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Alyssa Mason

Dr. David Krenz

ENG 495

April 26, 2011

Sinking Our Teeth into the Vampire: The Portrayal of the Literary Vampire in Fiction

Our culture is completely infatuated with vampires. They appear in movies,

television shows, musicals, novels, and even on cereal boxes. Vampires themselves have

become mythical celebrities. One has to wonder where this sensationalized trend came

from.

Originally part of folkloric myths, the vampire made its way into fictional

literature. This trend began in 1819 with John Polidori’s The Vampyre, which created an

avalanche of other vampire novels, including Carmilla (1872), Dracula (1897), Interview

with the Vampire (1976), and Twilight (2005). Many other novels were written in

between the publications of these novels. However, these selections are the most widely

read and offer the audience a glimpse of how the vampire has changed throughout the

centuries. The trend for authors to write about vampires has been so overwhelming that

“over one thousand vampire novels were published in the 20th century [alone]…”

(Riccardo 17).

Many questions remain as to the origins of the vampire in fictional literature. How

has the image and portrayal of vampires in previous and current fictional literature

evolved over the centuries, and how has the changing culture affected this evolution? By

examining a genealogy of the five most influential vampire novels, one will be able to

assess that the portrayal of vampires in fictional literature has changed throughout the
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centuries due to the shifting cultural norms, making them less monstrous in appearance

and personality.

The origins and history of the motif of vampires are clouded in mystery and

superstitious folklore. Although there has been much debate, the earliest mention of

vampires occurred in Poland, Russia, Europe, and Macedonia, not Hungary or

Transylvania, which have been commonly believed to be the homeland of vampires

(Dundes 9). In fact, “The first appearance of the word ‘vampir’ in Hungarian post-dates

the first use of the term in most Western languages by more than a century” (Wilson

579). There are many different meanings and understandings of the etymology of the

word “vampire.” Some scholars believe it comes from the Turkish word for “witch,”

while others think it derives from the Greek verb “to drink.” The third and most common

belief is that it comes from the Serbian word “bamiiup,” which is a parallel word for the

term “vampire” (Dundes 4). However, a definition is needed in order to better understand

the origins of vampires. In their simplest form, a vampire is a “living corpse or soulless

body that emerges from its grave and drinks the blood of the living” (Dundes 4).

Vampires differ from ghosts because vampires have physical bodies; they are different

from zombies because vampires need human blood to survive.

According to one source, the term “vampire” was first used in England in Paul

Ricaut’s State of the Greek and American Churches, written in 1679. He described a

vampire as: “a pretended demon, said to delight in sucking human blood, and to animate

the bodies of dead persons, which when dug up, are said to be found florid and full of

blood” (Wilson 580). In the years 1693 and 1694, there were reported cases of vampirism

in Poland and Russia (Dundes 5). People reported seeing bodies of deceased people
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walking the earth and tormenting their families. This vampire epidemic caused hysteria in

the small villages, leading many to hunt and kill the supposed vampires. The term

“vampir” finally appeared in Hungary in 1786 in the article Nyelvtudomanyi Ertekletek

(Dundes 8).

In the seventeenth century, the folkloric vampire was a feared creature that

villages rallied to eliminate from their towns. They feared that the vampires would kill

every villager, leaving their towns barren. One account of this epidemic described it,

saying, “The advent of vampire stories in modern popular culture has its roots both in the

recovery of traditional folklore, which began in the eighteenth century, and paradoxically,

in the rise of the scientific investigation of strange phenomenon. From the late

seventeenth to the mid-eighteenth century, interest in reports of real vampires led to an

inquiry into their existence in Germany that is sometimes called ‘The Great Vampire

Debate” (Day 13). Due to the supposed vampiric epidemics that were occurring at this

time and the folkloric myths that followed, an interest in vampires began, causing many

people to question the authenticity of the folkloric creature. With this in consideration,

one can assess that:

The vampire is one of the most fascinating but at the same time fearsome of all

the creatures of folklore. Most people are familiar with the vampire through

literary novels and short stories as well as a host of films featuring this frightening

and loathsome revenant. But the fact is that the vampire did not originate in

literature or popular culture. Literary and motion picture vampires are secondary,

deriving from a long history of traditional legends found especially prominently

in Eastern Europe. It is traditional legends or folklore of the vampire which are

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the basic source of the endless series of literary and film depictions of this

representation of the “living dead.” (Dundes vii)

The first reference of vampires occurs in Slavic superstitions, which gained

popularity in the West (Dundes 9). Nevertheless, in vampiric folklore, each country had

their own superstitions and descriptions of vampires, whether in Europe, China, Africa,

or Greece. In fact, “There are [as] many different variations of the appearance of the

folkloristic vampire as there are European countries of origin” (Phillips-Summers 10).

Some countries described vampires as having hairy, dry bodies and red faces, while

others were bald, had hooves and a tail (Dundes 21). However, the description that is

most known is: that, “The typical Eastern European vampire was a filthy, shambling

peasant who returned from the grave to terrorize and prey upon his family” (Guiley, “The

Complete Vampire” 67).

People who were evil in life or had died unnaturally (such as suicide) were

believed to become vampires. Some of the wives’ tales that told of people turning into

vampires were meant to create respect for the dead (Dundes 48). Furthermore, “In

Bulgaria it was believed that the spirits of the dead set out on their journey forty days

after death, and joined new life” (Phillips-Summers 78). If the burial was not performed

correctly, however, the soul was unable to depart to the next world and was left to linger

on Earth as a soulless vampire.

Slavic folklore believed vampires to be extremely sexual beings. In fact, the myth

said that, “The first thing a vampire does upon rising from the grave is to return to his

widow. Each night he comes to her in order to have sexual intercourse with her… the

widows would become pregnant…the resulting child was called a dhampir and was
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thought to have the ability to identify and eliminate vampires” (Phillips-Summers 102).

This notion of a vampire being a sexual creature has remained part of the vampire’s

attributes, even in today’s modern portrayal, combining the supernatural with the sexual.

Michael Bell, a folklorist, said, “What better food for the imagination than a creature that

incorporates sex, blood, violence, shapeshifting, superhuman power, and eternal life?”

(Jenkins 8).

However, vampires have gone through such an evolution that most of their

folkloric origins are difficult to find in modern literature. One scholar said that, “The only

thing the literary vampire and the ancient popular vampire had in common was their long

white teeth…” (Phillips-Summers 10).

There are explanations for why people believed vampirism to be a real problem.

In the seventeenth century, there was a lack of medical knowledge about how bodies

decomposed, which the people of this era attributed to vampirism. In fact, many of the

symptoms of vampirism were results of natural causes. For instance, in some areas, the

soil contained salt-sulphur, which made the deceased’s blood coagulate and swell, not

allowing it to properly decompose (Dundes 63). Thus, when the buried body swelled, it

would push the body towards the surface, making it seem that he or she was rising from

the grave. This was the case among the lower class, since they could not always be buried

properly or very deeply into the ground, since it was more expensive. Thus, “Vampirism

is a phenomenon of the villages, not of the cities, of the lower class, not the upper”

(Dundes 114). The townspeople, upon witnessing this strange occurrence, declared these

deceased people to be vampires and blamed them for the atrocities that were happening in

the town.
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Another explanation for vampirism also pertains to the lack of medical knowledge

that was had at the time. Doctors did not have an accurate method of assessing whether

someone was dead. Thus, some people were deemed dead and buried, although they were

still alive. Similarly, vampirism could have been a result of rabies, diseases, or mental

illnesses, because there was no knowledge of what many of these diseases were and their

symptoms.

Following the vampire epidemics, “It took centuries for this vampire image to

evolve. Folkloric roots are deep and various, with bloodsucking revenants, demons, or

shape-shifters appearing in almost every culture. In the late eighteenth century, the

vampire of legend crossed over into romantic literature” (Penzler xi). However, “The

precise entry of the vampire motif into fiction is something one is not able to establish

with any accuracy, for the simple reason that it is impossible to tell whether vampire tales

in classical literature are fables or are meant to be taken literally” (Frost 36). There is no

clear distinction of whether a writer truly believed vampirism to be a problematic

epidemic, or if he was writing about the fictitious sensationalized vampire. For example,

in Heinrich August Ossenfelder’s poem, “Der Vampyr,” written in 1748, it is unclear

whether the author was recalling details from the recent vampire epidemics, or if he was

turning the folklore into a fictional account. The rumor of vampires traveled across the

world and ignited much fear and interest into the lives of many.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first reference to the term

“vampire” in the English language occurred in 1734 in the anonymously written Travels

of 3 English Gentlemen from Venice to Hamburg, Being the Grand Tour of Germany in

the Year 1734. This piece of non-fiction was written almost one century before the
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vampire motif entered into fictional novels (Senf, “The Vampire” 22). The book

referenced vampires, describing them as:

Supposed…bodies of decreased [sic] persons, animated by evil spirits, which

come out of the graves, in the night time, suck the blood of many of the living,

and thereby destroy them… The vampires…rush upon people sleeping in their

beds, suck out all their blood and destroy them…being dug out of the graves,

appear in all parts, as the nostrils, cheeks, breast, mouth, etc. turgid and full of

blood…Those who are destroyed by them, after their death, become vampires…

(Dundes 7).

This piece of non-fiction writing was still describing the folkloric superstition of the

vampire that had been causing fear among townspeople, instead of incorporating the

horrifying creature into a fictional tale.

European writers of the eighteenth century popularized gothic and horror novels,

escaping from the realist movement and incorporating more emotions and supernatural

elements into their stories. Authors also incorporated key elements such as: physical and

emotional violence, plots that relied on suspense, secluded settings, moral dilemmas and

physical decay, and fights between good and evil. These elements were used to frighten

and excite readers, both men and women who wished to escape their mundane everyday

lives. Authors also started to incorporate vampires into their stories and poems, to further

frighten the audience. During the gothic era, “This hunger for the numinous the vampire

has satisfied better than any other figure from the Victorian horror series precisely

because his (or her) combination of all-consuming eroticism and supernatural terror
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makes the creature a nearly perfect dramatic embodiment of the darkly numinous—

fascinating yet dreadful, deeply attractive yet utterly terrifying” (Heldreth 27).

Thus, “the permanent introduction of the vampire motif into European literature

came in the eighteenth century [with] Heinrich Ossenfelder’s ‘Der Vampyre’,” which

was written in 1748 and was the first vampire poem (Frost 36). The poem describes a

male vampire preying upon and drinking the blood of a young woman as she sleeps.

Following the publication of Ossenfelder’s poem, “A few decades later the theme

attracted the attention of the literati with the publication of two seminal ballads, Burger’s

‘Lenore’ (1773) and Goethe’s ‘The Bride of Corinth’ (1797)” (Frost 37). Gottfried

Burger was a German poet and founder of the Romantic movement in Germany (Bunson

36).

It should be noted that, “At the end of the century, the second generation of

English Romanticism was born. It displayed a great deal of interest in the supernatural…

The vampire now became a fable and a symbol” (Phillips-Summers 68). Vampires now

came to represent repressed sexuality, even though the vampire was still more terrifying

than attractive. Readers were frightened by the vampire’s gruesome actions, but were

strangely attracted to their mysteriousness. This feature of the vampire’s sexuality

progresses throughout the following novels.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote “The Bride of Corinth” in 1797 and “the

work made vampires a legitimate and respected subject for literary treatment” (Bunson

109). The poem focuses on a corpse bride who is seeking her freedom. She is described

as having “hands so white,” “pallid lips,” and being “as cold as ice, though white as

snow” (Penzler 312-313). The bride would visit her fiancé each night and have “the life-
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blood of his heart to drink” (Penzler 314). After Goethe’s portrayal, “The vampire

became a metaphor for lost passion, when it was described as a young man or woman

who returned from the world of the dead” (Phillips-Summers 68). The vampire’s cold,

lifeless body is reminiscent of the life and love that is lost now that they are dead.

Following the publications of these early vampire poems, “By the beginning of

the nineteenth century, interest in the [vampire] theme had spread to England, where, as

on the continent, it initially found expression in poetry. Works by major poets of the

period include…Coleridge’s ‘Christabel’ and Keat’s ‘Lamia’” (Frost 37). Samuel Taylor

Coleridge’s “Christabel”, a two-part poem written in 1797, has similarities to Burger’s

“Lenore,” because both have young girls whose energy is taken from another woman,

who get stronger at night (Bunson 50). The story focuses on a young girl, Christabel, who

meets a lovely woman named Geraldine in the forest behind her secluded castle. They

spend the night together in Christabel’s room and she wakes up in the morning feeling

extremely tired and confused. There are many similarities between this poem and

Sheridan Le Fanu’s novel, “Carmilla (1872),” which will be discussed later. Geraldine is

described as having skin that “is very white, her eyes are bright, she has ‘gems entangled

in her hair.’ She is described as ‘tall,’ ‘stately,’ and ‘lofty’… Geraldine’s voice is faint

and sweet” (Nethercot 35). Whereas the vampire originally had dry, red skin, the vampire

now is portrayed, and will be portrayed from here on, with pale, white skin. It is in this

poem that the image of the vampire begins to appear more beautiful and loses its folkloric

peasant appeal.

Continuing in its gothic tradition, “The appeal of the vampire as a figure of

mystery and intrigue really took off in the Victorian era, when tuberculosis was making
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real-life poets, such as Keats, look deathly pale and die young” (Taylor 80). His 1819

poem “Lamia” is based on the story of Menippus, who was a pupil of Apollonius. He was

rescued from a “lamia,” which is a fatally attractive female vampire.

Similar to its folkloric roots, the vampire continued to be portrayed as a sexual

creature that feasted on human blood. This erotic subject matter was revolutionary for its

time. Women were beginning to read gothic fiction, which up until then had primarily

been read by men due to the gruesome nature of the novels. Furthermore, at this time,

“Victorian women were expected to be demure, fragile, dependent on men… not in the

least interested in anything to do with physical love… Their thoughts instead turned

inward to fantasy, and the dark, brooding vampire easily became the focus of many

women’s dreams” (Taylor 80). As women read these stories, they were able to escape

from their secluded and restrained lives and imagine being free to love someone in a

passionate way, one that was taboo at the time.

During the summer of 1816, Lord Byron, along with his physician-friend John

Polidori, vacationed in Lake Geneva, Switzerland. There, they were visited by Percy

Bysshe Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, and Claire Clairmont. The group would

tell each other ghost stories at night. This inspired the idea for Polidori to write a vampire

story entitled The Vampyre (Polidori vii-viii).

The Vampyre’s origins are clouded in controversy. Some scholars believe that

Lord Byron wrote the novel and that Polidori simply plagiarized it, while others believe

that Byron assisted Polidori in the writing process. Either way, The Vampyre, which was

the very first vampire novel published in the English language, appeared in The New

Monthly Magazine on April 1, 1819 and was announced as being “A Tale by Lord
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Byron” (Copper 58). Following its publication, “The story was an immediate popular

success, partly because of the Byron attribution and partly because it exploited the gothic

horror predilections of the public” (Polidori vii). This sensational novel made Polidori “a

major contributor to the image of the vampire, as it evolved in nineteenth century

literature, for The Vampyre gave shape to the appearance, nature, and concept for the

literary undead” (Bunson 37). Due to Polidori’s influence, the image of the vampire

changed from a decrepit peasant to an immortal aristocrat, which has continued

throughout subsequent novels.

In summary, “The Vampyre [is] about the cold, aristocratic but mesmerizing Lord

Ruthven, loosely based on Byron himself, who vampirizes women of blood and men of

their money” (Guiley, “The Encyclopedia” 8). In the story, which is set during the

nineteenth century, a young man named Aubrey befriends Lord Ruthven, an aristocrat,

and they travel together. During their time abroad, Aubrey begins to wonder if Ruthven is

supernatural, because he never loses at gambling and get anything he wants. Women are

naturally attracted and throw themselves at him. Ruthven seduces young women in each

city, which makes Aubrey feel uneasy. The story describes Ruthven, saying, “He knew so

well how to use the serpent’s art, or such was the will of fate, that he gained her

affections” (Polidori 22). Aubrey’s guardians beg him to come home because they feel

Ruthven is evil and has “irresistible powers of seduction” (Polidori 6). So, they part

company.

Aubrey goes to Greece, where he befriends a beautiful girl names Ianthe. She tells

him old wives’ tales about vampires who would prey on innocent young women and

describes their appearance. It is at this time that Aubrey suspects that Ruthven may be a
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vampire, however, Aubrey still does not believe in vampires. Ianthe is later bitten by a

vampire. He notes that, “upon her neck and breast was blood, and upon her throat were

the marks of teeth having opened the vein” (Polidori 11-12). After this incident, Aubrey

is heartbroken and coincidentally runs into Ruthven, who is then accidentally shot by

robbers. Before he dies, Ruthven makes Aubrey swear that for a year and a day he will

tell no one that he was a vampire.

Aubrey returns home to his eighteen-year-old sister, who is being introduced to

society. However, Aubrey is haunted by images of Lord Ruthven and locks himself away

for a year, hardly speaking to anyone. Finally, the day before his oath is to be broken, he

finds out that his sister is to be married the next day, which brightens Aubrey’s mood.

However, when he congratulates his sister, she shows him a picture of her fiancé in her

locket—it is Lord Ruthven! Aubrey begs her to delay the wedding one day so that his

oath can be broken, but everyone still believes him to be crazy. He ends up dying that

night from a broken vessel; Aubrey’s sister marries Ruthven and is turned into a vampire.

The novel focuses more on Aubrey and his realization of vampires rather than on

Lord Ruthven and his twisted plot of murder and seduction. It should be noted that, “The

older stories of vampirism have a certain melancholy dignity by comparison and do not

present this grim tradition as something for trendy kicks” (Shepard 13). In fact, as can be

seen in The Vampyre, “The first vampire story in English fiction told less about ghoulish

rituals of blood-sucking and heart-staking” (Skarda 249).

Polidori changed the image of the vampire from a red-faced peasant, to a pale-

skinned aristocrat. Thus, “Although Polidori’s creation has few of the dramatic strengths

and weaknesses now associated with the vampire, his story transformed the vampire from
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a moldering peasant wrapped in its burial shroud, to a foreign, sinister vampiric

nobleman who interacts with genteel society” (Guiley, “The Encyclopedia” 8). This

aristocratic image of the vampire brought him out of the world of folklore and into the

modern world. In fact, “Polidori’s story draws on so few of the vampiric characteristics

or rituals mentioned, paraphrased, borrowed, or quoted that the tale seems to establish its

own tradition, one not distinct from vampirism but obscured by now familiar blood

images” (Skarda 259).

While The Vampyre is loosely based on the beliefs of folklore, Polidori added his

own take on the horror legend. One scholar said that “Polidori’s vampire, Lord Ruthven,

is definitely modeled on the vampire from folklore, a fact made obvious by a lengthy

introduction that explains that the belief in vampires is ‘very general in the East,’ while it

has resulted in many wonderful stories…” (Senf, “The Vampire” 34). Essentially, Lord

Ruthven plays on the gothic and romantic image, which incorporate humanistic qualities

into the folkloric story, such as making the vampire a noble aristocrat who is similar to

the story’s readers. Therefore, “Looking closely at The Vampyre reveals how quickly

writers transformed the merely brutish character from folklore into a complex and

interesting literary character” (Senf, “The Vampire”, 39). Alan Ryan said it best when he

explained:

The vampire, everyone knew, was monstrously evil and hideously ugly, though

he bore a human form… The human form may be the key to understanding the

‘popularity’ of vampires, both in the nineteenth century and now their form,

though recognizably human, is seen in grotesquely distorted version, making them

all the more horrible in physical features, they are repulsive: long nails that curve
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like claws; skin showing a deathly pallor, except when it is flushed with blood

after feeding; eyes often described as ‘dead,’ and rat-like fangs designed for

attack. (xiv)

As mentioned earlier, Polidori added his own additions to the fictional vampire’s

characteristics. These elements are explained, saying:

The Vampyre established important elements of vampire fiction that became more

embedded in subsequent creations… The notable elements [are]: The vampire is

the reanimated dead, the vampire is not a creature of the past, but lives in the

present society, passing undetected among his victims, the vampire is not a

peasant, but is a wealthy aristocrat who has the freedom to travel, the vampire is

brooding, mysterious, dark, and fatally seductive—but is amoral in that he cares

not about the destruction and ruination of others, the vampire does not attack

simply for food; there is an erotic element between the vampire and his victim.

(Guiley, “The Encyclopedia” 301)

The novel describes Lord Ruthven as being “a beguiling lady-killer who insinuates

himself into victims’ lives through the powers of persuasion and seduction” (Butler 2).

There is an erotic connection between Ruthven and his victims. This trait continues

throughout the centuries, appearing in almost every subsequent vampire novel.

Lord Byron’s assistance with the novel had a large impact on the physical

description of the vampire. Just as there is the “Byronic hero,” there is also the “Byronic

vampire.” This vampire is a “handsome, sexually alluring being who brings the hauntings

and the torments of the past into the present, all the while committing unspeakable crimes

without remorse” (Bunson 111). Furthermore, “he is usually tall and gaunt with a
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leanness bordering on emaciation; his pale spectral face is instinct with evil, and the

terrible, demoniac eyes speak of fathomless understanding of sin and passion… the wide

mouth with its thin, cruel lips of an unnaturally brilliant red, which, when curled back in

anger reveal long, fang-like teeth” (Frost 39). John Polidori describes Lord Ruthven as

having, “a cold, gray eye, while his skin exhibits a hue which never gained a warmer tint,

either from the blush of modesty, or from the strong emotion of passion” (Jenkins 70).

The paleness and cold features of the vampire represent the undead nature of their

existence. The vampire, who is unable to enter a house without first being invited in by

the owner, had a charm that “caused him to be invited to every house” (Ryan 7).

It should be noted that, “Despite the success of Polidori’s story, vampires did not

really catch on fast; from 1820 to 1960, [there were] sixty-five published vampire novels,

mostly in English, though there are also German and French works” (Day 15). During

this time, there were two important literary works written. Sheridan Le Fanu, an Irish

gothic author, wrote the novel Carmilla in 1872. Whereas the poems “The Bride of

Corinth” (1797), “Christabel” (1797) and “Lamia” (1819) mentioned female vampires,

this tale was the first novel to incorporate a female vampire. Laura, the narrator, tells the

story eight years after the action happened, when she was a lonely nineteen year-old. This

method of delayed recounting makes the tale seem less credible, since many of the details

from the story may have been lost. Laura even says, “It will require all your faith in my

veracity to believe my story” (Le Fanu 7).

Her tale begins when she was six years old; a strange woman visited her in the

night and cuddled in bed with her. Then, “as if two needles ran into my breast very deep,”
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the woman sucked some of the girl’s blood (Le Fanu 3). The story continues to follow the

relationship between Laura and her friend Carmilla, a female vampire.

This tale of a vampire countess “was a major force in vampire fiction: Carmilla is

both evil predator and seductress, and seems desperate for her victim’s love” (Guiley,

“The Encyclopedia” 12). There are strong similarities between “Christabel” and

Carmilla. Geraldine and Carmilla are both beautiful vampire seductresses who enchant

the young and innocent victims of Christabel and Laura. It is through this relationship

that “Carmilla’ is ripe with overtones of deep, soul-bonding love of a woman for

another…” (Le Fanu x-xi). Furthermore, “Carmilla’ also focuses on the sexual content

that is displayed throughout the vampire myth” (Ryan 71). The story, which was written

when the topic of lesbian sexual passion was taboo, has many elements of sexual

repression, which means “that the human characters are presented, and must be presented

as chaste, so that it is only in the human character’s interaction with vampires that they

are able to engage in the desired, but repressed, ‘perverted’ encounters” (Williamson 8).

The vampire works as an outlet for the demure human character to divulge her culturally

unacceptable sexual passions onto. Furthermore:

The vampire story was a minor version of the myth of the ‘dark side,’ a

cautionary tale about the dangers of sex in a time when the social aspects of

sexuality could not be disentangled from the personal…they were also about sex

as original sin, and the surrender to desire as the loss of one’s soul. (Day 3)

Similar to Lord Ruthven, “Carmilla… is an aristocrat, a sexual predator, and a creature

from the past – as well as the more overt traits of the vampire from folklore” (Senf, “The

Vampire” 48). She is described as being “above middle height” and having a “very
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sweet” voice (Nethercot 35). It is with this charm that Carmilla lures her victims. Laura

fell victim to this, saying, “My energies seemed to fail me. Her murmured words sounded

like a lullaby in my ear, and soothed my resistance into a trance, from which I only

seemed to recover myself when she withdrew her arms” (Le Fanu 25). Physically,

Carmilla is described as being “slender, and wonderfully, graceful… Her complexion

was rich and brilliant; her features were small and beautifully formed; her eyes large,

dark, and lustrous; her hair was quite wonderful, I never saw hair as magnificently think

and long… It was exquisitely fine and soft, and in colour a rich very dark brown, with

something of gold” (Senf, “The Vampire” 88). Also, she “has the sharpest tooth—long,

thin, pointed, like an awl, like a needle” (Le Fanu 29). Unlike the vampire from folklore,

who was a decrepit male, Carmilla is a beautiful young woman who uses her sexuality to

lure her victims.

Her persuasive charm allowed for her to get very close to her victims, making it

easy for her to feed. Not only that, but Carmilla, who is a sexual creature, seems very

lonely and thrives on intimacy. In fact, “intimacy and friendship are the lures of

Romantic vampirism” (Auerbach 14). Whereas earlier vampires took advantage of their

victims, Carmilla has a deep relationship with her victim. Vampires “are equally skilled

in revealing ‘the inward workings of the heart,’ which cause Laura to discard her

repressions to reveal a corrupt, sensuous darkside behind a fragile mask of innocence”

(Morrill 4). Laura, who succumbs to her passions, recalled that, “with gloating eyes she

drew me to her, and her hot lips traveled along my cheek in kisses; and she would

whisper, almost in sobs, ‘You are mine, you shall be mine, and you and I are one forever”

(Senf, “The Vampire” 48). The relationship between Laura and Carmilla can be seen in a
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number of ways: predator and victim, sisterly love, an intimate friendship, or lesbian

love. One critic said, “Carmilla has woven into its story a curiously modern theme of

lesbian love…” (Shepard 10). The erotic nature of the vampire bite, which originally was

between a male vampire and a beautiful young maiden, is now depicted between two

young women. Their relationship, however, is less predatory, less about Geraldine’s need

for blood, and more about the reciprocal love that Geraldine and Carmilla have for each

other. In the nineteenth century, sexual scenes were not supposed to be portrayed in

literature, thus the bite represented taboo sexual acts. A sexual scene between a man and

a woman was shocking enough at the time, but now Le Fanu incorporated a lesbian love

scene, which was a daring move. Furthermore, “women were not considered to have

sexual impulses,” so the fact that two women, one being a vampire, were represented as

being sexually intimate with each other was a shocking transformation. Carmilla differs

from Lord Ruthven because male vampires did not “love their food” (Auerbach 18).

Milly Williamson, a critic, explained:

Everything male vampires seemed to promise, Carmilla performs: She arouses,

she pervades, she offers a sharing of the self. This female vampire is licensed to

realize the erotic, interpenetrative friendship male vampire aroused and denied.

(34)

Thus, the character of Carmilla becomes more human in character, needing friendship

and intimacy, culminating her love with Laura in a congenial way.

By the end of the nineteenth century, vampire stories had become quite popular. If

authors wanted their books to sell, incorporating a vampire into the story was sure to

make their sales soar. Furthermore, “hardly a literature household did not posses an old
 Mason, 19

Gothic romance or two…” (Jenkins 39). Bram Stoker wrote his classic masterpiece,

Dracula, in 1897. His novel “was not the first vampire [story], but he has shaped the

popular imagination with such power that his name is now generic… the family name of

Count Dracula has come to mean bloodsucking vampire” (James). Stoker based his

character on the evil Vlad Tsepesh, who was the prince of Wallachia, Romania, from

1456 to 1462 (Kirtley 134). Vlad did horrible things to people, such as nailing things to

people’s heads as punishment and dipping his bread in their blood. In fact, the name

Dracula comes from the Russian word for “devil.” Bram Stoker sent a copy of Dracula to

minister William Gladstone and included a note saying, “It is a story of a vampire—the

old medieval vampire but recrudescent today. It has I think pretty well all the vampire

legend as to limitations and these may in some way interest you…” (Jenkins 37).

In summary, “Dracula is an epistolary novel, told through letters, journal entries,

and even telegrams—all of which should warn astute readers to be alert to the

phenomenon of the unreliable narrator. It is also a sprawling novel, overflowing with

characters and incidents” (Jenkins 43). Dracula has been interpreted in a number of

ways; it “can be read as a horror story about the primordial battle between good and evil

or interpreted in terms of sexual repression and alienation or the decline of Victorian

England” (Guiley, “The Complete Vampire” 60). The battle between Dracula and the

vampire hunters can be read as the struggle between good and evil; the fact that Mina,

who is supposed to be proper and demure, gives in to Dracula’s sexual ways represents

sexual repression. The theme of alienation also arises because Dracula is a foreigner and

is unaccepted. Throughout the story, Dracula “valorizes human reason and privileges

human over ‘alien’ life. The inhabitants of its narrative world are neatly divided into ‘us’
 Mason, 20

and ‘them” (Hollinger, “The Vampire” 149). This is reminiscent of the folkloric vampire,

when the townspeople would hunt and destroy supposed vampires. In Dracula, there are

the vampire hunters and the vampires; unlike future vampire stories, the humans are not

interested in befriending the vampires.

It should be noted that, “Dracula, coming about midway between the first

adaptations of the folktale into literature and the present, immediately became and still

remains the standard against which all vampire stories are judged” (Heldreth 31). In fact,

Dracula, by far, has “had the greatest impact on the popular conception of the vampire”

(Jenkins 51). It could be argued that “Perhaps because Stoker’s Dracula evolved into

such a mythic figure, subsequent writers of vampire fiction have failed to invent a

character of comparable grandeur” (Wolf 1). Bram Stoker borrowed elements from both

Polidori and Le Fanu’s earlier vampire novels, incorporating aristocracy and sexuality.

However, “Stoker presents his title figure as a lonely and isolated figure who is hunted

and finally destroyed by opponents who use both the ancient power of religion and the

modern power of technology against him” (Senf, “The Vampire” 32). It is through this

novel that a shift begins, ever so slightly turning the vampire from a bloodthirsty creature

into a secluded and trapped foreigner who is struggling with right versus wrong.

Bram Stoker gives an intricate description of Dracula, portraying him as:

A tall man, clean shaven save for a long white moustache, and clad in black from

head to foot…His face was a strong—a very strong—aquiline, with high bridge of

the thin nose and peculiarly arched nostrils; with lofty domed forehead, and hair

growing scantily round the temples, but profusely elsewhere. His eyebrows were

very massive, almost meeting over the nose, and with bushy hair that seemed to
 Mason, 21

curl in its own profusion. The mouth, so far as I could see it under the heavy

moustache, was fixed and rather cruel-looking, with peculiarly sharp white teeth;

these protruded over the lips, who remarkable ruddiness showed astonishing

vitality in a man of his years. For the rest, his ears were pale, and at the top

extremely pointed; the chin was broad and strong, and the cheeks firm though

thin. The general effect was one of extraordinary pallor. (Stoker 46, 48)

Later, more description is given, citing that Dracula’s nails were “long and fine, and cut

to a sharp point” and “his breath was rank” (Stoker 48). Due to Stoker’s vivid and

notorious description, “the vampire image has become codified: a dark, spectral man,

dressed in black, often of an old aristocratic, and usually foreign family” (Lera 918). This

image of the vampire was first seen in Lord Ruthven, but Dracula’s appearance and

representation further solidified the classic vampire appearance. It is because of Dracula

that “the accepted attributes of a male vampire include two sharp fangs, unusual physical

strength, and a strong seductive power over women…He casts no shadow and has no

reflection in a mirror because he has no soul. He cannot enter a home unless invited in, is

repelled by garlic and holy objects…and must sleep in his coffin filled with soil from his

native land” (Lera 918). Upon opening Dracula’s coffin, the vampire hunters described

him as:

Looking as if his youth had been half renewed, for the white hair and moustache

were changed to iron-grey; the cheeks were fuller, and the white skin seemed

ruby-red underneath; the mouth was redder than ever, for on the lips were gouts

of fresh blood, which trickled from the corners of the mouth and ran over the chin

and neck. Even the deep, burning eyes seemed set amongst swollen flesh, for the
 Mason, 22

lids and pouches underneath were bloated… for the eyes were open and stony, but

without the glassiness of death. (Stoker 80, 83)

Dracula has many aspects that make him feared; blood gives him bits of life back,

allowing him to live forever and sustain his youthful appearance; “the lips were red, nay

redder than before; and on the cheeks was a delicate bloom” (Stoker 238). He has the

strength of twenty men and a “grip of steel; his strength must have been prodigious”

(Stoker 41). While Dracula would not be described as handsome, he has qualities to him

that lure his victims in, for example, his deathly pale face and long, white teeth. Due to

his lifeless form, Dracula’s skin is ice cold; “it seemed as cold as ice—more like the hand

of a dead than a living man” (Stoker 46). Vampires sleep during the day in coffins filled

with soil from their native land, which regenerates their power; “I have not yet seen the

Count in the daylight. Can it be that he sleeps when others wake, that he may be awake

whilst they sleep?” (Stoker 78). Jonathan Harker, the narrator of the story, asked, “What

manner of man is this, or what matter of creature is it in the semblance of man?” (Stoker

66). Also, Dracula has no shadow or reflection in mirrors, which may be because he has

no soul. Furthermore, “The fact that vampires cast no reflection is part of the iconography

of the vampire in East European folklore, but Stoker translates the superstitious belief

that creatures without souls have no reflection into a metaphor by which he can illustrate

his character’s lack of moral vision” (Senf, “Dracula” 164). Dracula is able to command

the dead and appear in different forms, such as: a bat, wolf, rat, owl and is able to control

the elements of fog, thunder, and storms. These attributes are rarely seen in subsequent

novels. There are many methods for killing a vampire, all of which were used on “real”

vampires during the early folklore years. The vampire hunters in Dracula planned to kill
 Mason, 23

Lucy, a friend of theirs that had been turned into a vampire, saying, “I shall cut off her

head and fill her mouth with garlic, and I shall drive a stake through her body” (Stoker

239).

Stoker “adds a number of humanizing touches to make Dracula appear noble and

vulnerable as well as demonic and threatening; and it becomes difficult to determine

whether he is a hideous bloodsucker whose touch breeds death or a lonely and silent

figure who is hunted and persecuted” (Senf, “Dracula” 162). With this intact, the reader

begins to feel empathy for the vampire because they are able to understand the

vulnerability and unaccepted nature of the vampire. Overall, Stoker added and

emphasized the significance of a vampire having no reflection, which signifies the

vampire’s lack of soul. While Dracula appears more humanlike in appearance than

previous vampires, he is still not completely relatable because of his lack of morality and

that he has no soul.

During the twentieth century, there was a major shift from European authors

writing vampire novels to American authors now joining in. Also, whereas vampires

were originally the antagonists of the story, they slowly became the protagonists. Thus,

“Vampire protagonists are part of the American idealization of such characters, which

became particularly intense in the late 1960’s and the 1970’s when our relation to

traditional forms of American culture and figures of authority became particularly

antagonistic” (Day 35). Vampires, who were originally the antagonist of the story, now

join together with humans in order to fight evil—whether it is an evil vampire or

human—there is no distinctly evil creature anymore.

 Mason, 24

Anne Rice’s novel Interview with the Vampire, published in 1976, was the “most

popular vampire story of the late twentieth century” (Bunson 134). This could be because

Rice presents her vampires as desirable and the story captures “the magic, romance, and

sensuality of the vampire myth and shows the reader what it is like to be a vampire. The

desire to be made a vampire becomes a dominant theme in vampire fiction that followed”

(Guiley, “The Encyclopedia” 10). The story is told by Louis, a southern man from New

Orleans who was turned into a vampire when he was twenty-five. Throughout the novel,

a reporter is interviewing him as he gives his life story. Louis recalls when it happened in

1791 after his brother had just died and he felt that it was his fault. Louis, reluctantly,

accepts the invitation to be turned into a vampire from Lestat, another vampire. Louis

turned because he felt that he deserved a life of damnation and self-destruction. The

story, unlike others, emphasizes the process of turning a human into a vampire, the

feelings and emotions that one experiences as it is happening. Similar to the other

vampire novels, Interview with the Vampire also has an erotic nature to it, however this

time it is between two men: Louis and Lestat. Louis described Lestat, saying, “his

movement so graceful and so personal that at once it made me think of a lover” (Rice 18).

There is a close connection between the victim-turned-vampire, Louis, and the vampire,

Lestat.

Louis is “an androgynous character, smooth and white-skinned, who succumbs to

the desire for immortality yet finds it hard to bear” (Guiley, “The Encyclopedia” 162). In

fact, “Rice has modernized the nature of the vampires; no longer simple or single-minded

personifications of evil, [they are] realized characters who sensibly confront the problems

of their lives” (Heldreth 60). Furthermore, “Anne Rice has resurrected the vampire from
 Mason, 25

its moldering texts, infusing an obsolete myth with new blood… [She has made her

vampires] aggressive, modern, and relevant” (Heldreth 60). They fight to protect what is

right in the world, acting as a semi-superhero and they face the same problems that

humans face in this world—such as issues of love and morality. Unlike the vampires

from the past, Rice’s vampires are beautiful, do not transform into bats or fog; the victim

is not a female virgin; the vampire does not need to be invited inside a house in order to

enter, and they are unaffected by garlic, coffins, and mirrors. It is at this point that

vampires switch from antagonists to protagonists. Rice’s vampires are further explained

by one critic, saying:

Among all the contemporary books, Anne Rice’s series is undoubtedly the most

important vampire fiction produced since Stoker’s Dracula. She has

revolutionized the vampire fiction genre. Her vampire world is much like our

own. Garlic, crucifixes, mirrors, and stakes do not frighten them any more. Some

vampires are good and trustworthy; they even join together to protect humans

from other bad vampires. The good vampires are the heroes, men are the villains.

(Florescu 168)

Physically, Rice’s vampires are portrayed differently than that of Lord Ruthven or

Dracula, who were older and more emaciated looking. However, their skin color is that of

vampires from the past, whose “face is very white and has a smooth, highly reflective

surface, rather like that of polished marble” (Rice 46). Rice said, “The vampire was

utterly white and smooth, as if he were sculpted from bleached bone, and his face was as

seemingly inanimate as a statue, except for two brilliant green eyes” (Rice 4). Unlike

Dracula, whose eyes looked dead and glassy, Rice’s vampires have eyes that are similar
 Mason, 26

to humans’ in color, but have the power to draw their victims in. She describes the

vampire, saying, “His gray eyes burned with an incandescence, and the long white hands

which hung by his sides were not those of a human being” (Rice 14). Lestat is a “tall fair-

skinned man with a mass of blond hair…[and has a] feline quality to his movements”

(Rice 13). Louis, who is wearing a black coat and cape during his interview, which is

reminiscent of Dracula’s attire, has “full black hair, the waves that were combed back

over the tips of the ears” (Rice 4). Their appearance is very much human, with hair and

eyes that resemble how they looked before becoming a vampire. This quality to vampires

gives them new life; they are not ancient creatures, but instead are immortal beings.

While Rice excluded many aspects from the folkloric vampires, she still included

some original details, such as: “they are made by drinking the blood of another vampire,

are destroyed by sunlight, tend to kill their victims, and sleep in coffins, since this is the

most effective way to exclude daylight. The books introduce the notion that once turned,

a vampire cannot change at all, not even to cut off its hair: it simply grows back while

they sleep. They are ‘frozen. Like a photograph” (Taylor 98).

It should be noted that, “prior to literature of the twentieth century, vampires were

depicted as unrepentant monsters, heartless creatures of hell who threatened the innocent

and tested the courage of brave men and women” (Wolf 11). By the twentieth century,

vampire fiction had become more secularized. Whereas in the past when authors wrote

erotic love scenes it was not accepted, in the twentieth century, the secularization and

eroticism of vampires was embraced due to the changed culture. These new vampires

appear “as an attractive figure precisely because he or she is a vampire” (Williamson 30).

The mysteriousness of vampires adds to their attractiveness—causing the people around

 Mason, 27

them to take an interest in them. Also, whereas earlier vampires’ “otherness” was seen as

a threat, it is now embraced. Thus, “One of the major trends in this new vampire

literature is to present the vampire as an objective observer of humankind. He or she

becomes a critic of the basic violence in human behavior” (Florescu 161). The vampire is

able to critique the mundane activities of humans in a way that no one else can because

the vampire has lived for so many years and has a multitude of life experiences.

As vampires, Lestat and Louis differ from each other in morality and personality.

Lestat, who represents evil vampires, is “deceptive” and “alluring in his charm” (Rice

39). He gets anything that he wants and is not afraid to use drastic measures to get his

way. Also, “Lestat, in particular, is completely amoral, absolutely uncaring of almost

anyone—but particularly of humans, who are nothing more than cattle to be fed upon—

living entirely according to his own rules and literally doing anything he wants, with no

moral sense to hold him back” (Taylor 100). On the other hand, Louis struggles with

being a vampire; he still wants to live as a human and do normal thing, like reading a

book, which Lestat finds insignificant. Louis also hates to kill people because he feels

that it is morally wrong, and instead eats rats to survive. He is relatable because he still

acts the same as he did when he was human. The conclusion can thus be drawn that,

“Rice’s vampires are recognizable—they are ourselves with extraordinary powers”

(Florescu 169). Even more, the modern vampire is “portrayed with an empathy that

would have been unthinkable in earlier decades” (Hollinger, “Blood Read” 2). They are

no longer monsters that are to be feared, but are instead outcasts similar to ourselves that

we can relate to. Thus, the image and portrayal of vampires is further pushed in the

direction of becoming more humanlike and relatable.

 Mason, 28

Stephanie Meyer created a worldwide phenomenon with her 2005 novel Twilight.

Bella Swan, the narrator of the story, is an awkward seventeen year-old girl. She moves

from Arizona to Forks, Washington, to live with her father. It is during the lunch hour in

the school cafeteria that she first sees Edward Cullen, along with his three siblings. Bella

is instantly attracted to him, however, when she talks to him for the first time, he seems

repulsed by her. Through a series of events, Bella comes to realize that Edward and his

family are vegetarian vampires, who drink animal blood instead of feeding on people.

Edward had initially seemed repulsed by her because the smell of her was so intoxicating

to Edward, more than anyone else had ever been to him, that he found it difficult to

control his blood lust. Regardless of this, Bella and Edward fall in love with each other.

However, there are three evil vampires in the area, Laurent, James, and Victoria, who do

not agree with the Cullen’s vegetarian lifestyle and want to kill Bella. The Cullens fight

to protect Bella and kill James, causing the other two to flee. Edward promises Bella that

he will never leave her. The story ends with Edward and Bella at prom when Bella tells

him that she wants to spend eternity with him and begs that Edward turn her into a

vampire. Edward, who was turned into a vampire because he was dying from the Spanish

influenza in 1918 when he was seventeen, wishes that he were still human and wants

Bella to live a normal human life. She says that being with him as a human is enough for

now, but secretly hopes that he will change his mind. She ends the story by saying, “he

leaned down to press his cold lips once more to my throat” (Meyer 498).

Unlike the vampires from The Vampyre, Carmilla, and Dracula, “The vampires in

the Twilight series are so far removed from the traditional perception of the undead as to

be a different species altogether. They exist solely on blood and have the speed and
 Mason, 29

strength of the traditional vampire, only more so, but that’s where the similarity ends”

(Taylor 104). They are described in the book as having, “speed, strength, beauty, pale

skin, [and] eyes that shift color” (Meyer 135). At one point, Bella asks Edward if the

myths about vampires are true; he replies that most known facts about vampires are

untrue, such as sunlight being deadly, that they sleep in coffins (in fact, he says that

vampires do not sleep at all,) garlic and crucifixes warding vampires away, and that they

can turn into bats. Vampires do, however, have special powers that are unique to each

one. Edward is able to read people’s minds, his sister Alice is able to see into the future,

and his brother Jasper is able to influence the emotions of people around him. About their

superhuman strength, Bella describes when Edward saved her from a van that was about

to run into her, noting, “two long, white hands shot out protectively in front of me, and

the van shuddered to a stop a foot from my face” (Meyer 56). Also, vampires have an

intoxicating smell to them that lures their victims to them. Bella noted that, “his breath

blew in my face, stunning me” (Meyer 193).

A constant physical description of the literary vampire is its pale skin tone. In

Twilight, “every one of them was chalky pale, the palest of all the students living in this

sunless town…They all had very dark eyes [and] dark shadows under those eyes” (Meyer

18-19). While sunlight does not kill vampires, it does make their pale, marble skin

sparkle. The novel describes Edward’s skin, saying, “His skin, white despite the faint

flush from yesterday’s hunting trip, literally sparkled, like thousands of tiny diamonds

were embedded in the surface” (Meyer 260). Meyer’s vampires have ice-cold skin,

similar to Dracula. Bella mentions that Edward’s “fingers were ice-cold, like he’d been

holding them in a snowdrift before class” (Meyer 45). Also, “their flesh is cold and as
 Mason, 30

hard as marble, making them distinctly uncomfortable to touch or hold; and their senses

are extraordinarily enhanced” (Taylor 104). When Bella and Edward finally kiss, she

described it saying, “and then his cold, marble lips pressed very softly against mine”

(Meyer 282). Also, “their faces…were inhumanly beautiful,” flawless and perfect (Meyer

19). Unlike Rice’s vampires, the vampire’s eyes in Twilight change color. When they are

hungry and have not fed in awhile, their eyes are black, which Bella comments on,

saying, “I’d noticed that his eyes were black—coal black…I vividly remembered the flat

black color of his eyes” (Meyer 23, 46). After vampires drinks the blood of an animal,

their eyes turn a golden amber color, and when they drink the blood of a human, their

eyes turn red. After going hunting to quench his thirst, Bella described Edward’s eyes as

a “completely different color: a strange ocher, darker, than butterscotch, but with the

same golden tone” (Meyer 46). In summary, “These vampires are impossibly beautiful,

with eyes that change color, depending on how recently they’ve fed, and skin that

sparkles in the sun” (Taylor 104).

Edward, who is adored by every girl in school, does not date, that is until he

meets Bella, who he finds irresistible. He represents the dark, mysterious stranger that

every girl wants but cannot have. Also, for vampires, the smell of humans is very hard to

resist. For Edward, the smell of Bella is the sweetest and it is extremely difficult for him

to resist sucking her blood, especially when they start dating and are closer to each other.

This notion of yearning for something and not being able to satisfy it represents forbidden

love and sexual passion, an erotic theme that can be seen in earlier vampire novels. It

should also be noted that the modern vampire has emotions and morality, unlike vampires

from years earlier who succumbed to their passions and desires without a second thought.
 Mason, 31

In fact, Edward’s moral code even prompts him to stay abstinent when Bella is pressuring

him to have sex.

The conclusion can be made that “The vampire has mutated many times in the

course of the last three centuries, but certain attributes recur often enough to assure the

continuity and consistency of its paradoxical being over time” (Butler 11). These

consistent attributes include the vampire’s long, white teeth, pale skin, and super-human

strength; these are the details that define a vampire. However, each new vampire brings a

different meaning to what a vampire is supposed to look like. Lord Ruthven and Dracula

were older, aristocratic looking men, Carmilla was a young, beautiful woman, Louis

resembled a marble statue, and Edward was a flawless and irresistible teenage male. The

modern vampire has acquired the image of being both fearsome and perfectly beautiful.

Twilight has redefined how this generation views vampires, no longer as a villainous,

middle-aged man dressed in a black cape with white fangs, but as unassuming teenagers

who fight to protect the well-being of the ones they love. Thus, “In the last forty years,

the vampire has changed shape and meaning and that power, sexuality, and gender form a

significant part of the vampire story” (Day 8). There is a balance of supernatural traits

and realism in the vampire that allow for the reader to relate to them in a personal way.

The reader is captivated by the supernatural elements that are not present in their

everyday lives, but are further drawn in because the story, while fantastical, is still

relatable to the reader’s life.

Another important difference in vampire novels is that, “Vampires became

protagonists of their own stories…Though the Count has not yet relinquished his place as

Boss Vampire, today we have good vampires, bad vampires, ambiguous vampires, lonely
 Mason, 32

vampires, vampires who only drink cow blood; we also have reluctant vampire killers

and vampires who kill other vampires. Vampires have become contemporary American

figures unrelated to the Transylvanian prince” (Day 2). In almost all vampire novels, the

vampire is seen as an “other” and an outsider; whether he is a foreigner or not. However,

“If the vampire is an ‘other’, he or she was always a figure in whom one could find one’s

self…the despicable as well as the defiant, the shameful as well as the unashamed, the

loathing of oddness as well as pride in it” (Williamson 2).

Vampires have changed dramatically; whereas they were traditionally evil,

immoral, animalistic killers, they are now portrayed as extremely intelligent and moral

people who live and function in society with humans (Frost 24). Thus, “The vampire has

evolved from the monster of old into something that is able to blend into human

civilization” (Taylor 8). It is because of this that the reader is able to identify and relate to

the vampire more than they could to the vampires of the eighteenth century. Dracula is a

less relatable vampire than Louis or Edward because he is restrained by the myth of not

having a reflection in a mirror, symbolizing his lack of a soul and morality. When the

myth of the mirror/reflection is gone, the reader is able to see the image of the vampire in

himself or herself. Because of this, “It is not surprising that more and more young readers

identify with the vampire who is exiled from normal experience, a sexual experimenter, a

sensualist, and, above all, someone who has found a way to stay young” (Wolf 325).

Furthermore, vampires are the “image of humanity ready to be set free from the restraints

and limitations of an outmoded and repressive past. The dark side becomes the realm of

desire that leads to freedom and self-acceptance…these vampires appear to us as the true

image of ourselves” (Day 8-9). It is then “through the acceptance of our inner vampire,
 Mason, 33

we become at one with ourselves, and the deadly dualities of vampire/human, day/night,

sacred/profane, life/death, good/evil become unified. Sexual, stylish, and supernatural,

the vampire almost seems to have been imagined expressly to fill such a role” (Day 34).

The vampire’s physical beauty is a key component to what separates them from

the vampires of the past. Joules Taylor says:

Originally a thing of fear and disgust, little by little the vampire grew to be seen

as a tragic figure, lonely and often misunderstood, but nevertheless powerful and

possessing an unearthly, if not always conventional, physical beauty. His

supernatural strength and speed, his enhanced hearing and vision and seeming

telepathic abilities intensify, his already potent attraction. Add to this his

considerable charm and charisma, his elegance, his skills in enthralling and

captivating his prey… (6)

It seems as though the modern vampire is the perfect creature, full of morality, charm,

personality, and perfect looks, protective and loyal. Vampires from the past would act

differently than they did when they were human; modern vampires act the same as they

did when they were human. Furthermore, in The Vampyre, Carmilla, and Dracula, the

victims and observers of vampires are terribly scared of them, fearing for their lives and

safety. In Interview with the Vampire, the interviewer is nervous to be so close to a

vampire, but is not nearly as scared as previous observers had been. Then, in Twilight,

when Bella realizes what Edward is, she is filled with a deeper attraction to him—a

forbidden love—instead of fear. She says, “I should be afraid—I knew I should be, but I

couldn’t feel the right kind of fear…If he was something…sinister, he’d done nothing to

hurt me so far…I wanted nothing more than to be with him right now” (Meyer 141, 139).
 Mason, 34

Bella views Edward, not as the world’s best predator, which is how Edward describes

himself to Bella, but as the ultimate protector who will keep her safe: someone who will

love her unconditionally, fight for her with his superhuman strength, and never leave her,

since he is immortal. He is everything that a woman wants in a man: youthful, strong,

sensitive, handsome, faithful, and protective. Thus, “Over the last few decades fictional

vampires have been transformed from remorseless seducers and killers, to tormented soul

wrestling with an affliction beyond their control, to, increasingly, genuinely heroic

figures who are morally superior to the petty, short-lived humans who surround them”

(Wolf 325). They have shifted from bloodthirsty killers with no morals into sympathetic

and moral characters that are more human than creature-like. Both Louis and Edward are

the opposite of their previous vampire counterparts. Instead of delighting in the desires of

a vampire, Louis and Edward control their bloodlust.

However, “Roger C. Schlobin has suggested that many treatments of the vampire

have ‘emasculated’ this traditionally potent figure” (Hollinger, “The Vampire” 155). No

longer do readers fear vampires, unless they are specifically evil vampires. Instead,

“Today’s fictional vampire is contaminated with the romantic hero: a Beast in search of

his Beauty, looking for redemptive love” (Guiley, “The Complete Vampire” 11-12).

Meyer describes Edward and Bella’s relationship with each other, saying, “And so the

lion fell in love with the lamb” (Meyer 274). Not only is Bella’s life and safety in

Edward’s control, but her heart is also. Vampire stories were originally for readers who

loved horror and suspense, and now these stores are full of romance and sexuality and

aimed at hormonally charged teenage girls, since it is “through sexuality that the vampire

gains control over human beings” (Senf, “Dracula” 166). The sexuality of vampires was
 Mason, 35

originally repressed and unacceptable because of the culture’s stigmas, whereas the

sexuality of the modern vampire is embraced and unrestrained.

The fictional literature of each era adheres to most of the social norms of the time,

while still pushing the limits and furthering what is acceptable for the time. The Vampyre,

Carmilla, and Dracula, which were all written during the nineteenth century, retain the

acceptable behaviors of the time, including men overpowering women, women being

seen as property, and a lack of overt sexuality. However, these novels also pushed the

limits in some ways by containing an overwhelming sexual overtone for the time. Flash-

forward approximately one and a half centuries later, when Interview with the Vampire

and Twilight were published, society’s norms have completely changed. Violence, sex,

aggression, and female domination, all of which were unacceptable topics in the

nineteenth century, have become common topics that are addressed in modern novels.

Furthermore, “The more modern and media-inspiring image of the vampire masks

fundamental aspects of the underlying myths and archetypes” (Dundes 146). The

vampires in current literature rely more on popular culture than on folklore. In fact, the

vampire is an archetype that symbolizes many things from our previous and current

culture. It can be concluded that, “The literary vampire is one of the most powerful

archetypes bequeathed to us from the imagination of the nineteenth century” (Hollinger,

“Blood Read” 1). This is true since, “The sheer number of vampires in the twentieth

century reveals that the vampire remains an important mythic figure (and therefore a

figure worthy of serious study)” (Senf, “The Vampire” 10). Not only that, but they

represent the human psyche. One critic assesses that, “Every archetype is in its essence

only one aspect of the collective unconscious, as well as always representing also the
 Mason, 36

whole collective unconscious” (Von Franz 2-3). More specifically, “The vampire motif is

worldwide…their lust for blood is the craving or impulse of the unconscious contents to

break into the consciousness” (Von Franz 157). The vampire represents the dark desires

of the human heart that society deems “unacceptable”—such as: forbidden love,

aggression, violence, and lust. Joules Taylor, an author, says, “Dark, brooding, and

seductive, the image of the vampire haunts the modern consciousness, a temptation to

give in to the darkness that dwells within us all” (6). The vampire is a relatable creature

because they are a darker version of ourselves. Furthermore, “The figure of the vampire,

as a metaphor, can tell us about sexuality, of course, and about power; it can also inscribe

more specific contemporary concerns, such as relations of power and alienation, attitudes

towards illness, and the definition of evil at the end of an unprecedentedly secular

century” (Hollinger, “Blood Read” 3). Also, the folkloric vampire, Lord Ruthven, and

Dracula symbolized death and eternal damnation, however, the vampires in current

literature, portrayed by Louis and Edward, represent immortal life. Thus, “Once the

epitome of corruptible death, he has become a symbol of life—of life lived more

intensely, more glamorously, and more wantonly, with bites having become kisses”

(Jenkins 10). Vampires are a symbol for the world’s self-indulgences in sin and

corruption.

It can further be concluded that, “Vampire fiction has changed radically in the

past two hundred years. One of the forces behind this is the shift in the concept of evil

during that time. In nineteenth-century vampire fiction, the vampire represents the evil

against which religion and society fight…the character is unquestionably evil” (Hamilton

1). However, while the modern vampire is not necessarily evil anymore, he does still
 Mason, 37

represent the changing cultures. In current vampire fiction, “The vampire epitomizes the

breaking of taboos, the challenging of authority, the fine line between power and passion,

and the search for immortality and eternal youth” (Lera 919). With each new century, the

portrayal of the vampire seems to shift and change because of the altering culture. Thus,

“Vampires are personifications of their age…always changing so that their appeal is

dramatically generational” (Williamson 29). Another idea is that “We conjure the

vampires that we want or need for the cultural and historical times that we find ourselves

in” (Williamson 5). The image of the vampire in literature is a source that represents the

society of the time. Furthermore, “Every age projects its own fears and beliefs on the

legends. For Victorians, the vampire’s kiss symbolized forbidden sex; in the age of

AIDS, the exchange of blood seems ominous” (James). In order to fully relate to the

vampire, they must be experiencing and living in a world similar to ours.

The vampire, as an archetype and symbol, also has a strong representation of

sexual eroticism. What separates the twentieth and twenty-first century vampire from

those of the past is their distinctly obvious eroticism, which is portrayed in a positive

way, opposed to the negative portrayal that Victorians had about sexual eroticism, since it

was culturally unacceptable at the time for sexuality to be discussed, let alone written

about (Senf, “The Vampire” 8). Fewer things are deemed evil or sinful in the twenty-first

century; more things are permissible, making the vampire’s actions, both violent and

sexual, less shocking. However, “Not only have late-twentieth-century vampires been

secularized, but they have also been more and more explicitly eroticized…[they] are

handsome, youthful, romantic, and sensuous” (Wolf 4). Furthermore, “While in the

earlier books and films the vampire’s victim suffered from his or her embrace, in more
 Mason, 38

recent works the focus is on the erotic sensuality of the embrace” (Wolf 8). The victim is

no longer afraid of the vampire, but is sexually attracted to him, allowing for the vampire

to feed and the victim to be pleasured.

This secularization of the vampire, which is due to the changing culture, has had a

large effect on the readers. This portrayal of “The vampire character at the beginning of

the [eighteenth] century, which represented male lusts for power and sex, left the female

character with little else to do than serve as a stereotypical victim” (Phillips-Summers

100). While reading these “erotic” novels, “the primal young male audience witnesses the

older male [vampire] defile the virgin…While at the same time imagining himself to be

that powerful man…The vampire myth offers active, aggressive and sadistic

indentifactory pleasures for the male reader or viewer” (Williamson 9). On the other

hand, in the Victorian era, women would read vampire novels and imagine themselves

being wooed by the domineering vampires. In both situations, the vampire offers a sexual

escape for male and female readers.

It is no surprise, then, that vampires represent forbidden love. Thus, “Like the

serpent in the Garden of Eden, it tempts us with the lure of the forbidden and holds forth

the promise of Genesis 3:5 that, ‘You will not die…but will become like God” (Guiley,

“The Complete Vampire” 53). Vampires live forever and promise a fulfillment of every

human desire without consequences; there is a seductive view on evil. Similarly, blood is

the archetypal image for life; Deuteronomy says, “For the blood is the life.” This image

of lifeblood is turned erotic when in relation to the vampire. As the vampire embraces

their victim, they become aroused which causes their blood to pump quicker and hotter,

resulting in the erotic pleasure from the vampire’s bite.

 Mason, 39

An important question that remains is, “What is there about the image of the

vampire that makes it such a singularly attractive genre to twentieth-century readers?”

(Wolf 2). It can be assessed that “Since the 19th century, the fictional vampire has created

a new vampire myth of an undead creature who is powerful, exotic, alluring, and

mysterious—a romantic antihero. This new myth inspires fans of the genre to want to

become living vampires…they live immortal lives in their own bodies, frozen in time at

the moment of their ‘making;’ they are incredibly beautiful” (Guiley, “The

Encyclopedia” 182). In years past, readers were repulsed and horrified by vampires, but

are now attracted and infatuated with them. The modern vampire has become a fictional

being that humans admire and want to become like—vampires embody everything that

humans strive to become: beautiful, young, powerful, and seductive. They are idealized

physically, morally, and sexually. Furthermore, “We tend to admire the vampire’s

‘romantic independence’ and ‘refusal to conform to arbitrary social standards,’ which to

the average Victorian would have seemed simply dangerous” (Guiley, “The Complete

Vampire” 68). What makes the vampire even more appealing is that he is the perfect,

“tall, dark, and handsome stranger” that every girl fantasizes about and is an “irresistible

but sinister and all-consuming lover” (Guiley, “The Complete Vampire” 53, 19).

In his book, Mark Collins Jenkins described the all-consuming vampire craze that

has recently sprung up in the twenty-first century, saying:

Vampire chic—it’s everywhere. It’s cool to be one, and certainly cool to love one,

judging from the popularity of a certain number-one best seller that ends with the

heroine wishing to become a vampire like her boyfriend. Now that they’ve come
 Mason, 40

out of the coffin, so to speak, vampires have never appeared more sensitive or

romantic. They have never been more heroic (7).

Starting as a fearful creature from folklore, the vampire eased its way into

fictional literature. In The Vampyre and Dracula, the vampire was portrayed as a

mysterious, ancient, amoral aristocrat that preyed upon innocent young women and was

hunted. Carmilla represented Geraldine as a beautiful vampire countess looking for

physical love. Louis, from Interview with the Vampire, was the first vampire to retain

morals and appear relatable to readers. Finally, in Twilight, Edward appeared as the

perfect, moral immortal that makes readers not only love vampires, but want to become

one. Thus, the portrayal of vampires in fictional literature has changed throughout the

centuries, making them less monstrous in appearance and personality, allowing for

readers to see themselves in the vampire’s character.

 Mason, 41

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