Polar Coordinates—Class Notes Math112

Resources
• Blackboard Handout: Polar Coordinates (BAILEY NOTES) – for this topic, this handout will be
the main source of information, examples and exercises.

• Textbook: Section 11.3 and 11.4 (for reference)

Introduction
Definitions; Ordered Pairs;
Ordered pairs for points are not unique in polar coordinates (unlike in Cartesian/rectangular/x − y
coordinates), because: 1) (r, θ) can also be (r, θ + 2nπ), and 2) (r, θ) can also be (−r, θ + π), hence
(−r, θ + (2n + 1)π), where n is an integer.

Relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates

polar to rectangular (r, θ) → (x, y): x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
p y
rectangular to polar (x, y) → (r, θ): r2 = x2 + y 2 , r = ± x2 + y 2 , tan θ = .
x
Need to select sign of r and select a θ.

Examples:

1. Convert (−2, 7π
4
) to rectangular coordinates.
√ √
2. Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates ( 6, − 2) in terms of polar coordinates.

Equation Representations
x y
polar to rectangular: use r2 = x2 + y 2 , cos θ = p , sin θ = p .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
y
rectangular to polar: use x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, r2 = x2 + y 2 , and tan θ = .
x
Examples:

1. Find a polar equation for the curve y = 2x − 3.

2. Find a Cartesian equation for the curve r = 2 and graph it.

3. Graph the curve r = 3 sin θ.

4. Graph the curve r = 3 sec θ.

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Graphs of Polar Equations
A. Line through the pole: θ = C

B. Circle with radius |a| centered at the pole: r = a

a
C. Circle with radius | | passing through the pole: r = a cos θ, or r = a sin θ. (e.g. r = −4 cos θ)
2
D. Roses: r = b sin aθ or r = b cos aθ.
If a is even, then it’s a rose with “2a” leaves: as θ goes from 0 to π, half of the rose is drawn, the
other half is drawn as θ goes from π to 2π.
If a is odd, then it’s a rose with “a” leaves: as θ goes from 0 to π, the entire rose is drawn. If θ
continues to go from π to 2π, then the rose is traced again.
Tip: Let aθ be a multiple of π2 , so θ is a multiple of π2 · a1 , and make a value table. Label extremum
points. Put little arrows and label the pieces to show how the graph is traced as the angle changes.

Examples:

(a) r = 2 cos 3θ.

(b) r = 3 sin 2θ.

E. Limaçon: r = a ± b sin θ or r = a ± b cos θ. (see Textbook p. 683, Example 11)

“limaçon” is after a French word for “snail”, because of the shape of the curves.
Tip: Make a table of values, set r = 0 and solve to see when (whether) the graph passes through
the pole. Also, figure out the range of r (maximum and minimum values).

Example: 1) Draw r = 2 + 2 sin θ. 2) Draw r = 1 + 2 sin θ.

Example 11, p. 683 Investigate the family of polar curves given by r = 1 + c sin θ. How does the
shape change as c changes?

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Points of intersections of polar equations
To draw two polar graphs in the same plane, you need to figure out where they intersect. Set them equal
and solve the equations, also look at the pole, which might be where they intersect.
NOTE: For the reason that solving equation alone is not enough to find the intersections, see Text-
book, p. 687, “CAUTION.”

Areas in Polar Graphs

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The area of a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle θ is r2 θ (see Exercise 35 on page 509
2
in the Textbook).
If f (θ) is continuous and f (θ) ≥ 0 on [α, β], where 0 < β − α ≤ 2π, then the area bounded by the
1 β
Z
curve r = f (θ), the rays θ = α and θ = β is given by A = [f (θ)]2 dθ.
2 α
Procedure: sketch graphs; find intersection points (important); determine integrals; evaluate the
definite integrals.

Examples:
1. Find the area inside the rose: r = 2 cos 3θ.
2. Find the area inside r = 2 + 2 sin θ.
3. Find the area of the region inside both r = sin θ and r = cos θ.
4. Find the area of the region inside both r = 3 and r = 2 + 2 sin θ.
Variations:
• Area of the region inside r = 3 and outside r = 2 + 2 sin θ.
• Area of the region outside r = 3 and inside r = 2 + 2 sin θ.
5. Find the area of the region inside the loop of r = 1 + 2 sin θ.
6. Find the area of the region inside both r = sin 2θ and r = sin θ.

Homework
There are some problems in the handout “Polar Coordinates.” Practice on your own.
You should take a look at all the exercises in the related sections. Complete the following problems
to be collected.
p. 683 (section 11.3): 5, 6, 9, 12, 17, 32, 37, 39, 41, 42
p. 689 (section 11.4): 12, 13, 19, 21, 24, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 44.

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r = cos 2θ (Example 8, p. 679 Textbook)

r = sin 2θ and r = sin θ