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F A Project Report

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Positional Control System- Analysis &
Design
frojtareyert"tufitnitte{inyartialfttffi ttnentof tfrereyuirement
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E Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
2011
Engineering

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By

Dehojit tvlaitra
Sai"fr.atg fiatt a.cfiarrya

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tuati.fr,Dey
' Sen"dniSioSf*

Defiottarn Cfrnfrrafiorty
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k Under the Guidance of
k ejry Cfrmda
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Department of Electrical Engineering
JIS College of Engineering

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Block-A, Phase-III, Kalyani, Nadia
747295

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 CERTIflGJTTE

This is to certiS thatDebojitMaitra (UniversityRoll No. : 071230116015

& RegistrationNo.
Saikat Bhattacharya (Universify Roll No. z 071230116016&
z 071230116101015),
Pratih Dey (lJniversity Roll No. t 071230116017
RegistrationNo. : 07123011610101q, &
Sandhi Singha (University Roll No. : 071230116018
RegistrationNo. : 071230116101014,
& Registration No. z 071230116101018),Debottam Chakraborty (University Roll No. :
071230116019 SanjivShome(UniversityRoll No. :
& RegistrationNo. : 071230116101019),
arethe studentsof 4ft year Electrical
& RegistrationNo. z 071230116101020)
0712301L6020
of JIS Collegeof Engineeringin the sessionof 2007-2011andtheyhave submitted
Engineering
their major thesiswork in partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the Degreeof Bachelor of
Technologyin Electrical Engineering.It is the result of the bonafide work carried out on the
dissertationtitled *POSITION CONIryOL SYSTEM- ANALYSISAND DESIGI\|' during the
academicsession20l}-2}ll underthe guidanceand supervisionof mine. I herebyrecommend
thatthis thesisis acceptedin partial fulfifunentof the requirementsfor the Degreeof Bachelorof
Technologyin ElectricalEngineering,From JIS Collegeof Engineering.During this thesiswork
they were found to be sincere,regularand hard working and have successfullycompletedthe
thesiswork assignedto them.

Prof.A. Chanda
(ProjectGuide)
AssistantProfessor

Dept.Of ElectricalEngineering

Kalyani.
JISCollegeof Engineering,
S
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h-,
-
- J15College
of Engineering
8lo* 'A', PhaseJll.Kalyani,H:dia,741335
- Fhone:+91 33 258? 2137,Teh{sx: +91 33 ?582:138
Websir*:www-jiscalt+je-ae.in,Fmail: in@;iisnollege-m.in
-

-
-
- OF*.PPROV*.L
CENTIflC^ETE,
:-
t Thisis to certifythat the projectentitled"POSITIONAI
CONTROL
SYSTEM-
ANALYSIS
&
t
t
submittedby DebojitMaitra,SaikatBhattachotya,PratikDey,SandhiSingha,
DESfGN"
t DebottamChakraborty,
SaniivShomeof Electrical
Engineering
Department,
JlSCollege
t
t
Kalyani,in the partialfulfillmentof the requirementfor the awardof
of Engineering,
, the degree of Bachelorof ElectricalEngineeringin West Bengal Universityof
- -
(WBUT)duringthe academic
Technology year2AtA-20Lt.
D
t
=
=
-:
a,
(Prof. Asit,5*6x Guha) (Prof. U. Banerjee)
t
t Directo Principal
t JIS Collegeof En JIS College of Engineering
Kalvani - 74 Kalyani - 741235
-
t
t
o
o
o (Prof. Subrata K (Prof. A Chanda)
?
Head Guide, Lecturer
-t
El ectrical Engineering Departuent Electrical Engineering Department
{
JIS College of Engineering JIS College af Engineering
-t
Kalyani - 741235 Kalvani - 741235
t
a
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t Corpotere offirel 7, larat 8sr€ Eoad. Iclletn-IlHl SlU, Plroneq+91 33 ll89 394#5323, Tdefexl +91 l$ 22*9 3945
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 "*.glilOIT/I.uDqEITUNT
We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to our respected teacher Mr" A Chanda for his
assistanceand guidance towards the progress of this project.

t We also appreciate with deep senseof thankfulness, the co- operation extended to us by the lab
t
assistantand some of our frierrds and other teachers.
t
-

Lastly we acknowledge our indebtednessto the principal of institution and our parents whose
support, dedication have given us an immense help in commencing this project.

We have made a humble attempt in this direction to make this project perfect as far as possible.
In spite of efforts some errors might.crept in. we shall be grateful to the teacher if some are
brought by notice. Comments and criticism is welcome in this regard.

Dat e:
t elo s l u t
Place:f",Iry *;

Debojit Maitra
)"u,b,#t l.t^[c" .
(07r230n601s)
Saikat Bhattacharya
3 d,raf B\^GU64-Lorla ,
(07r230n6016)
Pratik Dey
(07r230n6017)
Sandhi Singha
(07r230n6018)
Debottam Chakraborty
(07r230n6019)
Sanjiv Shome !r
Sorn;tv ShPcrno,
(07r230n6020)

f,

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 GONTENT
{
Title page
{ Certificate I
H Certificate of approval II
Acknowledgement III
-l
it Content ry
V
I 1. fntroduction
I 1
1"1 Introduction
? L.2 2
Objectiveof this project
:t 1.3 3
Basic conceptof positional control
4
1.8.1 Detectionof positioning errors during movement
I.4 4
MATLAB
4
r"4.L category: Generalpu{poseapplicationsand utilities
available on-all systems
4
L.4.2 Brief descriptionof iVIATLAB prod.ucts
5
1.4.3 SIMULINK.
o
I.4.4 What is a SIMULINK function
6
2. Proportional integral-derivative control
& lead -lag compensator
2.1 Introduction 6
7
2.2 Different types of controller
7
2.2.L Proportionalcontrol(Gain)
7
2.2.2 Integral control (Automatic reset)
8
2.2.3 Derivative control (pre Act(TM) or rate)
10
2.2.4 Putting it together:pID Controller
T2
Lead-LagCompensator
13
2.3.L Application
2.3.2 13
Theory
2.3.3 13
Implementation
2.3.4 L4
IntuitiveExplanation
15
2.4 Time responsespecifications
15
2.4.t Overshoot(Signal)
15
2.4.L.I Definition
16
2.4.1.2 Controltheory
16

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 2.4.2 Rise time 16
2.4.2.1 Application 18
2.4.3 Settling time 1_9
2.4.3.L Application 2A
2"4.4 Steadystate error 2t
2.4.4.1 Application 2L
2.5 Importance of PID and lead-lagcompensatorover
time responsespecifications 22
2.5.L Introduction 22
2.5.2 Three -term controller 23
2.5.3 The characteristicsof p, i, and d controllers 24

3. I\{ATLAB Prograning & SIMIILINK model of

amature controlled dc motor 25
3 .1 Introduction 26
3.2 Parameters used in IVIATLABoperation 27
3.3 Programing for step responseof openloop system 27
3.3.L Result 28
3.4 Programing for stepresponseof closedloop system 29
3.4.1 Result 30
3.5 Programing for stepresponseof a closedloop system
using PID controller 3L
3.5.1 Result 32
3.6 Programing for stepresponseof closedloop system 33
3.6.1 Result 34
3.7 Programing for step responseof a closedloop system
using PID controller 35
3.7.1 Result 36
3.8 SIMULINK model 37
3.8.1 Result 38
4. Future aspects of the Proiect 39
4.L DC position control systemResult 40
4.1.L Introduction 40
4.1.2 Experiment 4T
4.1.3 'Features& sPecifications 42

4.2 Robotics 43
4.2.1 Introduction 43
4.2.2 Experiment 44

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4.3 Radar control 45
4.3.1 Introduction 45
4"3.2 The systemapproach 45

Conclusion 46
References 48

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INTRODUCTION
E
l-
l'r Introduction
It Chapter1
l-
It
!-1
It
f-1
I.1 INTRODUCTION
It
F' This project confines itself to a study of dynamic and steady
state modeling of seryo
fF! system,henceprogrammingof the dc motor and analysis
of its different dynamic parameters
like settlingtimg rise time, peakovershoot,steadystateeror
F:) by using MATLAB tools.
r!
t The dynamic simulation procedureis derived considering
a state of data of DC drive
b
t\
from the subsystemdifferential and functional relationships"
Attempt has been made to
D
\ undertakethe problan of designingin MATLAB Programing
a and 5IMULINK e,nvironment
for a closed loop control system. In order to put the idea
? on a familiar footing we have
? considerthe designof PID,PI & PD controllerby writing MATLAB
script then simulatethe
b dynamicsusing SIMULINK library functions blocks. A position
conhol system employing
D an armatureconfrolledDC servomotorand a DC drive related
to designcriteria towardstotal
i' nanative designprocedureof the systernhas been undertaken.
T As in many casesof system
T design,there is no unique solution to the design problem
of a pID controller. However
;' attempthasbeenmadetowardsthe objectivein the contoller
designis to selectthe suitable
t valuesfor the parameterskp, ki & kd ts satisff the desiredrequirements"
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 \

l Introduction Chapter1
I
L.2 OBJECTI1M

Positional control standsfor confrolling the whole systemparameterand analping

the dynamic response of that system and makes a comparison between the dynamic
responses,
obtainedby the MATLAB and SIMULINK analysis.

If we get a certain hansfer function of a system, by the analysis of hansfer

function using MATLAB, we can concludeover the dynamic charactersuch as rise time,
settlingtime, overshoot,steadystateerror etc. of that particular system"By this process,we
can improve the responseof the system comparing with the standardvalue, such as in a
RADAR SYSTEM, steadystateerror must be zero and the settling time must be lesserthan
0.2 sec.

We can also obtain the responseof the sametransfer function by SIMULINK

analysisandcan comparethe responsewith the responseobtainedby the previousanalysis"

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Introduction Chapter1
-:
r{
e 1.3 BASIC CONCEPT OF POSITIONAL CONTROL
\
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A positional control is a type of automaticconhol in which the input commandsare the
!
-t desiredpositionof a body. If a body or a systemmovesfrom its desiredposition,it makesan
= error. Through this control system,we can eliminate this positional error. By the use of pID
= conholler and leadJag compensatorwe can determinethe exact value of this error and
.!
t
optimizethe system.
D

D
D
: 1.3.1.DETECTION OF POSITIONING ERRORS DT]RING
:
? MO\MMENTS
? Maximumtolerableerror may vary (canbe as small as25 pm)
?
? Drive speedlimit = max error/ systemresponsetime
I E.g.25 pm / 100ms = 0.25mm/s
?
{ In casethis is in the resonancgrange of the assernbly,the speedshould be further
r-
reduced.(Continuoussinglestepmode).
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,
t 1.4 MATI"AB
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D MATLAB is an integratedtechnical computing environmentthat combines numeric
D computation,
advancedgraphicsandvisualization,andahigh-levelprograrnminglanguage.
D

D
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1.4.L CATEGORY:GENERAL PIIRPOSE APPLICATIONS
,
D AIYD UTILITTES AVAII,ABI,E ON-.ALL SYSTEMS
:
? Short for Matrix Laboratory MATLAB is a technical computing environment for
? high-performancenumeric computationand visualization. It integratesnumerical analysis,
t mahix computation,signal processing and graphics in an easy-to-useenvironment where
{
.a problems and solutions are expressedjust as they are written mathematically, without
q haditional programming. Tlpical uses include general-purposenumeric computation,
,
q
t algorithm prototyping, and special-purposeproblem solving with matrix formulations that
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arise in disciplinessuch as linear algebra,structuralanalysis,statistics,and digital signal
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- MATLAB is included in the default user path. The current version can be evoked by
-
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-
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1.4.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF IT{ATI"AB PRODUCTS
, . The following tools arein MATLAB, which makesthe softwaremore easyanduseful for
, anykind of MathematicalandProgrammingworks.TheMATLB tools are----
J

1. CDMA ReferenceBlockset
-
a 2. Communications
Toolbox
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3. ControlSystemToolbox
-
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4. D ataAcquisitionToolbox

-t 5. Database
Toolbox
't 6. Developer's
Kit for TexasInstruments
DSP
-:
J 7. InstrumentConhol Toolbox
J
8. LMI Conhol Toolbox
,
< D 9. MappingToolbox
.
10.MATLAB Compiler
J

J Etc.andmanymore.
o
D
1..4.3 SIMITLINK
)
SIMULINK, developedby The Math Works, is a commercial tool for modeling,
)
-' simulatingand analyzingmultidomain dynamic systems.Its primary interface is a graphical
:' block diagrammingtool and a customizableset of block libraries. It offers tight integration
) with the rest of the MATLAB environmentand can either drive MATLAB or be scripted
-t from it. SIMULINK is widely used in control theory and digital signal processingfor
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multidomainsimulationandModel-BasedD esign.
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Introduction Chapter1
-
-
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I.4.4 WTIAT IS A SIMI.TLINK FUNCTION?
- In a State flow chart, a SMULINK function is a graphical object that you fill with
-
-
SIMULINK blocks and call in the actionsof statesand transitions.This function provides an
r<l
- efficient model design and improvesreadability by minimizing graphical and nongraphical
t: objects.Tlpical applicationsinclude:
It,
f'\
It 3 Defining a function that requiresSIMULINK blocks, suchaslookup tables.
lt o Schedulingexecutionof multiple confrollers.
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control & Lead-Lag compensator

proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2
:
:
: 2"! INTRODUCTION
r
process
The pID algorithm is the most popular feedbackcontroller used within the
I

I
easily understood
I industries.It has been successfullyused for over 50 years. It is arobust
varied dynamic
! algorithm that can provide excellent control performance despite the
I of processplant.
characteristics
a
7

, Theselecturenotes:
;
,
. introducethe Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control algorithm.
a
)
the algorithm'
t
) " discussthe role of the threemodesof
{
, . highlight different algorithm structures'
a
t

a
nDiscussmethodsthathaveevolvedoverthe last 50 yearsasaidsin controlloop tuning.
-
,
of approachinga
t After completionof this sectionof the coursea studentshouldbe capable
knowledge to
, loop tuning problem in a competentand effrcient manner and have sufficient
a
effectivelytune a PID control algorithm'
t
{
rt' 2.2 DIFFERENET TWES OF CONTROLLER
,
rt
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t 2.2,I PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (GAIN)
{
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The first elementof pID controlto be developedis Proportionalcontrol. The equation
e
-ra is simple:
O
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- setpoint (directaction)tll
error: measurement
:
\ or

J (reverseaction)tu
error: setpoint - measurement
t an increasein
:t Note the action may be either direct or reverse.In a direct acting control loop
element.
theprocessmeasurementcausesan increasein the output to the final control
It ll
t TheproportionalonlYequationis:
t i
{ OrSput= gain x effor + bias
I
't (such as Foxboro
The bias is sometimesknown as the manualreset. Some contol systems
't products,use proportional band rather than gain. The proportional band and the
gain are
:t relatedby:
T
b
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 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

TED?O
Gain = Proportional Band

LEDTz
ProportionalBard = Effi-
2.1111

Gainis theratioof thechangein theoutputto thechangein theinput.

r{-:* Output clnqge

umn= hpfffi4ge 2.2t2r

Proportionalband is the amountthe input would have to changein order to causethe

outputto move from 0 to 100%(orvice versa)

With proportionalonly control the confroller will not bring the processmeasurernent
to the set point without a manual adjusfrnentto the bias (or manual reset) term of the
equation.In the early days of contrpl the operator,upon observingan offset in the control
oresetting"the controller (adjustingthe bias).
loop would correctthe offset by manually

2.2.2 INTEGRAL CONTROL (AIITOI\{ATIC RESET)

Rather than to require that the operator "manually reset" the control loop whenever
there was a load change control functions were developed to "automatically reset" the
conholler by adjustingthe bias term wheneverthere was an eror. This "automaticreset" is
alsoknown simply as "reset"or as "integral".

The most conrmonway to implementintegral mode in analogcontrollersis to use a positive

feedbackinto the output.

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Control& Lead-LagCompensator Chapter2

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- Figure2.1:
- Theequationfor PI controlis:
.D

-
= O ut:gx KrxJ e d t
23trJ
:
.D
out: gainx (error+ integral(error)dt)
a
a
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The amount of reset used is measuredin terms of "reset time" in minutes or its
ts - inverse,"reset rate" in repeatsper minute. The following test can be performed on a
1O

t controllerwhich is not connectedto theprocess:

a
o 1. An adjustablesignalis connected
to the input.
D
o 2.The outputis indicatedor recorded.
,
:t 3. With the controllermanualthe setpoint andthe input are setto the samevalue.
*t
lJ 4. The controlleris switchedto automatic.Becausethe error is zero, the output doesnot
{ change"
'3
= 5. The input to the controller is changedby a small amount.The output will move suddenly

-r{ dueto the gain"The output will continueto changeat a constantrate. The time is measured
D

\ from the time of the initial changeuntil the time that the instant changeis repeatedby the
f

J constantmovement.The repeattime, or resettime, is the time it takes for the reset effect to
f
t
t9
- t
o
 Proportional-lntegral-Derivative
Control& Lead-LagCompensator Chapter2

repeat (or move the output the sameamount as) the gain effect. Its inverse is reset rate,
measuredin repeatsper minute.

Reset effect
-
t Gain effect
t
t
i
t
t % +1 0
t Eror 0
-1 0

Time
(-Tt-*

1 "Repeat- time

Figure2.2:

2.2.3 DERMTI\m CONTROL (PRE-ACT (TM) OR RATE)

a The third term of PID control is derivative, also known as Pre-Act (trade mark of
t
q Taylor lnstrumentCompanies,now ABB), andrate.
'-
-l

- The derivative term looks at the rate of changeof the input and adjusts the output
t
,' basedon the rate of change"The derivativefunction can either use the time derivative of the
, error,which would include changesin the set point, or of the measurementonly, excluding
t setpointchanges.
t

Theequationfor the derivativecontribution(assumingderivativeon error) is:

O u t : g x Kd xd e /d t

Theamountof derivativeusedis measuredin minutesof derivative.To illustrate the meaning

of minutesof derivative,considerthe following op€Nlloop test:

1. Connect a signal generatorwith a ramp capability to the input of a controller. The

controller output is connectedto a recorder. Configure the controller with some gain, no
! reset,andno derivative.
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!l Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2
J

:
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2. With a constantoutput from the signal generatorand the controller in manual, adjust the
; setpoint to be equalto the input from the signalgenerator.
'f
! 3. Placethe controllerinto automaticmode.
:
: 4. Startthe ramp.
ra
t

? 5. Later stop the ramp.

t
i 6. Repeatthe abovestepswith somederivative.Comparethe hend recordsof the controller's
t
input and output.
:
,
On the following trendrecord
:
:
? D e rivat iv e eff e ct
% Ga.in effect
:
Ou p ut
:
.'

% +1 0
-
a O
Eror
? -1 0
?
O 4--ur----*
? De r iva .tive tir n e
J

a Figure2.3:
o
J Note that when the ramp is started,with no derivative (dashedline) the output ftImps
\
f
up dueto the changein input and the gain. Using derivative (solid line) the outputjumps up,
i"'t risesin a ramp, and thenjurnps down. The differencein time betweenthe solid line and the
ir
rt dashedline representsthe amountof derivative,in units of time (usuallyminutes).
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Proportional-lntegral-Derivative
Control& Lead-LagCompensator Chapter2

2.2.4 PUTTING IT TOGETHER: PID CONTROL

Combiningthe threeelements,gain,integral,and derivative,we have the equation:

o u t=c ( u+ RJ edt *o#)

2.4tt1

Where

G: Gain

R.: Reset(repeatsper minute)

D = Derivative(minutes)

Showngraphically:

Manual
H+set

Ouput

Figare2"4:

Note that in the equationthe gainis multiplied by all threeterms.This is important for
thePID equationto be ableto be tunedby anyof the standardtuningmethods.

12
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

2.3 LEAD.I,AG COMPENSATOR

A lead-lag compensatoris a component in a control systemthat improves an

undesirablefrequencyresponsein a feedbackand control sptem. It is a fundamentalbuilding
block in classicalcontol theory.
i
J

,' 2.3.1.APPLICATION
,'
t Lead-lag compensatorsinfluence disciplines as varied asrobotics,satellite control,
t automobilediagnostics,laserfrequencystabilization,and many more. They are an important
.t
buildingblock in analogcontrolsystems,andcanalsobe usedin digital control.
.t
Given a conkol plant, desired specificationscan be achieved using Compensators.I,
D, PI, PD, andPID, are optimizing controllerswhich are usedto improve systemparameters
suchas (steadystateerror, reducingresonantpe*, improve systan responseby reducingrise
time).All theseoperationscanbe doneby Compensators
aswell.

2.3.2THEORY
Both lead compensatorsand lag compensatorsinkoduce a pole-zero pair into the
openloop hansferfunction. The kansferfunction canbe written in the Laplacedomainas

v s -g
X .s-p 2.5121

whereXis the input to the compe,nsator,

Iis the output,s is the complexLaplace
transformvariable,z is the zero frequencyandp is the pole frequency.The pole and zero are
bottr tlpically negative. In a lead compensator,the pole is left of the zero in the complex
I z | > |p l.
plang | l. Ip l, while in a lag compensator
"
A lead-lag compensatorconsists of a lead compensatorcascadedwith a lag
compensator.The overall hansferfunction canbe written as

v (u-"t)(t-tr)
X (s -pr)(s -pz)' 2.6421

Typicallylpr | > lal>

lzzl> l,pzl, wherezl alndplarethe zeroandpole of the lead
compensatorandz2andp2are the zero and pole of the lag compensator.The lead
compensatorprovidesphaselead at high frequencies.This shifts the poles to the left, which

tt
13
t,
L.- '!

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L: Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2
t:
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and stability of the system.The lag compensatorprovides phase
enhancesthe responsiveness
l"
\.
l" lag at low frequencieswhich reducesthe steadystateerror.
f{
t- The preciselocationsof the poles and zerosdependon both the desiredcharacteristics
t: of the closedloop responseand the characteristicsof the systembeing controlled. However,
t-
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the pole and zero of the lag compensatorshouldbe closetogetherso asnot to causethe poles
L:
lL.-z
to shift right, which could causeinstability or slow convergence.Since their purpose is to
l.r
L
affectthe low frequencybehavior,they shouldbe nearthe origin.
lt
l,
-,
lr
L-
2.3.3 IMPLEMENTATION
L:
1-: Both analogand digital control systemsuse lead-lag compensators.The technology

f" used for the implonentation is different in each case,but the underlying principles are the
The transferfunction is rearrangedso that the output is expressedin terms of sums of
surme.
i>
E
L-.
l:
termsinvolving the input, andintegralsof the input andoutput. For example,

Y- x - (r,+ "r)f + "r"r$* fu,+nr)f-nrrr$. 2.7t21

lj In analog control systems,where integratorsare expe,lrsive,it is common to group

H termstogetherto minimize the numberof integratorsrequired:
L:
l- " lpr"rX - prpzr)) .
t: s\t' .5. ' l2.gt z l

E In analog control, the control signal is typically

elecfricalvoltageor current(althoughother signals such ashydraulic pressurecan be used).
an

In this c:tsea lead-lagcompensatorwill consistof a network of operationalamplifiers ("op-

ampsn)connectedasintegratorsandweighted adders.In digital control, the operations are
performednumerically.

The reasonfor expressingthe hansfer function as an integral equationis that differentiating

u
signalsampliff the noiseon the signal, since even very small amplitude noise has a high
derivative if its frequencyis high, while integrating a signal averagesout the noise. This
makesimplementationsin termsof integratorsthe most numerically stable.

E
E
H t!
f,
L4
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

2.3.4 INTUITT\IE EXPI.,AI{ATION

To begin designing a lead-lag compensator,an engineermust consider whether the

system needing correction can be classified as a lead-network, a lag-network, or a
combinationof the two: a lead-lagnetwork (hencethe name "lead-lag compensator").The
t

electrical responseof this network to an input signal is expressedby the network's Laplace-
J
domaintransfer function, a complexmathematicalfunction which itself can be expressedas
t
J one of two ways: as the Current-gainratio hansfer function or as the Voltage-gain ratio
t transferfunction. Rememberthat a complexfunction canbe in generalwritten asF(x) : A(x)
J
+ iB(x), wherel(.r) is the "Real Part" and^B(i)is the "Imaginary Part" of the single-variable
t
functionF(x).

The "phaseande" of the networkis the argumentofF(x); in the left half plane this
is tan- t(f(") / A(x\).If the phaseangleis negativefor all signalfrequenciesin the network
then the networkis classifiedas a "lag network".If the phaseangleis positive for all signal
frequenciesin the network then thp network is classified as a "lead network". If the total
network phase angle has a combination of positive and negative phase as a function of
\
t frequencythen it is a "lead-lag network". Dependingupon the nominal operation design
t
parametersof a system under an active feedback contol, a lag or lead network can
t
causeinstability andpoor speedandresponsetimes.
t

2.4 TIME RESPONSE SPECIF'ICATIONS

2.4.L OVERSHOOT (SIGNAL)

In signal processing,control theory,elechonics,and mathernatics,overshoot is whe,n
a signal or function exceedsits target. It arises especially in the step responseofband
limitedsystemssuch aslow-pass filters. It is often followed byringing, dd at times
conflatedwith this latter.

t
15
,
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

2.4.L.I DEFINITION

Ma:rimum Overshoot(signal)is defined in Katsuhiko Ogata'sDiscrete-time control

as "the mildmum peak value of the responsecurve measuredfrom the desired
systems
ir.

t: of the system.utu
response
l-
{
J 2.4.I.2 CONTROL TTIEORY
J
t
\ In control theory, overshootrefers to an oubut exceeding its final, steady-state
t
\i

t value.t2lFor a stepinput, the percentageovershoot(PO) is the ma>dmumvalue minus the step

h-
,t value divided by the step value. In the case of the unit step, the overshootis just the
tt
mildmum value of the ste,presponseminus one. Also see the definition of overshootin
:
an electronicscontext.

: Thepercentageovershootis a function of the Dampingratio ( andis given by

:t
!-
rrl.r":€ (?t%) 2"gt3t
-
t: D The dampingratio canalsobe foundby
lt
hr

lr
Lra
(lnPo)z
Ilh'
lt
l-
?rs+ (lnPO)? 2.10t31
lr
_l

L: 2.4.2 RISE TIME

S We have seenhow the RC circuit respondsto a step and how its behavior can be
b
r\ is that of kise time'.
by the time constant.A relatedmeruiurement
characterized
L:
l-t
i: Thedefinition of rise time is "that time takenfor a linear network'soutput to rise from 10% to
i-t
l--
90% of its final value when stimulatedby a stepinputu. This measurementis useful because l
l: it is easyto measureon an oscilloscopeandcanbe appliedto any linear network"

1-
l.

l{
l -l

L-
It
L-

tt
--
.J , 1 16
-, - -". -- (,
l^
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

-, For our exampleof 6': I secondandfor a 1 volt input stepwe havethe following:

1" 1
1

t I

t .6
t
at .7
t gt
6
ct .E
t
o
(J
6
.5
trL
(E
,L)
.4

.3

.2

.l

o o 1 -25 1.5 'r .75

Ti,ne (+ec)

Figure2.5:

In caseof the RC network,the l0% level is reachedafter0.105time constantsandthe

90% after2.302time constants;thusthe rise time is (2.302- 0.105)time constantswhich is
or 2.197s..Well call it2.2W for simplicity.
2.197time constants

In the frequency domain, the RC network offers no attenuation or loss at DC (0 Hz);

attenuationriseswith frequencyandis 3 dB at a frequencyof l(Zfnc) or llQff[=).

This frequencyis uzually referredto asthe 3 dB bandwidthor the half power bandwidth"

Now multiplying the 3 dB frequencyby the rise time:

I I QWW x 2.2W= 2.212W:0.35(dimensionless)

OR:

Bandwidthx RiseTime = 0.35

fl
L7
t,
!=-
L
L: Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2
L:
L: The figure 2.5 often is quotedwhen characterizingthe performanceof oscilloscopes.
l..r
i'-a A 'scopewhose bandwidthis 100MHz and whose step responseis that of a simple RC
l-
network will have an internal rise time of 3.5 ns. Therefore,a pulse with rise time shorter
L:
L: than this cannotbe measuredon sucha'scope and it is fruitless to attemptto measurethe rise
l-
lra
l_/
time of a pulse if it is shorterthan that of the 'scope's.Even signals whose rise time
l\-
approachesthat of the 'scopewill be distorted so that their measuredrise time is inqreased.
LJ
LJ The measuredrisetime is givenby:
Ll
L: ftmeasured: {(ttr"on")' + (rtporr")t}% 2 " 1 { 31
lj
LJ Rule:if you want to measurethe rise time of a pulse;know what the rise time of your'scope

L: is otherwiseyou may endup merelymeasuringthat of the 'scopeandnot that of the pulse.

5
ir 2.4.2.I APPLICATION

E
L:
]j
In control theory, rise time is commonly defined as the time for a waveform to go
of its final value.(Nise2008)
from l0% to 90o/o

The quadraticapproximationfor normalizedrise time for a 2d-order system,step response,

rj
rj no zerosis:

L: : 2"2sof- o.o7s(
t, "{do + 1.12 2.t2t3l
t:
L: where( is the dampingratio andcoois the natural frequencyof the network.

E However,the proper calculationfor rise time from 0 to 100%of an under-damped2nd-order

systemis:

1
t, 'c,.16:
{L -C2 2.t3t3l

H
H
where( is the dampingratio andco6is the naturalfrequencyof the network.

E
E
H tt
f,
18
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

R i s e Ti me D1oop

rT1--.

Pulse Dur ation

Baseline

dershoct
J
representative pu lse '*,rraveform

Figure2.6

2.4.3 SETTLING TIME

Settlingtime is the time requiredfor the responseto reachand stay within a specified
toleranceband (usually 2% and5%) of its final value. If the dampingratio,( is reducedfrom
the value of unity (correspondingto the critical damping case), the settling time also
The settlingtime for a tolerancebandof 2o/ois determinedby--
decreases.

Ts = alKa): 4T
Where,T {ime constant 2J4t41

(= dampingratio

co: naturalfrequency

But in caseof a tolerancebandwith 5Yo,theapproximatevalueof settlingtime is 3T.

#19
t
b
I
I

L Control& Lead-Lag Compensator

Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2
l-
l.'a
t

\a
t PUT:
La DIGITAL CHANGE
,
ANALOG STEP

-
;
UTPUT
4
t PONSE
D

,
D
)
, SETTLING TIME..-..-.->I
t

Figore2.7:

2.4.3.LAPPLICATION
Settlingtime dependson the systemresponseandtime constant.

The settling time for a 2nd ord€r, underdampd systemrespondingto a stepresponsecan be

( l UV
approximatedif ttredampingratio (

j ln (toleran ce fr action)
T*: -
= du*prttg ratio*natural frec1 2.15t51
J

Thus,settlingtime to within 2o/e0.02 is:-

lnf0.02) 3.9
r s" - - 1 ; ; - =T
(tJ", (U", 2.16rsl

J
)
tl
.-.,,l 2o
t,
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

2.4.4 STEAI}Y STATE ERROR

In fact,many control systemsare designedto have evenlower damping.Justification

of this lies in the fact that almostall practicalsystemspossessomecoulombfriction and
other nonlinearitiese.g. backlash,binding in gears,and linkagesetc. The presenceof
thesenonlinearitiestendsto introducesteadystateerror'

It indicatesthe error betweenthe actual output and desiredoutput as

t tendsto infinitv i.e.

**:f3lF c +>- " C q zJlA)

2.4.4.L APPLICATION

2.8
Figure

For the examplesystem,the controlled system- often referredto as the plant - is a first order
systemwith a transferfunction:

G(s): Cdc(st + l)

We will considera systemwith the following pammeters'

. G d .:l
. t:1
. K :1.
. Kn canbe setto variousvaluesin the rangeof 0 to 10,
. The input is always l.

Here is a simulationyou can run to check how this works. In this simulation,the
system being controlled (the plant) and the sensorhave the parametersshwon above.
You can adjustthe gain up or down by SYausing the "-rowu buttons at bottom riglrt. We
can also enter our own gain in the text bon and seethe respons€for the gain you enter'
L
q proportional- Integral-Derivative Control & Lead- Lag Compensator Chapter 2

:
a:

-:
= Enterthe OC
= Galnforthe
Systemin rke
= baxat fte righl.
= Then clic* this
= txrtlon.

t -
ls
t
Closedhop
tt ffi gain = o.s
lrr
, g
Cls$sdhsp
IO TimeSon*t =o.s s€c.
t,
,$

ts
'"t
ir
Figure2.9:

ir
H
L: 2.5 IMPORTA}'ICE OF PID A}ID LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR
f=
r\e
ld OVER TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS
l'-1
Ib-r
L: 2,5,L INTRODUCTION
ld
This tutorial will show the characteristicsof the eachof proportional (P), the integral (I)'
I_
IJ and the derivative (D) controls, and how to use them to obtain a desired response-In this
It
L
tutorial. we will considerthe following unlty feedbacksystem:
l!
lrt
L

t:
i-t

E
I
Ea

L;
l:
l^ Plant: A systemto be controlled

F
--

1:
l--
lr t
L
r---l

lr
 Control& Lead-LagCompensator
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative Chapter2

Controller: Provides the excitation for the plant; Designed to control the overall syatem
behavior.

2.5.2 TIIE THREE-TERIVI CONTROI LER

The hansferfunction of the PID contoller looks like the following:

ar K, , EosI+Kos+K,
.8.- +r
Ptr's ",
+l},^i

2Jg.2l

. Kp: Proportionalgain
. KI: Integralgain
. Kd: Derivativegain

First, lefs take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loopsystemusing
the schematicshown above. The variable (e) representsthe hacking eror, the difference
betweenthe desiredinput value (R) and the actual output (Y). This error signal (e) will be
sentto the PID confioller, and the conholler computesboth the derivative and the integral of
this error signal. The signal (u) just pastthe contoller is now equal to the proportional gain
(Kp) times the magnitudeof the errorplus the,integralgain (Ki) times the integral of the emor
plus the derivativegain (Kd) times the derivativeofthe eror.

u : K'B+Krfedt K"#
- 2.lgt2l

This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and the new output (Y) will be obtained.This new
output(Y) will be sentback to the sensoragainto find the new error signal (e). The controller
takesthis new error signal and computesits derivative and its integral again; This process
goeson andon.

tl
23
t,
Proportional-lntegral-Derivative
Control& Lead-Lag Compensator Chapter2

2.5.3 TrrE CTTARACTERTSTICSOF p, I, AIYD D

CONTROLLERS
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will
reduce,but never eliminate, the steady-stateerror. An integral contol (Ki) will have the
effect of eliminating the steady-stateeror, but it may make the transientresponseworse. A
derivative conffol (Kd) will have the effect of increasingthe stabilityof the system,reducing
the overshoot,and improving the hansientresponse.Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd,
andKi on a closedJoopsystemare summarizedin the table shownbelow.

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OYERSIIOOT SETTLING TIME S-SER,ROR

Kp Decrease lncrease Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd SmallChange Decrease Decrease Small Change

. Table2.1

Note that thesecorrelationsmaj not be exactly accurate,becauseKp, Ki, and Kd are

dependeirtof eachother. In fact, changingone of thesevariablescan changethe effect of the
other two. For this reason, the table should only be used as a reference when we are
determiningthe valuesfor Ki, Kp andKd.

,r
_, _ -- 124 +, ,
II
tt
 .-.

CHAPTER J

MATLAB
PROGRAMING
&
SIMULINKMODEL
OF ARVIATURE
CONTROLLE,DDC
MOTOR
 MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The servo motor is actually an assenrblyof four things: a normal DC motor, a gear
reductionunit, a position-sensingdevice(usually a potentiomsfsl-4 volume conhol knob),
and a control circuit. Dc servo motors are normally used as prime movers in computers,
numerically conholled machinery, or other applications where starts and stops are made
quickly and accurately.

In an armature controlled DC motor, the armature inductance is negligibly small

comparedto armatureresistance.So, we can assumethat the ftansfer function of the dc
servomotoris-

G(s)=o* /Ea(s):(Kt/Ra*Jy[S^2+(B/3f+Kb*Kt/Ra*J)S] 3.1t61

Where,

J:Total momentof Inertia of the rotor togetherwith that of the reflected load on the
rotor side.

B=Total viscousconstant.

KFMotor torqueconstant.

Kb:Motor back EMF constant.

Ra=Armatureresistance.

La:Armature inductance"

,
I
J
tt
26
1'
 MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3

3.2 PARAMETERS USED IN 1T{ATI,AB OPERATION

Let us assumethe parametersfor position control system-

J: 5.0*10 - 4kgtn2/sec2.

B 6.0*10^-3 N-m/sec.
at

t Kt 0.085N-m.
t
t Kb 0.lV/rad/sec.

Ra 5Cr
La negligible.

3.3 PROGRAMING FOR STEP RESPONSEOF OPEN LOOP

SYSTEM:
J:5.0e-4;B:6.0e-3'Ke0.085
;Kb=0.1;
Ra=5;
num:[(Kt)/(Ra*J)]
den:[ ((B/J)+(Kb*Kt/(Ra*J)) 0]
gnf(num,den)
F0:0.01:2
step(g,t)

Here,'num' rqrresentsthe numeratorof the fransferfirnction.

'den' representsthe denominatorof the transferfunction.
't' givesthe time period over which the responseis requiredto be computed.
'step(g,t) will plot the stepresponse
of the openloop system.

t
27
a
z
f.-
MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3

3.3.1 RESI,]LT

lj

H
lj
IJ
u

E
E Figure3.1

The responseof the motor position will found to grow continuouslywhen the unit
ste,pvoltageis appliedto the armatureterminals.The open loop systemis acting as a pure
integratorso there is a needfor feedbackthat will stabilize the systemfor a stepinput. The
closedloop fransferfunction of the systemwith unit feedbackcanbe obtained-
h:1
gtb=feedback(g,h);
step(gtb,t)
MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3

3.4 PROGRAMING FOR STEP RESPONSE OF CLOSED LOOP

SYSTEM

i I=5 . 0e - 4 ; 8=6 . 0e-3 ;K t=0 . 08 5 ; K b = 0 . 1 ;

Ra=5,'
num= [ (Xt1 / (Ra*,J) ]
d.en =[1 ( (B /,]) + (K b*K t) / (Ra * ' J ) ) 0 l

9=tf (num, den)

t= 0:0.01:2
h =1 ;
gfb=f eedback (9, h)
step ( gfb, t)

Hetre,'num' rqlresentsthe numeratorof the transferfunction.

'den' representsthe denominatorof the transferfunction.
ot' givesthe time periodover'whichthe responseis requiredto be computed.

'step(gfb,t)will plot the stepresponseof the closedloop systern.

t\
29
t,
2
a
:
MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3
:
.-
e 3.4.I.RESULT
.a

a
!
:
.-

,
D
t
D
,
t
t
{
rq
a,
i{

=
!
-t
-:
,
t
Figure3.2
,
r.-

t
In this aboveprograming,we usea feedbackwhosegain is I and it is known asunit
, feedback.Theopenloop systemactslike anintegrator.So this feedbackmakesthe openloop
t systeminto a closeloop systernwhich will stabilizethe system.The step responseof the
t
aboveclosedloop systemis shownin thenextpage.
t
:r
Though we use a closed loop systern,the responsewhich is obtained from the
-t
! previousplot is not desirable.Here, we will designa position control systernwith unity
=t
feedback.The designspecificationsfor a stableanddesiredsysternareasfollows.
-a
I 1. Steadystateerrorin angularposition,0ess:0.
F
I
l{ 2. Settlingtime,ts:0.2 sec.
t-
L{
I J
3. Overshootmustbe equalor lessthan5%.
I
li.a
l- From the closed loop response we find that the settling time is
L.-
is much morethan the desiredvalue of 0.2 sec,eventhoughthe
1.55(approximately),which
L:
lr
overshootis O.Sincethe rising time is muchhigh, so to reduceit we usedthe PID controtler"
It is to be mentionedthat in majority casesa PI or PD controllermay be adequate& there
lr
t,D

It t30
T
I'
 MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3

t
p may not be needto usethe PID controller.However,full PID controllermay be designedfor
p better performance.In order to improve the settling time, we chooseanotherresponseas
p follows.
p
p
t 3.5 PROGRAMING FOR STEP RESPONSE OF A CLOSED
)
LOOP SYSTEM USING PID CONTROLI;ER
)
)
) iI=5. 0e-4 ;B=5. 0e-3 ;Kt=0. 69$ ;Kb=0 - L ;
) Ra=5;
b num=[ (Kt) / (Ra*iI) ]
) den= [1 ( (B/.]) + (Kb*Kt) / (Ra*,J) ) 0l
?
p KP=3oo
tKd=O.5
p tKi=O.01
t nr:m1= tKpl
p *num1 = [Kd Kp]
t *num1 [Kd Kp Ki]
t denl= t1l
?
*den= t1 0l
D
num2= conv(numl-,num)
D
den2= conv(den1 ,den)
?
? g1=tf (num2 , den2 )

? t= 0:0 .005:1-

? 92=feedback (91, 1 )
? step (92, t)
?
?
't
a
-t
!t
b
it
i-t
i't
1..
l-

!-r
It
tsr
lr
lr
1.\
b tt

t:
tr
I
t,
31
>\
ar-

a
1! MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3
:
{ J 3.5.1"RESI,]LT
{U

t
a
t
t
?

?
?
?
?
t
a
:t
?
.t
5
{
t
-t
?
ta Figure3.3

-
-
E-
J
From the previousclosedloop responsewe find that the settling time is 0.502 sec,
:1
which is not desirablevalue.It is morethanthe desiredvalue of 0.2 sec"Full PID controller
:3
may be designedby trial and errorprocedure.Now changingthe valuesof Ki, Kd & Kp we
iD
i-r getanotherclosedloop responseasfollows.
i"
f-t
it
it
L-O
L
L
LI
L:
L:
L:
L:
L

t-

l- tl
It 32
TJ
It
2
a
: MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3
:
: 3.6 PROGRAMING FOR STEP RESPONSE OF CLOSED
: LOOP SYSTEM:
!
a
t ;Kb:0"1;
J:5.0e-4;B:6.0e-3'KF0.085
{ Ra:5;
-
-J num:[(Kt)/(Ra*J)]
:
den:[l ((B/J)+(Kb*Kt)/(Ra*J))0]
D
Knl
t
? Kd:20
? %Ki=0.01
J %numl: [Kp]
t numl : [Kd Kp]
?
? %onuml[Kd Kp Ki]
t 7odenl:[]
t denl: [l 0]
{
num2: conv(num1,num)
{
den}: conv(denl,den)
-t
? gl:t(num2derZ)
? F 0:0.01:2
-t #=feedback(g1,1)
? step(g2,t)
?
?
?
?
:'
!
a
-t
5

-{
a
€
=
a:

t
t
t
t) 33
I t
l.
t
t
t MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3
t
t 3.6.1 RESLILT
t
t
t
t
t
t
I
I
I
t
t
)
t
t
,
t
t
)
t
t
I
I
Figure3.4
t
t From the previousclosedloop response,we find that the settlingtime is 0.433 sec,
t which is undesirablevalue. In a control systemresponse,the time constantis directly related
t to the settlingtime. A decreasein the value of the time constantof a control systemindicates
t thatthe steadystatereachesearlier. Therefore,lower the time constanti.e. lower the settling
t
t time fasteris the time responseof a control system.So, we choosethe value of Kp, Kd and
t Ki againand createanotherresponseusing PID controller for the optimal output responseand
a the settling.The new responseis shownbelow.
t
t
a
a
a
t
{
{
-
J

-
D
7 , - ----"--{
t
34
a
zt
l-; MATLABPrograming& SIMULINKmodelof armaturecontrolledDCmotor Chapter3
{
.'
3.7 PROGRAMING FOR STEP RESPONSE OF A CLOSED
= LOOP SYSTEUI USING PID CONTROLLER:
{
!
! J=5. 0e-4; B=5 . 0e-3;Kt=0 " 085;Kb=O.1;
'3 Ra=5;
r.a
T
num= [ (Ktr) / (Ra*,J) ]
T
den= [1 ( (B/\T)+ (I{b*Kt) / (Ra*J) ) 0]
f
Kp=350
it
\q Kd=50
rt
Ki=300
It
\* tnuml= [Kp]
lf tnuml = [Kd Kp]
{
I' numl = [Kd Kp Ki]
it tdenl=
i-t
I
tll
S denl= tl- 0I
num2= conv(num1 ,num)
it
sl- den2= conv(den1 ,den)
g1=tf (num2, den2 )
it
i-3 t= 0 :0 .01-:2

It 92=feedback(91, 1 )
f step (92, t)
<
L-
t

|J
ie
It
i3
i3
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error detector using special 360o revolution servo potentiometers,a tachogeneratorfor
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q, LINEAR SYSTEMSIMULATOR,thepositioncontrol systemnaturallyconsistsof non-ideal
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t formationg and terrain. The radar dish, or antenn4 transmits pulses of radio waves or
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t eventualaim is to have fully automatichacking of tho target and aiming of the guns.
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I The biggostsontrol systemrequirernentat the beginningof the war was the provision
t of a fast, accurate,high powered position control system that can be used to move guns,
t searchlightsand radar antennae.To meet these requirementtechniquesfor the analysis and
t design of contuol systemhas to be refined and developed,and a whole range of imprcved
tp components.-motors, amplifiers, transducer has to be developed. There is also other
problems:the designof fitters to smooth signalsobtain from manualtracking and radars,the

' design of circuits to give dre best estimateof the ftturc position of a targeq techniquesfor
analysis of servomechanismswith pulsed data and for the design of system with optimum
responsewith respect to some dynamic performancecriteria in the presenceof noise and
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6.1 CONCLUSION
The processeswhich are taken in this report for MATLAB programing are not
completelyoptimum. Someapproxirnationare taken to completethe report and the value of
Kp,Kd and Ki are chosenby hial and error method.Throug[r,the results which are obtained
from the responsesarein the desirablerange.

In the first MATLAB programingwe Choosean openloop transfer function and

obtainits stepresponse.From the response,it is clear that the systemis not stable.To make
the systemstable, in the next MATLAB programing. We use a unity feedback and get a
closedloop transfer function. In this response,we find that the responsieis desirablebut the
responsepararneterslike, settling timq overshootetc. are not in the desirablerange.To take
this pararnetersinto desirablerange,we usePID conholler and choosedifferent valuesof Kp,
Kd, andKi. It is to be mentionedthat in majority cff;esa PI or PD controller may be adequate
andthreemay not be needto usethe PID controller. However,full PID controller is designed
forcompleteprotectionof the response.

Before completingthe project, Wehavejust the bookish knowledge on the MATLAB

programing.But, it becomesmoreknowledgeableto us after the completionof this project.

At last, we can concludethat our project "positional control-design and

analysis" will be very mucheffectiveovor the vast field of radarand satellitepositioning
andstabilizationof anykind of system

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 6. REFERENCES
1. Equations:

t 1I PID controllerWikipedia. " lYikipedia,thefree encyclopedia"

t2l PID Tutorial,"TheUniversityof Michigan,l8l7".

[3] Control Theoryby Katsihuko Ogat4"Moderncontrol Engineering"

control system Engineering",5s Edition 2007New age

[4] I.J.Nagrath,M.Gopal,"
InternationalFublisher
E
E
l:
tsl Nise,N. "Control Engineering,"3dEd., 2000,JohnWiley & Sons.
Systems

tr t6l Shooter,S. andMcNeill, M. JulS 2002,"'Interdisciplanarycollaborative

Leaming in Mechatronicsat Buclotell Universi4r,"Journalof Engineering
E Education.
l. Edition,!*rannapublishers.
l: 2. B.S.Manke,"Linear Contro!Systemu,4h
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