Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1 DOI 10.1002/mawe.

200900529 5

Modern materials for forming and cutting tools – overview

Moderne Werkstoffe f
r Umform- und Schneidwerkzeuge – berblick

C. Berger, H. Scheerer, J. Ellermeier

Materials are an ever-changing field of science with high innovation potential. The knowledge
in this subject is fundamental for manufacturing industry. Future products play a decisive role
in choosing materials. With new production and processing technologies the quality of materi-
als was improved significantly. Modern heat treatments and high specialized coatings create
properties, which lead for example to high speed machining with an excellent productivity.
Under these conditions, it is necessary, to develop customized products. This paper presents an
overview of the state of the art of modern materials for forming and cutting tools and depicts
the investigation on tool steels, cemented carbides, ceramics and materials with very high hard-
ness and describes some selected fields of innovation in these fields.
Keywords: Forming and cutting tools / tool steels / cemented carbide / ceramic / coatings / polycrystalline
diamonds / cubic boron nitride /

Werkstoffe sind ein sich st
ndig ver
ndernder wissenschaftlicher Themenbereich mit hohem In-
novationspotenzial. Fr die verarbeitende Industrie ist die Wissenserweiterung in diesem The-
menbereich von fundamentaler Bedeutung. Die Werkstoffauswahl spielt dabei fr zuknftige
Produkte eine entscheidende Rolle. Mit neuen Produkten und Prozesstechniken wurde die Quali-
t
t von Werkstoffen wesentlich verbessert. Moderne W
rmebehandlungen und hoch speziali-
sierte Beschichtungen fhren zu neuen Eigenschaften, die z.B. eine exzellente Produktivit
t
durch Hochgeschwindigkeitsspanen ermglichen. Unter diesen Bedingungen ist es notwendig
anwendungsorientierte Produkte zu entwickeln. Dieser Beitrag pr
sentiert einen berblick ber
den Stand der Technik bei modernen Werkstoffen fr Umform- und Schneidwerkwerkzeuge und
stellt die Entwicklungen im Bereich von Werkzeugst
hlen, Hartmetallen, Keramiken, und Werk-
stoffen mit sehr hoher H
rte vor und beschreibt einige ausgew
hlte innovative Bereiche.
Schl
sselwrter: Umform- und Schneidwerkzeuge / Werkzeugst
hle / Sintermetalle / Keramik / Be-
schichtungen / PKD / CBN /

1 Introduction application of high strength steels and of austenitic steels

Forming or cutting tools influence the production costs signifi-
cantly in dependence of their properties as hardness, strength,
ductility, wear resistance and reliability. The important factors to
influence these properties are the material and the surface
design of the tools. The trend is to develop specialized materials
and surfaces with customized properties for each application
under the consideration of ecological and economical aspects [1,
2, 3] and to realize a life tool management [4]. This is one area
which is responsible for research and development.
Another area is the challenge of forming and cutting tools and
the materials for forming and cutting tools depending mainly
from the developments of end products. Significant develop-
ments e.q. in the automobile industry lead to the increasing
Zentrum fr Konstruktionswerkstoffe, Technische Universit
t Darm-
stadt, Grafenstraße 2, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany
Correspondence author: Dr.-Ing. J. Ellermeier, Zentrum fr Konstruk-
tionswerkstoffe, Technische Universit
t Darmstadt, Grafenstraße 2,
64283 Darmstadt, Germany
E-mail: ellermeier@mpa-ifw.tu-darmstadt.de
because of the necessity of light weight construction in depend-
ence of ecological needs (reduction of fuel consumption, usage
of bio fuels (can lead to corrosion problems)) [5]. This high
strength steels influence strongly the sheet metal forming proc-
ess and lead to an increasing wear (abrasion and adhesion) of the
forming and cutting tools. It is necessary to develop tools without
and with coatings to shield them against the higher wear load.
For the successful development of modern tool materials and
coatings the detailed analysis of the loads and the causes of the
failures are very important. In dependence of the analysis it is
possible to improve properties like tool life and cutting speed of
the tools, to reduce the wear through defined research activities
to reach the technology advantages
* high hardness of the surface,
* increased toughness,
* high compressive strength,
* increased tool life,
* increased wear resistance and
* adapted composition and structure of coatings
and to fulfill the main aims: high process velocity and econo-
mic efficiency.

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6 C. Berger et al. Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1

Table 1. Chemical compositions of typical high speed alloy steel, plastic form steel, cold work steel and hot work steel [6]
Tabelle 1. Chemische Zusammensetzung von typischen Hochgeschwindigkeitsst
hlen, Kunststoffformenst
hle, Kaltarbeitst
hlen und
Warmarbeitst
hlen [6]

Chemical Elements [wt.-%] C Cr Mo Ni V W Co Addition

cold work steel 0.5 – 2.0 1.0 – 12.0 0.5 – 1.5 – 0.1 – 15.0 0.5 – 3.0 – –
X38CrMo16 (e.q. forming tools) 0.33 – 0.43 15.0 – 17.0 1.00 – 1.30 – – – – –
X38CrMo16 + N 0.25 – 0.30 14.3 – 14.6 0.90 – 1.00 – – – – +N
hot work steel 0.3 – 0.5 1.0 – 12.0 a5.0 – a2.0 a9.0 a4.5 –
X50CrMoV5-1 (e.q. paper knifes, 0.50 5.00 1.40 – 1.00 – – –
stamps)
plastic form steel 0.3 – 0.6 1,0 – 16.0 a1.0 a4.0 – – – –
X36CrMo17 (e.q. plastic forming) 0.33 – 0.43 15.0 – 17.0 1.00 – 1.30 f 1.00 – – – –
40CrMnNiMo8-6-2 (e.q. plastic 0.40 1.90 0.20 – – – – 1.5 Mn
forming)
high speed alloy steel 0.55 – 2.5 4.0 – 4.5 2.0 – 5.0 – 3.0 – 5.0 5.0 – 11.0 5.0 – 9.0 –
S6-5-2 (e.q. cold forming or milling) 0.85 – 5.00 – 2.0 6.5 – –

Figure 2. Developments of cutting tool materials in dependence of

Figure 1. Figure 1. Tool materials, historical development [7].
Bild 1. Werkzeugwerkstoffe, historische Entwicklung [7].
This paper gives an overview about forming and cutting mate-
rials and presents some innovative research of the last years in
the fields of:
* tool steels,
* cemented carbides,
* ceramics,
* materials with very high hardness and
* coatings of forming and cutting tools (e.q. dry drilling).
2 Tool steels
Tool steels are according to DIN EN ISO 4957 high quality steels
which can be divided in dependence of their chemical composi-
tion and properties for different applications into cold work steel,
hot work steel, plastic form steel and high speed alloy steel,
Table 1. For shielding against wear in general cold work steels are
used. The cold work steels are limited up to 200 8C. Hot work
steels are applied for wear resistance and temperatures up to
600 8C and need a high temperature resistance. By plastic form-
ing steel the resistance against corrosive loading is most impor-
tant and the high speed alloy steel is used for cutting and forming
applications. These tool steels (from cold work steels to HSS-
steels) are usable for forming and cutting tools, but for cutting
the cutting speed (vc60 = middle cutting speed for cutting a steel with
600 MPa strength) [8].
Bild 2. Entwicklungen fr Schneidwerkzeugwerkstoffe in Abh
ngig-
keit der Schneidgeschwindigkeit (vc60 = mittlere Schneidgeschwindig-
keit fr die spanende Bearbeitung von Stahl mit 600 MPa Zugfestig-
keit [8].
tools it is necessary to have a certain amount of tungsten to reach
a sufficient life time of the cutting tools.
In the dependence of the application as cutting, metal form-
ing, plastic forming or forging the tools need properties like
hardness, wear resistance, ductility, load capacity at different
temperatures. And on the other hand the production engineer-
ing requires higher productivity through e.q. high speed cutting
or higher deformation degrees, Figure 1. These are the reasons,
that partly only with diamond, c-BN or ceramic tools or with coat-
ings on tool steels it is possible to fulfill the today asked demands
of a high cutting speed together with economic efficiency, Fig-
ure 2.
2.1 Cold work steels
Cold work tool steels are employed for the manufacture of tools
for applications involving surface temperatures of not more than
200 8C. The cold work steels are structured in unalloyed and
alloyed cold work steels. The alloyed cold work steels have in
comparison to the unalloyed steels the advantage an increased
hardness with jominy hardenability. Cold work steel is exposed

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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1
Figure 3. Injection mold for fittings made with the N-alloyed prehar-
dened stainless [12].
Bild 3. Spritzgießmatrizen fr Fittinge aus vorvergtetem, Stickstoff
legiertem, rostfreiem Stahl [12].
to high stresses and requires great resistance against wear,
impact and bending. The development of new steel grades is
mainly guided by analyzing damage suffered by tools in various
processes. In each area of use, properties are sought which will
extend the working life of the tool. Different types of wear
demand different types of steel. Product development is moving
towards producing more robust steel with higher resistance to
wear and greater durability, such as powder metal steel grades
[9]. The critical wear property for stamping stainless steels and
high strength steels is resistance to chipping, which is related to
the tool steels impact energy. Traditional tool-steel grades have
several limitations that can prove difficult to overcome with con-
ventional steelmaking techniques. When trying to improve wear
resistance of the steels by increasing alloying content, problems
can occur during manufacturing at the mill and when trying to
use the alloyed steels in applications where the poor cracking
resistance of the alloys limits their effectiveness. These limita-
tions led to the development of the powder-metallurgy (PM) tech-
nique for producing high-alloyed tool steels [10].
High-strength austenitic stainless steels can be produced by
replacing carbon with nitrogen. Nitrogen has greater solid-solu-
bility than carbon, is a strong austenite stabilizer, potent intersti-
tial solid-solution strengthener and improves pitting corrosion
resistance. Although the solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron is
very low, 0.045 wt.-% at 1,600 8C and atmospheric pressure,
nitrogen levels above 1 wt.-% can be obtained through alloying
and specialized high-pressure melting techniques. An austenitic
stainless steel should be considered “high-nitrogen” if it contains
more nitrogen than can be retained in the material by processing
at atmospheric pressure; for most alloys, this limit is approxi-
mately 0.4 wt.-% [11].
Nitrogen is a very powerful solid-solution strengthening ele-
ment, and high-nitrogen austenitic stainless steels can have yield
strengths exceeding those of the standard, carbon based, auste-
nitic grade steels by 200 – 350 %. Yield strengths can be increased
to additional 300 % through cold work process, Figure 3. How-
ever, high-nitrogen stainless steels are thermally metastable and
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Modern Materials for Forming and Cutting Tools – Overview 7
Figure 4. Uniform microstructure of the N-alloyed prehardened stain-
less steel [12].
Bild 4. Homogenes Mikrogefge eines vorvergteten, Stickstoff legi-
erten, rostfreien Stahls [12].
in the absence of strong nitride formers, such as Ti, V and Nb,
prone to the rapid precipitation of Cr2N within a broad tempera-
ture regime. Precipitation kinetics is primarily controlled by Cr
diffusion, which is slow at lower temperatures, thus retarding
nitride precipitation below 500 8C. Nitrogen is most effective as a
strengthening agent, when retained in solid solution, since the
precipitation of nitrides has a detrimental effect on tensile ductil-
ity and impact toughness. Nitrogen additions clearly have a bene-
ficial effect on pitting and crevice corrosion resistance and gener-
ally do not have a detrimental effect in non-pitting environments.
The N-alloyed prehardened stainless steel (X38CrMo16 + N) has
an improved thermal conductivity. This improvement primarily
results from the chemical analysis and the very homogeneous
microstructure [12], Figure 4, Table 1.
2.2 Hot work steels
Hot work tool steel are typically used in engineering application
like die casting, extrusion, forging and hot pressing as well as for
light alloy processing. To fulfill the requirements for their appli-
cation fields, hot-work tool steels have to possess excellent
mechanical and thermo-physical properties like high strength,
high toughness, good tempering resistance, resistance against
high thermal stresses, stability in hardening and through hard-
ening properties [13], which can be reached through homogene-
ity and a high degree of purity.
New process techniques enable to produce very big tool com-
ponents. In this context hot work tool steels with big dimensions
are required. Ensuring good tool steel quality and the right
mechanical material parameters, dependent on the heat treat-
ment is a big challenge for tool steel producers and heat treat-
ment providers [14].
Martensitic microstructures including nanometer sized secon-
dary hardening carbides are used to reach high strength today.
The microstructure itself is governed by the chemical composi-
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8 C. Berger et al. Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1

depend on the overall working temperature, i. e. on the metal

being extruded and on the location of the tool part in question.
The component subjected to the most severe thermal influence
and highest stress is, of course, the die. Other parts which experi-
ence high temperatures are the liner, dummy block and, in the
cases where one is used, the mandrel.

Forging
Forging of steel, aluminum alloys and other non-ferrous metals,
mostly in the hot or warm condition, can be done on various
types of hammers and presses, with open or closed dies depend-
ing on the size, weight, shape and quantity of the final part.
Figure 5. Cogwheels manufactured with pressure die casting [16].
Bild 5. Im Druckgussverfahren hergestellte Zahnr
der [16]. 2.3 High speed alloy steels (HSS)
The HSS steels are divided depending of the production technol-
Table 2. Classification of HSS steels according to DIN ISO 11054 ogy and depending of the alloying elements in four main groups:
(E= increased Co and V content) conventional HSS and powder metallurgical (PM) HSS with
Tabelle 2. Klassifizierung von HSS-Stahl in Anlehnung an DIN different Co and V content, Table 2. In dependence of the applica-
ISO 11054 (E=erhhte Co und V Gehalte) tion the tools have different chemical composition, e.q. 6 % W +
5 % Mo (S6-5-2, e.q. driller, milling cutter); 2% W + 10% Mo (S2-
type Code chemical composition
10-1-8, e.q. end milling cutter); 12 % W (S12-1-4-5, e.q. cutting
conventional HSS HSS a 4.5% Co, a 2.6 V chisel), 18 % W (S18-1-2-5 (18 % W, 1 % Mo, 2 % V, 5 % Co, e.q.
HSS-E F 4.5% Co, F 2.6 V cutting chisel, milling cutter)), Table 3.
cemented carbide HSS-PM a 4.5% Co, a 2.6 V The worst case of failures of tools is the crack of the tool [10].
HSS-E-PM F 4.5% Co, F 2.6 V There exist three reasons which cause cracks: abrasive wear,
adhesive wear and surface fatigue. Powder metallurgical pro-
tion and a complex heat treatment consisting of hardening and duced steels offer an increased hardness with a better abrasive
subsequent multiple tempering [15]. wear. For the better wear resistance small and homogeneously,
uniformly distributed carbides are responsible, Table 3, e.q.
Die Casting HS10-2-5-8. The reasons for adhesive wear are localized micro
Pressure die casting offers an economical way of producing large welding points between tool and work material surface. Because
quantities of complex, high-tolerance parts in aluminum, mag- of the moving the welding points are broken and small particles
nesium, zinc, and copper alloys, Figure 5. Demands placed on are disconnected from the surfaces. A low friction coefficient,
high-pressure die casting tool steels are increasing as the result high ductility, high yield strength and hard carbides improve the
of faster cycle times, high alloyed melts and more complicated adhesive wear resistance. The smaller size and uniform distribu-
product features. The ability to withstand thermal shocks and tion of the carbides of powder metallurgical produced steels are
fatigue are the main properties the steel must display. Resistance responsible for the higher ductility. From damage investigations
to wear and corrosion are also important. it is well known that the main reasons for fatigue of HSS-steels
are carbide cluster and non-metallic inclusions. The quality
Extrusion (homogeneity, purity) of the HSS-steels depends for this reason
Hot extrusion of aluminum alloys, other non-ferrous metals and directly from the produced powder and from the production
steel involves the pressing of a hot billet through an aperture of a process of the powder. There are different important steps which
die to produce the required profile. The demands on the tool steel can influence the powder. The gas shielding against oxidation, a

Table 3. Examples of chemical compositions of HSS materials [8]

Tabelle 3. Beispiele fr chemische Zusammensetzungen von HSS Werkstoffen [8]

Elements [wt.-%] C Cr W Mo V Co Si Mn S O Fe

S6-5-2 0.85 – 6.5 5.0 2.0 – – – – – rest

S2-10-1-8 1.1 – 2.1 10.0 1.2 7.9 – – – – rest
S12-1-4-5 1.45 – 12 0.8 3.75 4.75 – – – – rest
S18-1-2-5 0.80 – 18 0.8 1.5 4.75 – – – – rest
HS10-2-5-8 1.63 4.66 10.5 2.00 4.70 7.83 0.30 0.24 0.0023 0.0094 rest
HS10-2-5-8 1.64 4.71 10.2 1.92 4.78 7.81 0.59 0.31 0.0014 0.0066 rest
(optimized powder
production)

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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1 Modern Materials for Forming and Cutting Tools – Overview 9

Table 5. Exemplary chemical composition of cemented carbides

and cermets [wt. – %] [8]
Tabelle 5. Exemplarische chemische Zusammensetzung von
Hartmetallen und Cermets [Gew.-%] [8]

Cemented carbides – Carbon Carbides Co/Ni –

Cermets nitrides matrix

P01 (cemented carbide) – 92 8

P10 (cermet) 85.7 0.8 16.7
P20 (cermet) 82.3 1.0 16.7

be used. In the temperature range between 20 8C and 500 8C the

Figure 6. Thermal conductivity of N-alloyed prehardened stainless
steel and X36CrMo17 (1.2316) [18].
Bild 6. Thermische Leitf
higkeit von Stickstoff legiertem, rostfreiem
Stahl und X36CrMo17 (1.2316) [18].
special Nalloyed prehard stainless steel (cold work steel) shows
an improved thermal conductivity, Figure 6. This improvement
primarily results from the chemical analysis and the very homo-
geneous microstructure [18], Table 4.

constant temperature during the atomization of the powder and
optimized atomization parameters lead to a reduced grain frac-
tion with lower impurities and increased homogeneity. Espe-
cially the content of the elements sulfur and oxygen can be
reduced, Table 3. This improved powder is the base for powder
metallurgical steel with very low impurities and a very homoge-
neous microstructure and a small grain size. The hardness of
these materials was 805 HV100 till 834 HV100.
Through the improvement of the powder production it was
possible to reduce the size of inclusions from L 55 lm to
L 25 lm and the amount of inclusions / area from
15.56103 Vol.-%/mm2 to 28.56104 Vol.-%/mm2. This improve-
ment leads to a significantly improvement of the fatigue behav-
iour of HSS-steels about 200 MPa for 2 million cycles. In depend-
ence of the reduction of the size of the inclusions the ductility
and the fracture safety increase significantly [17].
3 Cemented carbides
These materials are specially developed for cutting tools. The
cemented carbides are divided in hard metals, which contain
only carbides (WC, TiC, TaC, NbC) in a Co or Ni matrix and cer-
mets which contain in addition nitrides in a Co or Ni matrix,
Table 5. In comparison with WC cemented carbides the cermets
have a higher chemical resistance at high temperature and
higher cutting speed. There exist according to DIN ISO 513 six
groups (P, K, M, N, S, H). These groups indicate the cutting con-
ditions and the application possibilities: P = long chip (steel and
cast steel), K = short chip (cast iron), M = mixture (stainless steel,
austenitic steel, duplex steel), N (non iron metals), S (special
alloys, e.q. titan), H (hard materials, e.q. hardened steel). The
number after the letter describes the wear resistance and the
toughness. A higher number means lower wear resistance and
better toughness.

2.4 Plastic form steel

For plastic form steel mainly cold work steels and hot work steels
are used. Typical plastic form steel is supplied in the hardened
and tempered condition at approximately 290 HB to 330 HB, cor-
responding to about 32 HRC. In this way, a good combination of
machinability, hardness and wear resistance are given by the
homogeneous microstructure, causing improved corrosion
resistance too.
Improvements in productivity lead to a reduction in cycle time
during plastics processing. As a consequence, plastic mold steels
with a higher thermal conductivity are required. In dependence
of the temperature of the application cold or hot work steels can
3.1 WC-Co – Hard metals (HM)
The benefits of the powder metallurgical production of the
cemented carbides are improved cracking and fatigue resistance
because of the creation of a refined carbide structure, when com-
pared with conventionally produced high-alloy grades or HSS
steels, Table 6. More uniform microstructure leads to a signifi-
cant improvement in ductility, Figure 7. This improves cracking
and fatigue resistance while at the same time maintains or
improves wear resistance. The powder metallurgical process also
allows the steelmaker more freedom in choosing the alloy con-
tent of the steel so it can increase and also select carbide forming

Table 4. Chemical composition [wt.-%] [18]

Tabelle 4. Chemische Zusammensetzung [Gew.-%] [18]

Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni N

X36CrMo17 0.33 – 0.43 f 1.00 f 1.00 f 0.03 f 0.03 15.0 – 17.0 1.00 – 1.30 f 1.00 –
X36CrMo17 0.27 0.25 0.65 f 0.03 f 0.005 14.5 1.00 0.85 +
(N-alloyed steel)

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10 C. Berger et al. Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1

Table 6. Types of cemented carbides [19]

Tabelle 6. Varianten von Hartmetallen [19]

type and properties WC TiC TaC Co

crystal system hexagonal cubic cubic area centered cubic area centered cubic hexagonal
density [g/cm3] 15.7 4.93 14.48 8.9
hardness [HV 0.05] 1,300 – 2,000 3,000 1,800 1,043
E-modul [N/mm2] 696,000 451,000 285,000 209,000
coefficient for thermal expansion [K – 1] 5.2 – 7.3 N 10 – 6 7.74 N 10 – 6 6.29 N 10 – 6 12.3 N 10 – 6
thermal conductivity [J/cm N s N K] 1.21 0.21 0.22 0.165

elements other than chromium, such as vanadium and to realize

Figure 7. Microstructure of a WC-Co cemented carbide [19].
Bild 7. Gefge von Hartmetallen mit WC in Co-Matrix [19].
Figure 8. Microstructure of a mixed cemented carbide [19].
Bild 8. Gefge von gemischten Hartmetallen [19].
a of several carbide types with different size, Figure 8. By doing
so, steelmakers can increase wear resistance while maintaining a
similar or even better cracking resistance and better dimensional
stability during heat treatment, Figure 9. The more uniform
microstructure of power metallurgical produced cemented car-
bides, without the carbide bands in the rolling direction, will
minimize any dimensional changes during heat treatment. A
small and uniform carbide structure that makes cemented car-
bides easier to grind and yields ground surfaces with smoother
edges. The potential increase in tool life. Powder metallurgical
produced cemented carbides will reduce maintenance and down-
time costs.
One important development is the use of very fine grains from
nano size. Through the fine grains less than 1.5 lm the hardness
can be improved and with the hardness the bending strength
and the wear resistance increases to the disadvantages of lower
toughness, Figure 10. If a certain toughness is necessary (inter-
mittent cutting), it is possible to improve the hardness and
toughness by a mixture of fine and coarser grains, Figure 9.
Another possibility can be reached by a gradient structure [55].
The sintering process can be controlled in a way that the direct
surface contains a higher Co content. With the higher Co content
the toughness increases only direct under the surface and cutting
process stability and safety (fracture safety) increases signifi-
cantly.
A further increase of the wear resistance can be reached by
additional coatings of cemented carbides, Figure 11. Coatings
like TiN, TiAlN, CrN are state of the art and now e.q. DLC, (Cr,
Al, Y)N and ZrC coatings are in the development.

Figure 9. Micro structural combination of hardness and toughness through mixture of different carbide types (WC, TiC, TaC) [19].
Bild 9. Kombination von H
rte und Z
higkeit durch die Mischung verschiedener Karbidvarianten (WC, TiC, TaC) [19].

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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1 Modern Materials for Forming and Cutting Tools – Overview 11

Figure 10. Physical properties of cemented carbides (WC-Co) [19].

Bild 10. Physikalische Eigenschaften von Hartmetallen (WC-Co) [19].

Table 7. Properties of different cermets [8]

Tabelle 7. Eigenschaften verschiedener Cermets [8]

materials density hardness bending strength compressive strength fracture toughness

[g/cm3] [HV 30] [MPa] [MPa] [KIC/MPa N m1/2]

cemented carbide (WC) (P10) 10.6 1,560 1,700 4,500 8.1

cemented carbide (WC) (P25) 12.5 1,450 2,200 4,600 10.0
cermet (P01-P10) 6.1 1,700 2,000 5,000 6.5
cermet (P10-P25) 7.0 1,500 250 4,600 9.0

3.2 Cermets (ceramic – metal) 4 Ceramics

Cermets are in the structure more complex than cemented car-
The main application field of ceramics is the rough machining
bides but with comparable properties as a mixture form ceramic
and the finishing of cast iron and high temperature resistant
and metal, Table 7, Figure 12. The constituent parts are Ti(C, N),
nickel alloys [20]. To reach a very high cutting speed, low wear
TaC, NbC and WC in a matrix (Co or Ni matrix). This combina-
and high tool life it is possible to use ceramics, Figure 13. The
tion of the constituent parts leads in comparison with cemented
ceramics are divided in oxides, nitrides and carbides with combi-
carbides (WC-Co) to an improved wear resistance and especially
nations, Figure 14.
to an increased chemical resistance at high temperature. This
In the moment there exist three main application fields for
leads to a decreased wear in dependence of diffusion and oxida-
ceramics:
tion [8]. With cermets it is possible to reduce the flank wear and
* As oxide ceramic Al2O3+ZrO2 is used. Al2O3 without ZrO2 is
the crater deepness in comparison with cemented carbides (WC-
very brittle. The addition of fine dispersed ZrO2 increases the
Co) and with coated cemented carbides, Figure 11.
fracture toughness significantly. The oxide ceramic
But the fracture toughness is lower than the fracture tough-
(Al2O3+ZrO2) is used mainly for cutting and chipping of
ness of WC-Co hard metals with a high toughness (e.q. P25).
steels and cast iron. For Al-alloys it is necessary to use other
That means that the application of cermets for intermittent cut-
ceramics because of the chemical load of aluminum oxides.
tings is limited.
* With mixtures of oxides and carbides or nitrides (Al2O3+TiC
The industrial applications are cuttings where the high hard-
or TiN) properties like hardness, wear resistance, thermal
ness of the cutting edges and low adhesion are necessary are nec-
hardness and cutting speed can be improved.
essary, e.q. finishing and roughing of steels with high cutting
* One problem of ceramics is in general the brittleness. With
speeds [20].
Si3N4 the toughness and the thermal properties (thermal

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12 C. Berger et al.
Figure 11. Flank wear wideness and crater deepness of cemented car-
bides, coated cemented carbides and cermets in comparison [8].
Bild 11. Vergleich der Verschleißmarkenbreite und Kolktiefe bei Hart-
metallen, beschichteten Hartmetallen und Cermets [8].
Figure 12. Microstructure of a cermet [19].
Bild 12. Gefge von Cermets [19].
hardness, thermo shock resistance) can be increased up to
1,200 8C.
Other possibilities to improve the toughness of ceramics are
the embedding of ceramic fibers, mono crystals and platelets.
5 Materials with very high hardness
Materials with very high hardness are defined as diamonds and
boron nitrides, Figure 15.
5.1 Diamond
Diamond tools, i. e. polycrystalline and mono crystalline dia-
mond, are ideal tools for machining non-ferrous materials and
are widely used in metal cutting, woodworking and construction
industry [21, 22], Figure 16. This fact is mainly based on its prop-
i 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1
Figure 13. Comparison of tool life in dependence of the cutting speed
[8].
Bild 13. Vergleich der Standzeit in Abh
ngigkeit der Schneidgeschwin-
digkeit [8].
Figure 14. Ceramics [8].
Bild 14. Keramiken [8].
erties: Diamond has the highest hardness, E-modulus and ther-
mal conductivity of all hard materials [20, 23]. However, diamond
exhibits some disadvantages, which are mainly its poor fracture
toughness, high chemical affinity to ferrous materials and ther-
mal instability beyond 700 8C [24, 25]. Nevertheless they are used
for gas drilling tools and bearings for down-hole oil tools.
5.2 Boron nitride
C-BN is the second hardest of all known materials, has a high
wear resistance and a high thermal stability – this material is
very promising for a broad range of applications, especially for
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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1
Figure 15. Comparison of different properties of PCD and c-BN.
Bild 15. Vergleich verschiedener Eigenschaften von PKD und c-BN.
Figure 16. Microstructure of PCD (diamond grains=black, Co cata-
lyst=white) [26].
Bild 16. Gefge von PKD (Diamant=schwarz, Co=weiß) [26].
Figure 17. Poly crystalline c-BN (PKB) improves the service life per
tooth (material X32CrMoV33) (HM=hard metal, PKB=cubic boron
nitride, VB=flank wear land width) [8].
Bild 17. Polykristalliner c-BN (PKD) verbessert die Standzeit pro Zahn
(Werkstoff: X32CrMoV33) (HM=Hartmetall, PKD=c-BN, VB=Vers-
chleißmarkenbreite) [8].
cutting tools (milling), both as bulk and as a coating material, Fig-
ure 17, Figure 18. The state-of-the-art is the use of sintered cutting
inserts with cBN grains. Such c-BN grains are synthesized in an
expensive high-pressure – high-temperature process [27]. The
wear of cBN tools is significantly lower than with cermet tools
i 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Modern Materials for Forming and Cutting Tools – Overview 13
Figure 18. C-BN improves the cutting length per tooth (material
X32CrMoV33) [8].
Bild 18. C-BN verbessert die Standzeit pro Zahn (Werkstoff:
X32CrMoV33) [8].
and the life time of the cBN tools is corresponding higher. With
increasing cutting length the cutting force of cermets grows sig-
nificantly but the cutting force of the c-BN stays nearly constant.
The main reasons are the possible tool geometry (lean tools) and
the tribological system (low coefficient of friction).
Cubic boron nitride (c-BN) coatings on cemented carbides can
be produced by physical vapour deposition (PVD) and plasma
activated chemical vapour deposition (PA-CVD) techniques by
intensive ion bombardment. Unfortunately these films are of
high intrinsic stress (lattice defects and binding deformation),
which is limiting its use in industrial applications up to now.
Various attempts have been undertaken to reduce the compres-
sive stress of c-BN thin films [28]. With the attempt of hard coat-
ing buffer layers, e. g. TiN or TiAlN and c-BN-layer system, it is
possible to achieve c-BN layer thicknesses on cemented carbide
cutting tools of more than 1 lm. Concerning the machining test
results with cutting inserts coated with the c-BN layer systems, it
has to be noted that in turning and milling tests the potential of
c-BN layer could clearly be demonstrated [27]. But the adhesion
of the c-BN-layer systems for intermittent cutting operations has
still to be improved. Another attempt in reduction the intrinsic
stress is a concept consisting of a two-step adhesion promoting
base layer. The reduction of intrinsic stress can be improved by a
compositional-graded nucleation layer, obtained by a stepwise
decrease of the oxygen content in the Ar/N2/O2 atmosphere dur-
ing deposition and a low-stressed c-BN:O top layer with con-
trolled oxygen addition [28], Figure 19. The structural investiga-
tions of those coatings confirmed that a retarded nucleation is
the key for the deposition of several micrometer thick c-BN coat-
ings. The stepwise (step 1 – 3) structure depends of the condi-
tions for c-BN nucleation and results in the gradual adjustment
of the residual properties.
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14 C. Berger et al.
Figure 19. Fracture of a Si wafer, coating: oxygen containing c-BN
[28].
Bild 19. Bruchfl
che Si-Wafer, Beschichtung: c-BN mit Sauerstoff [28].
6 Coatings of forming and cutting tools
(e.q. dry drilling)
Since the middle of the nineties, a continuous development in
metal-cutting manufacturing has been taking place to reduce the
conventional cooling by liquids to a minimum and, even further,
to replace by dry processing. Strong influences are efficiency
improvements, the requirements to fulfill tougher legal
restraints for the usage of operating fluids and an increasing eco-
logical awareness [29]. However, this reduced the use of cooling
lubricants causes a strong increase in the forces applied to the
cutting tool in operation.
A very effective way to protect the cutting edge from thermal,
abrasive and tribo-oxidative attack is by depositing PVD coatings
to the tool surface [30, 31, 32]. As these only a few microns thick
coatings significantly govern the effectiveness and productivity
of the machining operation it is necessary to optimize these pro-
tective coatings.
Previous works at the Zentrum f
r Konstruktionswerkstoffe
and Institut f
r Produktionsmanagement, Technologie und
Werkzeugmaschinen of the TU Darmstadt, Germany, have
shown that (Cr,Al,Y)N coatings revealed excellent tribological
performance when exposed to high loads and elevated tempera-
tures [33], Figure 20.
Many of today's commercially available cutting tool coatings
are titanium-based. Especially titanium nitride (TiN) and tita-
nium aluminum nitride (TiAlN) coatings are successfully used
for wear protection [34, 35]. These coatings are characterized by
their high hardness and high wear resistance at high tempera-
tures [35].
Chromium-based hard coatings such as CrN or CrAlN have
proven excellent tribological properties. Due to increasing cut-
ting parameters, CrN was widely replaced by the ternary com-
pound (Cr, Al)N. For these coatings intrinsic hardening – as well
as solid solution hardening effect play an important role. Incor-
porating Al into CrN results in enhanced properties like hard-
ness and oxidation stability. Thus, they are also good candidates
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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1
Figure 20. Coefficients of friction during reciprocating sliding wear
test varying temperature [33].
Bild 20. Reibungskoeffizienten beim Schwing-Reib-Verschleißversuch
bei unterschiedlichen Temperaturen [33].
as coatings for dry cutting applications. Disadvantages of such
coatings, however, are their relatively high E-modulus and their
low adhesion to the substrate material [36, 37].
The newly developed (Cr,Al,Y)N coatings shall eliminate this
drawback. Chromium based alloys are mainly used for the pro-
duction of corrosion-, oxidation and heat-resistant alloys [38, 39].
Aluminum forms a thin, corrosion resistant oxide layer when
exposed to air. This passivation, however can be disturbed in alu-
minum alloys. Such alloys, in contrast, can reveal high hardness
due to precipitation hardening [40]. The transition metal yttrium
is one of the rare earth elements. In metallurgy, small contents
of yttrium are alloyed to generate a grain refinement. In alumi-
num alloys, it causes an increased hardness. Nitrides, e. g. TiN,
AlN or CrN, are commonly used as hard materials in high tem-
perature applications. It has been shown that it is of great impor-
tance to the cutting processes that the coating possesses a high
hardness, high toughness and strong adhesion to the substrate
material [41].
Wear can be defined as a complex mechanism which causes
the degradation of the material surface. Elevated temperatures
promote surface oxidation which, in turn, causes a material soft-
ening and finally leads to accelerated wear. However, if such an
oxide scale is compact and dense, further oxidation can be lim-
ited and the wear rate may be reduced. The surface of high tem-
perature alloys reacts with oxygen to form a protective oxide layer
to prevent further oxidation. The alloying of oxygen-active ele-
ments, e. g. yttrium, can lead to an improvement of the oxidation
resistance of materials [42].
Comparative performed drilling experiments with (Cr,Al,Y,)N
and TiAlN coated drills showed less adhesion wear on the cutting
edge after drilling of 42CrMo4, Figure 21.
Alloying yttrium into PVD coatings can significantly influence
the coating microstructure. Coatings containing yttrium reveal
enhanced adhesion to the substrate whereas other mechanical
properties, such as the hardness, are not influenced by the alloy-
ing. When exposed to an oxidative environment, such yttrium
containing coatings show a reduced oxide growth rate [44, 45,
46]. Yttrium containing thermal barrier coatings (TBC), for
example, form a barrier layer during thermal oxidation that lim-
its the oxygen transport along grain boundaries. The structure of
these layers acts as an efficient resistance against oxidation [47].
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Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2010, 41, No. 1
Figure 21. Cutting edge of (Cr, Al, Y)N and TiAlN coatings after drilling, (Drilling of: 42CrMo4, vc = 100 m/min, f = 0,25 mm/rot., Driller: 6 mm Ø,
Drilling depth: 24 mm; lubricant: Blaser Vascomil SE1 MMS Aerosol) [43].
Bild 21. Bohrerschneidkante mit (Cr, Al, Y)N- und TiAlN-Beschichtungen nach dem Bohren (Bohren von: 42CrMo4, vc = 100 m/min, f = 0,25 mm/
rot., Bohrer: 6 mm Ø, Bohrtiefe: 24 mm; Schmiermittel: Blaser Vascomil SE1 MMS Aerosol).
The presence of yttrium reduces the diffusion of cations, that in
turn, results in an oxide growth which is dominated by anion
transport [45, 48]. Exceeds the yttrium content a threshold value,
negative effects, such as reduced wear resistance, can be
observed in the oxide film. A reason for this behaviour may be
the formation of a brittle Co17Y2 compound [40, 45, 46, 49].
The above described diffusion barrier effect due to yttrium is
especially interesting at temperatures above 800 8C which are
easily reached during dry cutting. The simultaneous appearance
of oxidation and wear causes the destruction of the oxide film
due to hard particle abrasion. This, in turn, leaves the underlying
coating unprotected against further attack and causes higher fric-
tion rates [45].
The corrosion behaviour of PVD coatings is often governed by
the coating porosity and other defects. Alloying of yttrium can
often improve the corrosion performance by reducing the den-
drites’ pores and the growth of columns. These columns can
reach significantly larger sizes without the presence of yttrium
in the coating. Yttrium also contributes to a strongly fine grained
microstructure [45, 46, 50, 51]. Additionally, the mechanical
properties can be improved by yttrium. Y2O3 compounds can be
found in yttrium-containing oxide layers, causing the layer to be
harder, more elastic and with a better resistance to scratching.
This, in turn, improves the wear and corrosion resistance of alu-
minum coated steels both at room temperature and high temper-
ature environment [52, 53]. Another possibility to improve the
density and thereby the corrosion and wear resistance of PVD
coatings are multilayer structures with carbon inter layers and
DLC top layers (DLC=diamond like carbon) [54].
7 Conclusions
Tools influence the production costs significantly in dependence
of their properties as hardness, strength, ductility, wear resist-
ance and reliability. Two very important factors to influence these
properties are the material of the tools and the contact surface
(friction coefficient). The tool materials are divided in tool steels,
cemented carbides, cermets, ceramics and very hard materials
(diamonds and cubic boron nitride). Also coatings are from
increasing interest.
i 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Modern Materials for Forming and Cutting Tools – Overview 15
Today research activities yield the most modern high perform-
ance tool steels and high speed steels produced by means of pow-
der metallurgy (PM) production techniques, aluminum alloyed
tool steels, Nitrogen alloyed tool steels, electro-slag (ESR) and
vacuum remelted (VMR/VAR) tool steels. Carbides and nitrides
are responsible for the excellent wear resistance of the powder
metallurgical produced tools. Cobalt serves for the necessary duc-
tility. Many applications require a compromise of ductility and
wear resistance. In these cases it is possible to produce powder
metallurgical steels with graded properties [55]. For example a
driller has different cutting speeds in the middle and at the out-
side edge. This needs a high hardness for a good wear resistance
at the outside edge and in the middle a sufficient ductility. A fur-
ther possibility to reduce wear in powder metallurgical produced
tools is a powder metallurgical construction with cooling chan-
nels in the driller.
Today alloys for forming tools with high percentage of alloying
elements with complex microstructure are realizable. They
exhibit extraordinary combination of hardness, strength, ductil-
ity, toughness and heat resistance as well as the surface quality.
Modern application oriented alloying systems with for instance
adapted thermal conductivity by Nitrogen alloying are state of
the art by specialized subsequent thermal treatment and high
pressure melting technique. Tool steel reveals a strong depend-
ence of the mechanical properties from the microstructure (grain
size, grain mixture). With adapted heat treatment like rapid sol-
idification segregation free, fine and homogenous microstruc-
ture are reached.
With typical cutting materials like cermets, ceramic materials,
diamonds and c-BN the reduction of the wear with a significantly
increased cutting speed in comparison with tools steels and
cemented carbides is possible. The production of these materials
(cermets, ceramic materials, diamonds and c-BN) leads of course
to higher costs of the tools but often the economic efficiency is
higher.
Regarding the research activities, there is a trend toward dry
cutting and new coatings. Dry cutting processing increases eco-
nomic efficiency and meets the expanding ecological require-
ments. Therefore adapted lubrication, low coefficients of friction
and the kind of chip evacuation for dry cutting applications are
required. Cutting tool insert manufacturers will continue to
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16 C. Berger et al.
Figure 22. Ideal cutting material.
Bild 22. Idealer Schneidwerkstoff.
develop new grades, coatings and top form geometries to
improve wear behaviour and tool life of those cutting tools, one
solution is given by micro grain carbide grades (a0.4lm) with
nano crystallized PVD multilayer top coatings specifically devel-
oped for machining steels pre-hardened over 54 HRC.
Coatings (like TiN, (Cr,Al,Y)N, c-BN, DLC) in general will play
a crucial role here with respect to improving cutting speed, wear
resistance, heat resistance and thermal energy management,
Figure 22. In the most cases, there never will be one cutting tool
insert solution that works for everyone tasks. There are too many
variables with respect to different machines, various coolants,
speeds and feeds, and machining environments.
With all this steps of tool material developments the aim of the
ideal materials moves closer, Figure 22.
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