Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By Arthur Hardy
"It took the city of New Orleans to transform the centuries-old celebration of Mardi
Gras into America's Greatest Party."
The celebration of Mardi Gras came to North America from Paris, where it had been
celebrated since the Middle Ages. In 1699, French explorer Iberville and his men
explored the Mississippi River from the Gulf of Mexico. On a spot 60 miles south of
the present location of New Orleans, they set up camp on the river's West Bank.
Knowing that the day, March 3, was being celebrated as a major holiday in France,
they christened the site Point du Mardi Gras.
But Mardi Gras' roots predate the French. Many see a relationship to the ancient
tribal rituals of fertility that welcomed the arrival of Spring. A possible ancestor of
the celebration was the Lupercalia, a circus-like orgy held in mid-February in
Rome. The early Church fathers, realizing that it was impossible to divorce their
new converts from their pagan customs, decided instead to direct them into
Christian channels. Thus Carnival was created as a period of merriment that would
serve as a prelude to the penitential season of Lent.
In the late 1700s pre-Lenten balls and fetes were held in New Orleans. Under
French rule masked ballsflourished, but were later banned by the Spanish
governors. The prohibition continued when New Orleans became an American city
in 1803, but by 1823, the Creole populace prevailed upon the American governor,
and balls were again permitted. Four years later street masking was legalized.
In the early 19th Century, the public celebration of Mardi Gras consisted mainly of
maskers on foot, in carriages and on horseback. In 1837, a costumed group of
revelers walked in the first documented "parade," but the violent behavior of
maskers during the next two decades caused the press to call for an end to Mardi
Gras. Fortunately, six New Orleanians who were former members of the
Cowbellians, (a group that had presented New Year's Eve parades in Mobile since
1831), saved the New Orleans Mardi Gras by forming the Comus organization in
1857. The men beautified the celebration and proved that it could be enjoyed in a
safe and festive manner. Comus coined the word "krewe" and established several
Mardi Gras traditions by forming a secret Carnival society, choosing a
mythological namesake, presenting a themed parade with floats and costumed
maskers, and staging a tableau ball.
A visit by the Russian Grand Duke Alexis Romanoff was the partial inspiration for
the first appearance of Rex in 1872. The King of Carnival immediately became the
international symbol of Mardi Gras. Rex presented Mardi Gras' first organized
daytime parade, selected Carnival's colors--purple, gold and green, produced its
flag, and introduced its anthem, "If Ever I Cease To Love." In 1872, the Knights of
Momus also entered the Carnival scene.
The popular Krewe of Proteus debuted in 1882 with a glittering parade that
saluted Egyptian Mythology. The Jefferson City Buzzards, the grandfather of all
marching clubs, was formed in 1890. The first black Mardi Gras organization, the
Original Illinois Club, was launched in 1894. Two years later, Les Mysterieuses,
Carnival's first female group, was founded.
The final year of the Century saw snow in New Orleans on Fat Tuesday. Legend
has it that Rex paraded with a frozen mustache!
One of the first and most beloved krewes to make its appearance in the 20th
Century was Zulu. Seven years before its incorporation in 1916, this black
organization poked fun at Rex. The first Zulu King ruled with a banana stalk
scepter and a lard can crown. While Rexentered the city via a Mississippi River
steamboat,Zulu used an oyster lugger to plow up the New Basin Canal.
The new Century brought with it some difficult years. World War I canceled
Carnival in 1918-1919, but Mardi Gras survived this struggle, along with the
Prohibition of the Twenties and the Great Depression of the Thirties.
In 1934 Carnival festivities hit the West Bank of the Mississippi with the first Alla
parade. Random truck riders were organized into the Elks Krewe of Orleanians in
1935. The Krewe of Hermes and the Knights of Babylon were organized in 1937
and 1939, respectively.
In the Forties a new spirit of Mardi Gras was ushered in, pausing only for the
United States' involvement overseas. Before World War II canceled four Carnivals,
the first women's parade graced the streets of New Orleans with the Krewe of
Venus' inaugural pageant in 1941. New Orleans' favorite son, Louis Armstrong,
returned home to ride as King of the Zulu parade in 1949.
The Fifties provided international publicity and continued expansion of Mardi Gras.
Real royalty, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, honored the make-believe
Monarchs of Merriment as they bowed to Rex and Comus at the 1950 Comus ball.
The next year the Korean conflict canceled much of Carnival, but several krewes
combined to form the Krewe of Patria, which paraded on Fat Tuesday. The decade
also saw the formation of other krewes, including Zeus, the first suburban krewe,
which paraded in Metairie.
The Sixties were characterized by turbulence and change. The early years saw the
Tourist Commission try to convince the hippies that the title "Greatest Free Show
on Earth" was not to be taken literally. The Easy Rider generation had City Hall
worried, and rumors that the infamous Hell's Angels were going to roll into town
and crash Carnival had the entire town uptight. Nothing negative happened, and
Carnival continued.
Thinking that the group's antics were undignified, portions of the black community
put pressure on Zulu. The king resigned and the 1961 parade was almost
canceled. Not only did Zulu survive, however, but by 1969, its parade was a main
attraction on Canal Street.
Finally, just as the decade began with the historic introduction of the Rex
doubloon, so did the period end with another landmark event--the start of the
Bacchusorganization. The krewe's founders, feeling that the traditional Mardi Gras
institutions had become static, wanted to attract national attention and make
Carnival more accessible. In 1969, Bacchus shook the establishment by
presenting the largest floats in Carnival history, by having a Hollywood celebrity
ride as its king (Danny Kaye), and by presenting, in place of the traditional ball, a
supper dance to which tickets could be purchased by both visitors and locals.
These revolutionary innovations proved immensely popular and were to be copied
by several future organizations.
Carnival's growth continued throughout the Seventies with the birth of 18 new
parading krewes, and ironically, the death of 18 others. More than one dozen
clubs featured celebrities in their parades. Argus brought a Fat Tuesday parade to
Metairie, and Endymion exploded into a super krewe in 1974. A ban on parading
through the French Quarter ended a 117-year tradition and a moratorium of new
parade permits put a cap on expansion in Orleans Parish. The decade ended with
a police strike in New Orleans, causing the cancellation of Mardi Grasparades in
Orleans Parish.
The decade of the 1980s saw 28 new parades debut and 17 fold. The Mardi Gras
parade calendar shrank drastically in St. Bernard Parish, while in St. Tammany
and Jefferson Parishes, Carnival continued to grow. By 1989, more than 600,000
people annually attended parades on the east and west banks of Jefferson Parish
on Fat Tuesday.
Feeling the need for better safety measures and more coordination of Carnival
activities, the Mayor of New Orleans formed a Mardi Gras Task Force to study all
aspects of the celebration. In 1987, Rex resurrected "Lundi Gras," its customary
Monday arrival on the Mississippi River which the krewe had enjoyed from 1874-
1917. The traditional tableau ball, once an essential activity for all parading
krewes, lost its popularity, with only about 10 of the 50-plus krewes still retaining
a bal masque format by the decade's end.
Doubloons lost some of their luster as several krewes stopped minting them.
Krewe-emblemed throws of every imaginable variety gained popularity, however,
with imprinted cups leading the pack.
Perhaps the greatest change in Mardi Gras in the 1980s was the tremendous
increase in tourism during the Carnival season. Conventions which once had
avoided New Orleans at Mardi Gras used the celebration as a reason to visit.
International media attention was focused on Mardi Gras in the late 1980s, with
camera crews from Japan, Europe and Latin America showcasing the festivities.
Mardi Gras also became a year-round industry as more off-season conventions
experienced the joys of Carnival when they were treated to mini-parades and
repeat balls held in the city's convention facilities year-round.
Scholars may one day record the decade of the Nineties as a pivotal one in
Carnival history. While an in-depth economic impact study revealed that Mardi
Gras' annual economic impact finally surpassed the half-billion dollar mark,
political intervention decreased the size and scope of the celebration. Shortly
before the 1992 season, a New Orleans city ordinance was enacted that required
all parading krewes to open their private membership. Comus, Momus and
Proteus protested the government's intrusion into their affairs and canceled their
parades in protest, while Rex opened it membership to blacks.
Tableaux Societies
Twelfth Night, the feast of Epiphany, was celebrated by Creole society from the
early days of colonial Louisiana. These Bals de Roi (the King’s Ball) were given at
plantations and homes for family and friends; the highlight was the cutting of the
King Cake (Gateau des Rois), and the finder of the bean—la feve—in his or her cake
became Le Roi or La Reine de la feve, and would reign over the next ball, which
they were to host. Thus a series of balls began each season and continued until the
final great ball of Mardi Gras evening. These traditions were formalized with the
organization and first appearance of the Twelfth Night Revelers on January 6, 1870.
During the first six years, the ball of Twelfth Night Revelers was preceded by a
pageant through the streets of New Orleans, with small floats, brass bands,
torches, and a host of Revelers marching inside large papier-mâché forms.
Following their last parade in 1876, Twelfth Night Revelers (T.N.R.) became the
first Carnival society whose activities were limited to the staging of tableaux balls,
but it was the Twelfth Night ball of 1871 that inaugurated a custom that was to
become one of the enduring and most emulated traditions of the festival—the
selection of a queen. An enormous Twelfth Night Cake was cut, and its slices
distributed by the Revelers to unmarried young ladies; whoever found the gold
bean (a bean-shaped locket) was named queen.
At their first ball in 1870, court fools and jesters had made a clumsy show of
serving cake on their spears, and the finder of the gold bean chose not to
acknowledge her good fortune. However, the following year, the Lord of Misrule
knew which slice contained the bean, and when he saw the young lady receive it,
strode to her, and before the assembled guests, crowned her with a wreath of oak
leaves, proclaiming her “Queen of the Ball.” In subsequent years, ladies who
found silver beans in their cake became maids of honor.
Twelfth Night Revelers survived several seasons of inactivity and reorganization
during the 1880s, each time returning to open Carnival festivities on January 6. In
the years of the “Belle Epoque,” several new societies were created to satisfy the
New Orleans passions for masked balls and dance—The Atlanteans (1891), Elves
of Oberon (1895), Krewe of Nereus (1896), and the High Priests of Mithras (1897).
The great masquerade balls of earlier years were staged in the richly decorated
rooms of the city’s grand hotels, The St. Louis and the St. Charles, and public
masked balls continued in theaters, ballrooms, and halls of numerous civic and
social organizations. The tableaux balls of the krewes, which all came to be called
“Carnival Balls,” were presented on the elegant stages of the Varieties Theater,
the Grand, or New Opera houses. After the Varieties and the Grand were
destroyed by fire, almost all of the Carnival balls were staged at the New Opera,
which after 1880 became known as the French Opera House.
All of the Carnival balls were similar in structure and ritual. A number of tableaux
were performed, with beautifully scenic decors and colorfully costumed and
masked krewes illustrating each year’s theme. The last tableaux incorporated a
throne setting where the monarchs and court of the evening were presented with
pomp and solemnity, in a triumphant grand march, to be greeted with the wonder,
adulation, and applause of the entire assembly, krewe and guests alike. Then
came dancing, with the first quadrilles reserved for krewe members, followed by
general dancing, which lasted until the early hours of the morning.
It was during the early dances that members dispensed the lovely little pins now
known as “krewe favors” to their lucky partners. These charming favors were
elegantly crafted of sterling and enamel, and like the lavish invitations of the era,
they reflected the theme of the ball. The date and letters representing the krewe’s
initials were often incorporated into the favor’s design.
The royal courts were the central figures of the evening, but the extravagant
tableaux were also designed to delight two thousand guests. The new societies of
the 1890s and early 1900s turned for inspiration to themes long favored by
Comus—mythology, literature, history, and nature—and while the processions
rolled with their panoply of effects, the tableaux balls drew upon a gilded age of
stagecraft.
The first Atlantean ball paid tribute to their ruler, Poseidon, then reenacted “The
Destruction of Atlantis.” The Elves of Oberon, the High Priests of Mithras, and the
Krewe of Nereus transformed the stages of the French Opera House into a
succession of fanciful kingdoms. Oberon’s first ball featured two tableaux from “A
Midsummer Night’s Dream.”
Subsequent efforts revealed a taste for whimsy: “A Rhineland Fantasy” (1897),
“The Rainbow” (1898), “Cupid on Vacation” (1902), “When Folly Rules” (1903),
and “Satan Dethroned” (1912), with the Devil himself as the krewe favor. Nereus,
in his 1897 production of “Coral Groves and Grottoes,” unleashed a huge kraken
that was one hundred feet long, supported by fifteen men, and belched fire as it
writhed across the floor of underwater caverns.
The first two Mithras balls turned to Persian themes—“Prince Ahmed and the Fairy
Banou” (1897) and “Mithras, God of the Sun” (1898). Fire broke out in the stage
decorations of the latter, and while the flames were readily extinguished, many of
the guests fled in panic. But dozens of others remained and danced for hours
around the pool of water the stage had become.
The Golden Age of Carnival marched into the twentieth century with the creation
of three new societies, all of them in the established manner: The Olympians
(1904), the Krewe of Athenians (1912), and the Krewe of Osiris (1916). At the
Twelfth Night ball of 1904, the Revelers made gifts of one of their loveliest favors,
an enameled pin of Harlequin. Nereus presented “A Christmas Party” in 1912 and
Santa Claus called the call-outs to the stage, giving each lady an envelope
containing the number of her masker for the first dance.
Zulu
By Arthur Hardy, Clarence A. Becnell, Tom Price,
Don Short, Mirt Williams and Edward Sims
Early in 1909, a group of laborers, who had organized a club named "The Tramps,"
went to the Pythian Temple Theater to see a musical comedy performed by the
Smart Set. The comedy included a skit entitled "There Never Was and Never Will
Be a King Like Me," about the Zulu Tribe. That is how the Zulus began, as many
stories go. Years of extensive research by the Historian Committee seem to
indicate that Zulu's beginning was much more complicated than that.
The earliest signs of organization came from the fact that most of these men
belonged to a benevolent aid society. Benevolent societies were the first forms of
insurance in the community, where for a small amount of dues, members received
financial help when sick or burying deceased members. Conversations with older
members also indicated that in that era each of the city's wards had its own group
or "club." The Tramps were one such group. After seeing the skit, they retired to
their meeting place, a room in the rear of a restaurant/bar in the 1100 block of
Perdido Street, and emerged as the Zulus. The group was probably made up of
members from the Tramps, the Benevolent Society and other ward-based groups.
While the "group" marched in Mardi Gras as early as 1901, their first appearance
as the Zulus came in 1909, with William Story as king. The group wore raggedy
pants and had a Jubilee singing quartet in front of and behind King Story. His
costume of "lard can" crown and "banana stalk" scepter has been well
documented.
The kings following William Story (William Crawford -1910, Peter Williams 1912,
and Henry Harris-1914) were similarly attired. 1915 heralded the first use of
floats, constructed on a spring wagon, using dry goods boxes. The float was
decorated with palmetto leaves and moss and carried four dukes along with the
king. That humble beginning gave rise to the lavish floats we see in the Zulu
parade today.
On September 20, 1916, in the notarial office of Gabriel Fernandez, the Zulu
Social Aid Club was incorporated. Twenty-two of the organization's officers and
members signed that first official document.
It's been written that the early Zulus were a parody on the staid white celebration
of Mardi Gras. Whether true or not, the Zulus did march to their own drum beat.
Originally, they had members dress as females to serve as queen; later, female
impersonators "reigned" as queens; finally hey began having women as queens.
Their queens were, and still are, toasted in front of Geddes, Moss and Willis
Funeral Home. There was no macabre intent meant by this tradition. The Geddes,
Moss and Willis Funeral Home played an integral part in Zulu's beginning and has
continued to do so throughout the years.
Zulus were not without their controversies either. In the 1960s during the height
of black awareness, it was unpopular to be a Zulu. Dressing in a grass skirt and
putting on a black face were seen as demeaning. Large numbers of black
organizations protested against Zulu and membership dwindled to approximately
16 men. James Russel, a longtime member, served as president in this period and
is credited with holding the group together and slowly bringing Zulu back to the
forefront.
In 1968, Zulu's route took them to St. Charles and Canal Streets for the first time
in the modern era. Heretofore, to see the Zulu parade, you had to travel the so-
called "back streets" of the black neighborhoods. The segregation laws of the
period contributed to this, and Zulu tradition also played a part. In those days,
neighborhood bars sponsored certain floats and, consequently, the floats were
obligated to pass those bars. Passing meant stopping, as the bard advertised that
the "Zulus will stop here." Once stopped at a sponsoring bars, it was often difficult
to get the riders out of the establishment, so the other floats took off in different
directions to fulfill their obligations.
Of all the throws to rain down from the many floats in the parades during Carnival,
the Zulu coconut or "golden nugget" is the most sought after. The earliest
reference to the coconut appears to be about 1910 when the coconuts were given
from the floats in their natural "hairy" state. Some years later there is a reference
to Lucas, "the sign painter," scraping and painting the coconuts. This, in all
likelihood was the forerunner to the beautifully decorated coconuts we see today.
Just as everything else in Zulu history, the coconut is not without controversy.
With the proliferation of law suits from people alleging injury from thrown
coconuts, the organization was unable to get insurance coverage in 1987. So that
year, the time honored tradition was suspended. After much lobbying, the
Louisiana Legislature passed B188, aptly dubbed the "coconut bill," which
excluded the coconut from liability for alleged injuries arising from the coconuts
handed from the floats. On July 8, 1988, then governor Edwards signed the bill
into law.
Through the adversity, the Zulu organization has persevered. It has risen to the
point of being not only the premier black social organization, but is known
internationally as one of the major Carnival organizations. Zulu also integrates
itself into the community, from adopting public schools and providing scholarships
for Southern University to providing food baskets to needy families during the
holiday seasons.
Researched and compiled by the Historian Committee: Clarence A. Becnell, Tom
Price, Don Short, Mirt Williams and Edward Sims. Originally printed in The Soul of
New Orleans.
Rex
By Arthur Hardy & The Rex Organization
Rex has been the global symbol of New Orleans’ most famous holiday since his
first appearance in 1872. The all-male krewe is responsible for the concept of day
parades, for the official Mardi Gras flag and colors – green for faith, gold for
power, purple for justice – and for the anthem of Carnival, “If I Ever Cease to
Love,” as well as for one of the most popular throws, the doubloon. Sponsored by
the School of Design, the 600 men of Rex Operate Pro Bono Publico – For The
Public Good. Rex selects an outstanding civic leader to reign over Mardi Gras, and
his queen is always a debutante.
Rex History and Traditions
Rex Greets His Subjects
A Lieutenant
The Rex Court Consists Of Rex, His Queen, Eight Maids And Eight Dukes
A Rex Doubloon
Rex has reigned as King of Carnival since he first appeared on Mardi Gras in 1872.
Seven generations of New Orleanians and millions of visitors have hailed his
majesty and reveled in the glorious traditions of his rule – including the jewel in
Rex’s crown: his annual glittering procession of floats on Mardi Gras morning, led
by his captain and lieutenants on horseback.
Rex entered the picture in 1872. New Orleans was struggling to recover from the
lingering effects of the civil war, and divisions and isolation prevailed. At the same
time, many city leaders saw the need to bring some order to the chaotic street
parades of Mardi Gras day. The news that Russia's Grand Duke Alexis Romanoff
would visit Mardi Gras and New Orleans provided another impetus to add order
and brilliance to the day. This portrait shows the Grand Duke as a dashing young
man, about the time he made his visit to New Orleans.
The group of young men who founded the Rex Organization hoped not only to
entertain the Grand Duke, but also to create a daytime parade that would be
attractive and fun for the citizens of the city and their guests. True to the Rex
motto, "Pro Bono Publico—for the public good," they succeeded beyond their
hopes. They selected one of their members, Lewis J. Solomon, to be the first Rex,
King of Carnival. Before he could begin his reign he had to borrow a crown,
scepter, and costume from an actor who happened to be performing in town at
the time.
The first Rex Parade bore little resemblance to the Rex Processions of later years.
Rex rode a horse, not a float. The parade that followed was made up largely of the
informal maskers and marchers who were on the streets anyway. The 1873 Rex
Procession was better organized and far more grand, beginning a long tradition of
colorful and creative parades illustrating a theme selected from the worlds of
literature or mythology.
In 1873 Rex held its first ball, and selected the first Queen of Carnival. Carnival
balls traditionally were formal and very private affairs, with elegant decorations,
tableaux presentations, and with dancing limited to the masked and costumed
members and their guests.
The Rex Ball, in keeping with the organization's more public role, was not a
masked ball, but rather a formal presentation of Carnival Royalty, followed by
grand marches and general dancing. This tradition continues to this day.
Elaborate ball invitations were created each year, and have become sought-after
and valuable remembrances, another tradition that continues today.
The royal colors of purple, green, and gold have been used since Rex's founding,
but the original symbolism intended was never made clear. It would make sense
that purple, associated with royalty, and gold, the metal of choice for crowns and
scepters, would be chosen, and various rules of heraldry may have been applied.
The 1892 Rex Parade's theme, "The Symbolism of Colors," suggested that purple,
green, and gold symbolized justice, faith, and power, respectively. The Rex flag
displays these colors, arrayed diagonally, with a crown in the center field, and is
flown during Carnival season at the homes of past Kings and Queens of Carnival.
Other traditions developed, including Rex's arrival in his Kingdom by boat on the
Monday before Mardi Gras. Accompanied by costumed officials, Rex would step
grandly from his decorated ship to be conveyed in a grand carriage to City Hall.
There city leaders surrendered the keys of the city to the new sovereign of this
fanciful and temporary realm.
Rex's reign as "King of Carnival" had begun. The Rex Organization, incorporated
as "The School of Design," went to work to achieve the twin goals of presenting a
grand daytime procession as the highlight of Mardi Gras day, and to encourage
visitors to come to New Orleans to enjoy the celebration. In subsequent years, and
to this day, Rex has issued his Official Proclamation of Carnival, and invited his
subjects to gather in his "Capital City" to celebrate.
Rex's proclamations and invitations found their way to railroad stations and other
public places in faraway cities, and had the desired effect. Mardi Gras in New
Orleans helped to heal and strengthen the city almost a century and a half ago,
and continues to be a major component of New Orleans' economy.
Visitors have come to New Orleans and enjoyed Mardi Gras year after year, and
many new parading organizations have taken to the streets in a Carnival season
that now stretches over two weeks. But the culmination of the celebration is still
Mardi Gras day, when Rex climbs onto his float and greets his subjects as his
Procession passes through the streets of his kingdom.