RESEARCH PROJECTS:
equal to the the sine of the angle of incidence (sine θ1)
Related Links
Science Fair Project Guide
Physics
Project Summary
Difficulty 7 – 9
Time
Short (several days)
required
Prerequisit
es
None
Material
Readily available
Availability
Cost Low ($20–$50)
Adult supervision recommended. Even
low-power lasers can cause
Safety permanent eye damage. Please
carefully review and follow the Laser
Safety Guide.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to see if sugar
concentrations in water can be determined using the
index of refraction of the solution.
Introduction
No doubt you have noticed the odd
"bending" effect that you see when you put a
straw (or pencil) in a glass of water. The
water refracts the light, so the straw appears
to bend at an angle when you look at the
interface between the air and the water.
Compare the two images in Figure 1 and see
if you notice anything different between
them.
Figure 1. These two images illustrate refraction by
liquids. Which glass contains plain water, and which
glass contains sugar-water? (Wood, 2003)(Images ©
Robin Wood, 2003, used with permission.)
Snell's Law describes the physics of refraction (see
Figure 2, below). If we follow a light ray (red) as it
passes from air to water, we can see how the light
bends. Air and water each have a different index of
refraction (symbolized by the variable n). Snell's
Law describes the angle of refraction of a
light ray in terms of the angle of incidence
and the index of refraction of each of the
materials through which the light is passing
(air and water in this case).
Figure 2. Illustration of Snell's Law (Wood, 2003).
(Image © Robin Wood, 2003, used with permission.)
In optics, angles are measured from a line
perpendicular to the surface with which the light is
interacting. This line is called the surface normal, or
simply, the normal (dashed gray line in Figure 2). The
angle of incidence, θ1, and the angle of refraction, θ2,
are shown in Figure 2. Snell's Law says that the relative
index of refraction of the two materials (RI = n2/n1) is
divided by the sine of the angle of refraction (sine θ2).
What Snell's Law tells us is that the greater the relative
index of refraction, the more the light bends. The index
of refraction of a liquid depends on the density of the
liquid. Dissolving sugar in water results in a solution
with density greater than that of water alone. Since
sugar water is more dense than plain water, sugar
water should have a higher index of refraction than
plain water. In Figure 1, one glass has plain water and
the other glass has sugar water. Can you tell which is
which?
In this project, we'll show you how to use the
physics of refraction to measure the sugar
content of a clear liquid solution (e.g., apple
juice, or a clear soda drink). You'll use a laser
pointer and a hollow glass prism (which we'll
show you how to make). Figure 3 shows a
diagram of the setup.
Figure 3. Diagram of setup for measuring the index of
refraction of a liquid using a laser pointer and a hollow
triangular prism (not to scale; based on the diagram in
Nierer, 2002).
When there is no liquid in the prism, the laser light
(dotted red line) will shine straight through to a wall
(solid black line). When the prism is filled with liquid,
the laser light will be refracted (solid blue and red
lines). The angle of deviation will be at a minimum
when the light passing through the prism (solid blue
line) is parallel to the base of the prism. You'll have to
rotate the prism just right so that this is true. Then
you'll measure two distances, x and L, and use them to
calculate the angle of minimum deviation. From this
angle, you can calculate the index of refraction.
Equation 1 is the formula for doing this.
Equation 1 looks complicated at first, but it's actually
not so bad. θmd is the angle of minimum deviation,
which you will measure (we'll show you how in the
Experimental Procedure section). θp is the apex angle
of the prism. Since the prism is an equilateral triangle,
the apex angle is 60°. In equation 2, we've substituted
60° for θp. In equation 3, we've substituted the
numerical value of the index of refraction of air
(nair = 1.00028). The sine of 30° is 0.5, so we've made
that substitution in equation 3. Finally, we simplify the
numerical terms to produce Equation 4, which is the
one you will use. Plug in your measured value for θmd,
add 60°, and multiply the result by one-half. Then take
the sine of the result, and multiply by 2.00056, and
you'll have the desired index of refraction.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start
Background Research
To do this project, you should do research that enables
you to understand the following terms and concepts:
index of refraction,
density,
prism,
Snell's law.
Bibliography
Here are some online sources of information on Snell's
Law. Although you only need a basic understanding of
how Snell's Law works for this project, more advanced
sources are included for those who wish to gain a more
thorough understanding about the mathematics behind
Snell's Law and how it can be derived from Fermat's
Principle of Least Time:
A simple summary of Snell's Law (the basic "plug in the
numbers and calculate" version that's required for this
project):
Kaiser, P., 2005. "Snell's Law," The Joy of Visual
Perception [accessed September 25, 2006]
http://www.yorku.ca/eye/snell.htm.
A fairly comprehensive tutorial that builds an intuitive
understanding of Snell's Law by using high school level
math:
Henderson, T., 2004. "The Mathematics of Refraction,
Snell's Law," The Physics Classroom, Glenbrook South
High School, Glenview, IL [accessed September 25,
2006]
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/Class/refrn/
u14l2b.html.
(This one is only for highly advanced students!) A
highly mathematical discussion of Snell's Law that
includes its derivation from Fermat's Principle of Least
Time (uses first-order differential calculus):
Weisstein, E.W., 2006. "Snell's Law," Eric Weisstein's
World of Science [accessed September 25, 2006]
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/SnellsLaw.htm
l.
Information on making the hollow prism for this project
came from:
Edmiston, M.D., 2001. "A Liquid Prism for Refractive
Index Studies," Journal of Chemical Education
78(11):1479–1480, [accessed October 2, 2006]
available online at:
http://www.jce.divched.org/hs/Journal/Issues/2001/Nov/
clicSubscriber/V78N11/p1479.pdf.
The images illustrating refraction in the Introduction
are from Robin Wood's page about the technicalities of
making refractive index look correct in images that are
rendered by software:
Wood, R., 2003. "Refraction Index," [accessed October
2, 2006]
http://www.robinwood.com/Catalog/Technical/Gen3DTut
s/Gen3DPages/RefractionIndex1.html.
Materials and Equipment
To do this experiment you will need the following
materials and equipment:
several 1" × 3" glass microscope slides,
diamond scribe or glass cutter,
ruler,
electrical tape,
epoxy glue (either 5-minute or 30-minute epoxy),
toothpicks,
laser pointer,
cardboard,
tape,
tape measure,
paper,
pencil,
piece of string,
sugar,
water,
graduated cylinder,
gram scale,
calculator with trigonometric functions (sine,
arctangent).
Experimental Procedure
Laser Pointer Safety
Adult supervision recommended. Even low-power
lasers can cause permanent eye damage. Please
carefully review and follow the Laser Safety Guide.
Making the Prism from Microscope Slides
Figure 3, below, shows the sequence of steps you will
be following to make a hollow glass prism in the shape
of an equilateral triangle (from Edmiston, 1999). The
prism will hold a liquid as you measure the liquid's
index of refraction.
Figure 4. Diagram of the sequence of steps for
making a hollow glass prism (equilateral
triangle) from microscope slides. The steps are
explained below. (Edmiston, 1999)
The goal is an equilateral prism that can hold liquid. It
will be constructed from microscope slides and epoxy.
Put a piece of black electrical tape across the face of
the slide as shown above (Figure 4a). The tape should
hang over the edge.
Score the other side of the microscope slide with a
diamond scribe or glass cutter as shown (Figure 4a).
Use a straightedge to guide the diamond scribe. The
two scribe lines should be one inch apart and
perpendicular to the long edge of the slide. (If desired,
before scribing you can mark the positions for the
scribe lines with marker. The marker can later be
cleaned off with a small amount of rubbing alcohol on a
paper towel.)
Now you will break the glass along the scribe lines.
Hold the slide on either side of the first scribe line and
bend the glass toward the taped side. Bend just
enough to break the glass. Repeat for the second
scribe line (Figure 4b).
Now bend the glass away from the tape, allowing the
tape to stretch (Figure 4c). Continue bending until the
triangle closes.
Place the prism on a flat surface to align the bottom
edges. Use the overhanging tape to secure the prism in
this configuration (Figure 4d).
Adjust the edges of each face so that they align
correctly. At each apex of the prism, the inside edges
should be in contact along their entire vertical length.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions for mixing the
epoxy cement (usually you mix equal amounts from
each of two tubes). Use a toothpick to apply epoxy to
the inside corners of the prism to glue the three faces
together (Figure 4e). The corners need to be water-
tight, but keep the epoxy in the corners and away from
the faces of the prism. Keep the bottom surface flat
and allow the epoxy to set.
When the epoxy in the corners has set firmly, mix up
fresh epoxy and use a toothpick to apply it to the
bottom edge of the prism. Glue the prism to a second
microscope slide as shown (Figure 4f). The bottom
edge needs to be water-tight, but keep the epoxy away
from the faces of the prism.
Allow the epoxy to set overnight, and then your prism
will be ready for use.
Measuring the Index of Refraction of a Liquid
Figure 5, below, is a diagram of the setup you will use
for measuring the index of refraction of a liquid. (Note
that the diagram is not to scale.)
Figure 5. Diagram of setup for measuring the
index of refraction of a liquid using a laser
pointer and a hollow triangular prism (not to
scale; based on the diagram in Nierer, 2002).
The laser pointer should be set up so that its beam
(dotted red line in Figure 5) is perpendicular to a
nearby wall. You should attach a big piece of paper to
the wall for marking and measuring where the beam
hits. The height of the laser pointer should be adjusted
so that it hits about half-way up the side of the prism.
The laser pointer should be fixed in place. Check
periodically to make sure that the beam is still hitting
its original spot.
When the prism is empty (filled only with air), then
placing it in the path should not divert the beam. Mark
the spot where the beam hits the wall when the prism
is empty. When the prism is filled with liquid, the laser
beam will be refracted within the prism (solid blue
line). The emerging beam (solid red line) will hit the
wall some distance away from the original spot of the
undiverted beam. You will measure the distance, x,
between these two points (see Figure 5).
Figure 6, below, is a more detailed view of the prism
which illustrates how to measure the angle of minimum
deviation, θmd. You need to mark points a, b, and c in
order to measure the angle. Points a and b are easy,
because they are project on the wall. Marking point c is
more difficult, because it is under the prism. The next
several steps describe how to mark point c.
Figure 6. Detail diagram showing how to
measure the angle of minimum deviation (not
to scale; based on the diagram in Nierer,
2002).
Tape a sheet of paper to the table, centered
underneath the prism.
With the prism empty, on the sheet of paper mark the
point where the beam enters the prism (point d in
Figure 6). Then mark the point where the beam exits
the prism (point e in Figure 6). Later you will draw a
line between d and e to show the path of the
undiverted beam.
On the wall, mark the point where the undiverted laser
hits (point b in Figure 6). (As long as the laser pointer
stays fixed, this point should be remain constant
throughout your experiment. It's a good idea to check
it for each measurement.)
Now add liquid to the prism. You want to rotate the
prism so that the path of the refracted beam within the
prism (solid blue line from d to f in Figure 6) is parallel
with the base of the prism. (A pinch of non-dairy
creamer in the liquid can help you visualize the beam
within the prism, and should not have a significant
effect on the index of refraction of the liquid.) When
the prism is rotated correctly, mark the position of the
emerging beam on the paper on the wall (point a in
Figure 6). On the paper on the table, mark the point
where the beam emerges from the prism (point f in
Figure 6).
Now you can move the prism aside. Leave the paper
taped in place.
Use a ruler to draw a line from point d to point e. This
marks the path of the undiverted beam.
Next, you want to extend a line from point a (on the
wall) through point f (on the table). To do this, stretch a
string from point a so that it passes over point f. Mark
the point (c) where the string crosses the line between
d and e.
Measure the distance, x, between points a and b, and
record it in your data table.
Measure the distance, L, between points b and c, and
record it in your data table.
The distances you have measure define the angle of
minimum deviation, θmd. The ratio x/L is the tangent of
the angle. To get the angle, use your calculator to find
the arctangent of x/L. (The arctangent of x/L means
"the angle whose tangent is equal to x/L.") Record the
angle in your data table.
Now that you have the angle of minimum deviation,
you can use equation 4 to calculate the index of
refraction, n, of the liquid in the prism.
To check that your setup is working, plain water should
have an index of refraction of 1.334.
Standard Sugar Solutions for Comparison
Use the following table for amounts of sugar and water
to use in order to make 5%, 10%, and 15% sugar
solutions.
desired amount amount
concentration sugar (g) water (mL)
5% 5 95
10 10 90
15 15 85
Measure the index of refraction of each sugar solution.
Now measure the index of refraction of a solution with
unknown sugar concentration (e.g., a clear soft drink or
fruit juice). If you measure a carbonated beverage,
make sure that there are no bubbles in the path of the
laser (gently dislodge them from the side of the glass,
if necessary).
With the index of refraction of the unknown solution,
combined with the data you have from your known
sugar solutions, you should be able to estimate the
sugar concentration of the unknown solution.
Variations
Compare the index of refraction of regular and diet
soda. Is there a difference?
Can you use index of refraction to measure different
the concentration of salt dissolved in water? Make salt
solutions with different known concentrations and find
out. If you live near a body of salt water, can you use
this method to estimate the salt concentration of salt
water samples from different locations? This would be
especially interesting to measure where fresh and salt
water meet, e.g., in a tidal estuary where a river or
stream meets a bay or the ocean.
Advanced. Slowly pour water containing a pinch of
non-dairy creamer over a layer of sugar crystals in the
bottom of an aquarium, trying not to allow too much
turbulence to develop in the water. Wait for an hour or
two to allow a concentration gradient to form as the
sugar crystals dissolve. Predict what will happen when
a beam of light shines through the solution. Shine a
laser pointer through the solution. Can you account for
the path that the beam follows in the liquid?
(http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/physics/u3c12phy.ht
ml)
Credits
Andrew Olson, Ph.D., Science Buddies
Sources
Edmiston, M.D., 2001. "A Liquid Prism for Refractive
Index Studies," Journal of Chemical Education
78(11):1479–1480, [accessed October 2, 2006]
available online at:
http://www.jce.divched.org/hs/Journal/Issues/2001/Nov/
clicSubscriber/V78N11/p1479.pdf.
Nierer, J., 2002. "Using the Prism Method," [accessed
September 25, 2006]
http://laser.physics.sunysb.edu/~jennifer/journal/prism.
html.
Soderstrom, E.K., 2004. "How Does Sugar Density
Affect the Index of Refraction of Water?" California
State Science Fair Abstract [October 2, 2006]
http://www.usc.edu/CSSF/History/2004/Projects/J1533.p
df.
Last edit date: 2006-10-13 22:00:00
The Joly Photometer: Measuring Light Intensity Using
the Inverse Square Law
Related Links
Science Fair Project Guide
Physics
Project Summary
Difficulty 6
Time required Average (about a week)
Prerequisites None
Material
Readily available
Availability
Cost Low ($20–$50)
Adult supervision recommended
Safety
for cutting wax.
Objective
The goal of this project is to measure the relative
intensity of different light bulbs, using a simple
photometer that you can build yourself.
Introduction
As you move away from a light source, the light gets
dimmer. No doubt you've noticed this with reading
lamps, streetlights, and so on. The diagram at right
shows what is happening with a picture. At the center,
the yellow star represents a point source of light.
Imagine the light from the star spreading out into
empty space in all directions. Now imagine the light
that falls on a square at some arbitrary distance from
the star (d = 1, yellow square). Move away, doubling
the distance from the star (d = 2). The light from the
original square has now "spread out" over an area of 4
(= 22) squares. Thus, at twice the original distance, the
intensity of the light passing through a single square
will be 1/4 of the original intensity. Going out still
further, tripling the original distance (d = 3), and the
light from the original square now covers an area of 9
(= 32) squares. Thus, at three times the original
distance, the intensity of the light passing through a
single square will be 1/9 of the original intensity. This is
what is meant by the "Inverse Square Law." As you
move away from a point light source, the intensity of
the light is proportional to 1/d2, the inverse square of
the distance. Because the same geometry applies to
many other physical phenomena (sound, gravity,
electrostatic interactions), the inverse square law has
significance for many problems in physics.
In this project you'll build a simple photometer,
invented by the Irish scientist, John Joly. As you'll see,
the design of the photometer is based on the inverse
square law. In the Joly photometer, two equal-sized
blocks of paraffin wax are separated by a layer of
aluminum foil. The wax blocks are mounted in a box
with windows cut out on the left, front, and right sides,
as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Diagram of a Joly photometer. Inside the box
are two equal-sized blocks of paraffin wax, separated
by a sheet of aluminum foil.
The photometer is positioned between two light
sources (see Figure 2). The two light sources and the
center of the photometer should all be at the same
height. Light from the first source illuminates the left-
hand paraffin block. Light from the second source
illuminates the right-hand paraffin block. To insure
uniform illumination, the distance from each light
source to the photometer should be relatively large
compared to the size of the wax block. Also, there
should be no other light sources in the room. The
experimenter views the photometer through the front
window and moves it back and forth between the two
light sources until both blocks appear equally bright.
The photometer should be moved along an imaginary
straight line connecting the two light sources.
Figure 2. schematic diagram of Joly photometer
experimental setup. See text for details.
When the two wax blocks are equally illuminated, the
relationship between the intensities of the two light
sources is determined by the inverse square law. Here
is the relationship in the form of an equation:
You can build your own Joly photometer and use it to
measure the relative intensity of different light bulbs.
Using the wattage of each bulb, you can also compare
how efficient different bulbs are at producing light.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start
Background Research
To do this project, you should do research that enables
you to understand the following terms and concepts:
inverse square law,
incandescent light bulbs,
compact fluorescent light bulbs,
photometer.
Questions
How do incandescent light bulbs work?
How do incandescent light bulbs wear out?
How do compact fluorescent light bulbs work?
How do incandescent light bulbs wear out?
Which type of bulb lasts longer?
Which type of bulb is more efficient at producing light?
Bibliography
For information on the inverse square law, see:
Exploratorium, date unknown. "Inverse Square Law,"
Exploratorium Science Snacks [accessed March 7,
2006]
http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/inverse_square_l
aw.html.
Henderson, T., 2004. "Inverse Square Law," The Physics
Classroom, Glenbrook South High School, Glenview, IL
[accessed March 7, 2006]
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/esta
tics/u8l3c.html.
To learn more about John Joly, the inventor of the Joly
photometer, check out this article:
Weaire, D. and S. Coonan, 2001. "The Parrot, the Pince-
nez and the Pleochroic Halo," Europhysics News 32 (2),
available online at [accessed March 7, 2007]
http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/08/article2/article
2.html.
This project is based on:
Elfick, J., 2007. "School Science Lessons: Physics: 2.2.4
Light Bulb Brightness, Joly Photometer," School of
Education, University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Australia [accessed March 7, 2006]
http://www.uq.edu.au/_School_Science_Lessons/UNPh0
2.html#2.2.4.
Materials and Equipment
To do this experiment you will need the following
materials and equipment:
1 lb. box of paraffin wax (contains 4 slabs),
sharp knife for cutting wax,
aluminum foil,
small cardboard box,
scissors,
two identical light fixtures (e.g., clamp-on work lamp),
measuring tape,
various light bulbs to test.
Experimental Procedure
Building the Photometer
You should be able to find one-pound boxes of paraffin
wax at your local grocery or hardware store. Each box
contains four slabs of paraffin wax.
Cut one slab of the wax in half with a sharp knife. Work
carefully so that you don't chip or break the slab.
Cut a piece of aluminum foil to the same size as your
two blocks of wax, and place it in between them.

Use tape and small pieces of cardboard to mount the
wax blocks inside a small cardboard box, with windows
cut on three sides, as in the diagram below.
Experimental Setup
The illustration below is a schematic diagram of the
experimental setup.
Place the photometer in between two light sources.
Each wax block is illuminated by only one of the
sources. The aluminum foil prevents light from passing
between the blocks.
The light sources and the photometer should be at the
same height.
The photometer should be positioned on the straight
line between the two sources.
The two light sources should be the only sources of
light in the room. No bright sunlight!
To insure uniformity of illumination at the photometer,
the distance from the photometer to the nearest light
source should be large compared to the size of the wax
block.
Move the photometer back and forth between the two
light sources until the the two wax blocks are equally
bright.
Analyzing Your Results
When the wax blocks are equally illuminated, the
inverse square law says that the intensities of the two
light sources are related by the following equation:
Choose one light bulb as your standard, for example, a
60 W soft white bulb. Call this light I1. The intensity of
the second light is then given by:
Measure the distance from each light source to the
aluminum foil layer of the Joly photometer.
Calculate the relative intensity of each bulb compared
to your standard bulb. (Your standard bulb will have an
intensity of 1.0. You can check this by using two
identical bulbs. It's a good way to show that your
photometer works as expected.)
To calculate the efficiency of each bulb, divide the
relative intensity by the bulb wattage.
Variations
Compare the output of incandescent vs. compact
fluorescent bulbs. Using your measurements, can you
figure out how to compare the cost of using each type
of bulb in order to provide an equal amount of light?
Your cost comparision should include the cost to
purchase each bulb, the cost of electricity for each
bulb, and the lifetime of each bulb.
Compare the output of "long-life" bulbs vs. normal
incandescent bulbs. Many long-life bulbs are designed
to run at higher voltage (e.g., 130 V) than is normally
supplied from the wall socket (115 V in the U.S.). When
run at normal house voltage, these bulbs do not get as
hot as they would at 130 V, which means that
http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_ideas
/home_Phys.shtml?gclid=CPHXt9L9v44CFRZLYQodgH1
hgQ
Objective
The objective of this project is to learn how to use a
diffraction pattern to measure the pitch (spacing) of
the data tracks on CDs and DVDs.
Introduction
CDs and DVDs are everywhere these days. In fact, you
probably receive one free in the mail every month or
two as an advertisement for an Internet service
provider. CDs and DVDs store huge amounts of binary
data (patterns of 0's and 1's) which your player can
"read" with a laser, lenses, light detector, and some
sophisticated electronics.
CDs and DVDs are both multi-layered disks, made
mostly of plastic. The layer that contains the data
(DVDs can have more than one data layer) consists of
a series of tiny pits, arranged in a spiral, tracking from
the center of the disk to the edge. The data layer is
coated with a thin layer of aluminum or silver, making
it highly reflective.
How small are the pits? Well, their diameter is 500
nanometers (nm). How small is that? A millimeter
(mm), which you can see with your unaided eye, is
one-thousandth of a meter. Imagine how much you
have to shrink a meter to get down to the size of a
millimeter. Now imagine shrinking a millimeter by the
same amount. That takes you down to a micrometer
(μm), or one-thousandth of a millimeter. You have to
shrink a micrometer one thousand times more to get
down to the size of a nanometer. A typical human hair
is about 100 μm wide. The pits on a CD are 0.5 μm
wide. So you could fit 200 pits across the width of a
typical human hair! The diameter of the pits is also
similar to the wavelengths of visible light (400 to 700
nm).

On the CD, the pits have some blank space ("land") on

either side of them. This means that the adjacent data
tracks of the spiral are regularly spaced (something
like 3 times the pit diameter). This regular spacing of
the spiral tracks, slightly larger than the wavelengths
of visible light, produces the shimmering colors you
see when you tilt a CD back and forth under a light.
The colors result from diffraction of the white light
source by the CD.

What is diffraction? That is a bit harder to describe, so

we'll start with a related concept that is easier to
understand: interference. Interference is what happens
when waves collide with each other. If the peak of the
first wave meets the peak of the second wave, the
peaks add together to form a higher peak. If the
trough of the first wave meets the trough of the
second wave, the troughs add together to form a lower
trough. If the peak of the first wave meets the trough
of the second wave, the peak is made smaller. And if
The second screen shot shows the results of two wave
the peak of the first wave is the same size as the
sources (choose "Setup: Two Sources" from the first
trough of the second wave, they can actually cancel
drop-down list):
each other out, adding to zero at the point of
interference. You can see a demonstration of
interference with the Ripple Tank Applet link in the
Bibliography.

The first screen shot shows the results of a single wave

source (choose "Setup: Single Source" from the first
drop-down list and "Color Scheme 2" from the fourth
drop-down list). To avoid the complications of ripples
reflected from the walls of the tank, click on the "Clear
Walls" button (simulates an infinitely large tank, so
reflections are eliminated):

The diagonal black lines are regions of destructive

interference (where peaks of one wave met troughs of
the other). If you run the applet yourself, you'll see
that, though the waves keep moving, these regions are
a steady feature. This is a simple example of patterns
that can form when waves interfere in well-defined
ways.
There are many more simulations you can try with the
Ripple Tank Applet to give you a better understanding
of interference and diffraction. Take some time to
explore with it.
When there are a large number of wave sources, or an
array of obstacles that a wave interacts with, the result
is usually described as "diffraction" rather than
"interference", but it is basically the same fundamental
process at work.
So, how can you use diffraction to measure the data
track spacing on a CD or DVD? The diffraction pattern
from a bright, monochromatic source (e.g., a laser
pointer) interacting with a regular structure can be
described by a fairly simple equation:
d(sin θm - sin θi ) = mλ (Equation 1)
• In this equation, d is the spacing of the
structure (in this case, the data tracks).
• θm is the angle of the mth diffracted ray, and θi
is the angle of the incident (incoming) light.
Both angles (θm and θi) are measured from the
normal, a line perpendicular to the diffracting
surface at the point of incidence (where the
light strikes the CD).
• m is the order of the diffracted ray. The
reflected ray (when θm = θi) has order 0
(zero). Rays farther from the normal than the
reflected beam have order 1, +2, +3, etc. Rays
closer to the normal have order −1, −2, −3,
etc. In certain cases, for example very small d,
some or all of the negative m orders may
actually be diffracted through such a large
angle that they are on the same side of the
normal as the incident light. When the
diffracted beam is on the same side of the
normal as the incident light, the angle for the
diffracted beam is negative.
• λ is the wavelength of the light.
The Experimental Procedure section will show you how
to produce and measure a diffraction pattern with a CD
and laser pointer. It will also show you how to use the
equation to calculate the track spacing.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to
Start Background Research
To do this project, you should do research that enables
you to understand the following terms and concepts:
• CD, CD-ROM
• DVD
• interference
• diffraction
Questions:
• DVDs can hold from 7 to 25 times the amount
of data on a CD, depending on the DVD
format. Do you think the DVD data track
spacing will be greater, lesser, or the same as
the CD data track spacing? If greater or lesser,
how much?
Bibliography
• The Ripple Tank Applet is one of a set of
educational math and physics Java applets by
Paul Falstad:
http://www.falstad.com/ripple/index.html
• This applet by Sergey Kiselev and Tanya
Yanovsky-Kiselev illustrates the simplest case
of diffraction, light passing through a single
slit:
http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/applets/Intro_
physics/kisalev/java/slitdiffr/
• Another slit-diffraction applet from the
Molecular Expressions website:
http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/primer/java/dif
fraction/diffractionorders/index.html
Materials and Equipment
laser pointer (with known wavelength)
CD
DVD
protractor
index card
several pieces of thin cardboard (cereal box, or
similar)
sturdy box, preferably wooden
stack of books
black marker
calculator with trigonometry functions (sin, cos,
tan)
digital camera and tripod (optional)
Experimental Procedure
Laser Pointer Safety
Adult supervision recommended. Even low-power
lasers can cause permanent eye damage. Please
carefully review and follow the Laser Safety Guide.
table. The center of the protractor
should be lined up midway between
the center and the rim of the CD.
g. A stack of books makes a convenient
elbow rest for the person holding the
laser pointer. Rest your fingers against
the box as shown to help hold the laser
pointer steady.
h. Before you turn on the laser pointer,
make sure that no one is in the path of
the diffracted beams (the plane of the
index card, extended out on both sides
and above).
i. Direct the laser pointer beam down the
face of the index card, and align the
beam with the center of the protractor.
You may have to fiddle slightly before
you see a diffraction pattern like the
one in the photo. Make your
adjustments carefully, keeping the
beam as close to parallel with the card
as possible.

2. Making measurements
a. When the incident and diffracted
beams are clearly visible, mark their
locations with the marker, or take a
digital photo for later analysis. If you
1. The image above shows the experimental
are using a marker, start with a fresh
setup. It's a good idea to work near the edge
index card for each measurement. If
of a table, with good lighting. Here are the
you are using a digital camera, make
important features of the setup, in order of
sure that the camera is aligned parallel
construction:
to the index card, with the frame
a. Place the CD, label-side down, near the horizontally centered on the protractor.
center of the workspace. As a test, it's a good idea to take a
picture of an index card marked with
b. Put a piece of cardboard to the right of
three lines at known angles. Measure
the CD, and another piece of cardboard
the angles with your favorite photo
behind the CD. Both pieces should be
editing program to confirm that your
about the same thickness as the CD.
camera is aligned properly.
You will be placing the box on top of all
this. The cardboard prevents the box
from wobbling.
c. If you want, put a piece of paper or
tissue over the back half of the CD, to
prevent scratching.
d. For measuring the angles, you will
attach the protractor to the index card,
flush at the bottom. Use a stack of two
cardboard spacers at the points
indicated, so that the laser pointer can
shine down between the index card
and the protractor.
e. Tape the index card to the side of the
box (we used a wooden box for holding
magazines). The index card and
protractor should be flush with the
bottom of the box.
f. Carefully place the box over the CD
and cardboard pieces. You want the
index card lined up along the diameter
of the CD, parallel to the front of the
 the positions for 0 and 180 degrees are
not flush with the CD. Because of this,
the angles measured with this setup
will be slightly underestimated. If you
do the calculations with the angles
given above, you'll see that the
calculated values for data track spacing
are reasonable nevertheless. However,
a protractor that has 0 and 180
degrees flush with its edge is a better
choice.]

d. Repeat the procedure at least five

times. If you are using a marker,
remember to start with a fresh index
card for each measurement. It is OK to
vary the angle of the incident beam
with each trial.
e. Do five trials with a DVD for
comparison.

3. Calculating d, the data track spacing.

a. Make separate tables for your CD and
DVD data, similar to the one below.
You'll fill in the first five columns from
your measurements, and you will
calculate values for the last four
columns. For some angles of the laser
b. pointer, you may not see all of the
diffraction orders. In that case, just
c. The image above shows how to mark leave the column corresponding to the
and measure the angles. If you are missing order blank.
using a marker, mark the beam
locations with dots, and label them. If
you are using digital photos, use a d d d
d,
photo editing program to draw lines , , ,
m
over the beams, starting from the m m m
T =
center of the protractor. Remember = = =
r θ θ θ θ −
θ 1 2 −
that angles are measured from the i + + − − 2
i 1
normal (black line in the illustration). a 1 2 1 2 (
( ( (
For example, θi, the angle of the l n
n n n
incident beam, is 20 degrees in the m
m m m
)
image above. You measure from the ) ) )
normal (90° on the protractor) to the
incident beam (70° on the protractor).
1
The angle for the diffracted beam of
order m=1 is about +48 degrees. You
measure from the normal (90° on the 2
protractor) to the diffracted beam
(about 138° on the protractor). This
3
angle is positive because the diffracted
beam is on the opposite side of the
normal from the incident beam. The e
angle for the diffracted beam of order t
m=−1 is about −7 degrees. This angle c
is negative because the diffracted .
beam is on the same side of the
normal as the incident beam. What is b.
the angle for diffracted beam of order
m=−2? Is it positive or negative? c. Here is the formula for calculating d:
d = m × λ ⁄ (sin θm − sin θi ) (Equation 2)
[Note: Did you notice the small d. Calculate d for each of the non-zero
problem with this setup? Examine the order diffracted rays (i.e., m = +1, +2,
protractor closely, and you will see that −1, −2). For example, for m = −1, and
 a laser pointer with a wavelength of need to convert your angles from
655 nm, the formula would be: degrees to radians.

d = (−1) × 655 ⁄ (sin θ−1 − sin

θi )
Credits
e. Since we entered the wavelength in
units of nm, our answer is also in nm.
(To convert to μm, multiply your
answer by 1 μm/1000 nm.)
f. Note: make sure that your calculator is
set for entering angles in degrees.
g. If your laser pointer specifies its
wavelength as a range of numbers, use
the center of the range as the value for
λ. Inexpensive red laser pointers are
generally in the 635 – 670 nm range.
Green laser pointers are 532 nm.
h. Calculate the average value for each d
column, and, separately, for all of the
values of d.

Variations

• If you measure d for 3 different CDs or DVDs,

how do the values compare?
• How sensitive is the value to the placement of
the index card relative to the disk? In other
words, if your measurement is not along a
diameter of the disk, but instead is along a
chord, do you get a different value for the
track spacing?
• If you have a green laser pointer available, do
you get the same value for d? (Remember to
change λ when you calculate d!)
• When you calculate the d, for your data table,
you are performing the same operations over
and over. This is a good chance to add some
computer science to your project. Here are two
possible ways to go:
1. Learn how to use JavaScript to create
your own data-track spacing calculator
using Equation 2, above. See the
following Science Buddies project for
information on writing a JavaScript
calculator:
Forms and Functions: Writing a Simple
Calculator Program with JavaScript
2. Learn how to use a spreadsheet
program (e.g., Microsoft's Excel or
WordPerfect's QuattroPro). A
spreadsheet is basically a huge, blank
data table that you can fill in any way
you like. You can even program it to do
the calculations for you, automatically.
Note: if you program the spreadsheet
to do the calculations, check the
documentation for the spreadsheet's
"sin()" function. It may be expecting
angles specified in radians, so you may