, he might grasp a pictorial
representation easily enough to make useful suggestions about a design before production or
construction was under way.
The execution of a perspective drawing may require more time than is justified in the design of a
small item. In many cases orthographic projection, coupled with the rotation of the object with
respect to the reference planes, produces an adequate pictorial representation.
, , , and illustrate the pictorial representation achieved by oblique projection, in which the
principal surface of the object is considered to be in the plane of the paper and thus is represented
in true size and shape. The angle the receding axis makes with the horizontal lines of the drawing
is chosen arbitrarily but with care in terms of the clarity of the particular representation. True
lengths are set off along the receding axis as an arbitrary choice. This is a convenient method for
constructing a pictorial representation. Unacceptable distortion results when oblique projection is
used to represent large objects or those with large dimensions or important details along the
receding axis.
orthographic projection: object representation

Figure 1: Two techniques of representing an object. (A) Perspective drawing, suggesting that the
object is cubical. (B) Orthographic top and front views, revealing that the object is not cubical.

oblique projection: orthographic projections

Figure 2: Orthographic projections of a three-dimensional object onto vertical and horizontal

planes. (A) Object located in the first of four quadrants defined by intersecting planes. (B) Result
of rotating the horizontal plane into coincidence with the vertical plane. (C) The same object
located in the third quadrant. (D) Result of rotating the horizontal plane as in (B), showing
exchanged positions of top and front views.
oblique projection: selection of points

Figure 3: Selection of points to be projected in preparing orthographic views.

ambiguity: drafting perspectives

Figure 4: Three objects with identical top and front views. (Top row) Pictorial drawings. (Bottom
row) Top, front, and side views, showing how the side views resolve the ambiguity.
hidden line: drafting perspective

Figure 5: Use of dashed lines to represent edges hidden in views of a complicated object

auxiliary view: inclined surface

Figure 9: Use of auxiliary view to show true size and shape of an inclined surface (ABCD),
which is not correctly represented in the front, top, or side view.