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Contents
Articles
Abstraction 1
Bricolage 6
Cognitive dissonance 10
Construct (philosophy of science) 17
Continuous improvement process 19
Deskilling 20
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 21
Empirical 34
Gestalt psychology 35
Heuristic 41
Hidden curriculum 45
Lateral thinking 49
Mathematical morphology 51
Montessori sensorial materials 59
Object (philosophy) 64
Object of the mind 67
Packing problem 70
Poiesis 79
Praxis (process) 80
Semantic similarity 82
Serendipity 87
Similarity (geometry) 95
Skill 99
Strange loop 104
Syncretism 106
Techne 113
Tessellation 114
Trial and error 119
Unknotting problem 122

References
Article Sources and Contributors 124
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 127
Article Licenses
License 129
Abstraction 1

Abstraction
Abstraction is a process by which higher concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or
"concrete") concepts, first principles, or other methods. An "abstraction" (noun) is a concept that acts as
super-categorical noun for all subordinate concepts, and connects any related concepts as a group, field, or category.
Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon,
typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather
soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball retains only the information on general ball attributes and behavior,
eliminating the characteristics of that particular ball.

Origins
The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossils dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years
ago in Africa.[1] [2] However, language itself, whether spoken or written, involves abstract thinking.

Thought process
In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas[3] are distanced from objects.
Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or
undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience
between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication.
For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on
surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation
sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual
diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and
their five labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the
scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine
explicit details in the graph. Cat on Mat (picture 1)

Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For
example the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow
between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund SITTING and the nouns agent and location
express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT.
Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more
abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat
(picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from
concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity
or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus
Conceptual graph for A Cat sitting on the Mat (graph 1)
something as simple as a newspaper might be specified
to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of
that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):

(1) a publication
(2) a newspaper
(3) The San Francisco Chronicle
(4) the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle
Abstraction 2

(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle as it was when I first
picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my
fireplace, burning)
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective
or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to
solve a crime or a puzzle.

Referents
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer
to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture"
refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim
at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response
in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.

Instantiation
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or
members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then
said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown above.
It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the
movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone"
abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the
concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not
abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 above.
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract
than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or
monotreme.

Physicality
A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular
individual that occupies a particular place and time.
Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences,
like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which
things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and
goodness are real, abstract, or both.
An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real,
abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. good). Questions about the properties of things are then
propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 above,
the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of
abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows
point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.
Abstraction 3

Abstraction used in philosophy

Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some
set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction
is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of
universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical
tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.

Ontological status
The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract
concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist
differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness
of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not
exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.
Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars. E.g., the
particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.

In linguistics
Reification, also called hypostatization, might be considered a formal fallacy whenever an abstract concept, such as
"society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object. In linguistics this is called metonymy, in which
abstract concepts are referred to using the same sorts of nouns that signify concrete objects. Metonymy is an aspect
of the English language and of other languages. It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things:
1805: Horatio Nelson (Battle of Trafalgar) - "England expects that every man will do his duty"

Compression
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of
abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the
abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data,
thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of
abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with
an abstraction (which is itself an object).
For example, picture 1 above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to
basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions
such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed
to "action".
For example, graph 1 above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".
This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and
mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.
Abstraction 4

The neurology of abstraction

A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the
perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit
greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts when
concrete concepts elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal
gyrus.[4]
Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of
abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during
tool usage.[5]

Abstraction in art
Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art
unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world[6] —it can, however, refer to an object or
image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural
world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject
is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in
science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory.[7] Later
still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a
reduction of form to basic geometric designs.[8]
In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may
sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration
of internal numeric relationships.[9]

Abstraction in psychology
Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four
mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking.
Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these
opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such
as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of
abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types.
There is an abstract thinking, just as there is abstract feeling, sensation and intuition. Abstract thinking
singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I
put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as
opposed to sensuous sensation and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic
intuition. (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).
Abstraction 5

Abstraction in computer science

Computer scientists use abstraction and communicate their solutions with the computer in some particular computer
language. Abstraction allows program designers to separate categories and concepts from instances of
implementation, so that they do not depend on software or hardware.

Abstraction in mathematics
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing
any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that
it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.
The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are:
• it reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics
• known results in one area can suggest conjectures in a related area
• techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in a related area.
The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree
of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.

Notes
[1] Abstract Engravings Show Modern Behavior Emerged Earlier Than Previously Thought (http:/ / www. scienceinafrica. co. za/ 2002/ january/
ochre. htm)
[2] Ancient Engravings Push Back Origin of Abstract Thought (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.
cfm?articleID=000629D0-B23F-1CCE-B4A8809EC588EEDF)
[3] But an idea can be symbolized. "A symbol is any device whereby we are enabled to make an abstraction." -- p.xi and chapter 20 of Suzanne
K. Langer (1953), Feeling and Form: a theory of art developed from Philosophy in a New Key: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 431
pages, index.
[4] Jing Wang, Julie A. Conder, David N. Blitzer, and Svetlana V. Shinkareva "Neural Representation of Abstract and Concrete Concepts: A
Meta-Analysis of Neuroimaging Studies" Human Brain Mapping (2010). http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1002/ hbm. 20950
[5] James W. Lewis "Cortical Networks Related to Human Use of Tools" 12 (3): 211-231 The Neuroscientist (June 1, 2006).
[6] Encyclopaedia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9003405/ abstract-art)
[7] Catherine de Zegher and Hendel Teicher (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. NY/New Haven: The Drawing Center/Yale University Press. 2005. ISBN
0-300-10826-5
[8] National Gallery of Art: Abstraction. (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ education/ american/ abstract. shtm)
[9] Washington State University: Glossary of Abstraction. (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ GLOSSARY/ ABSTRACT. HTM)

Bibliography
• Eugene Raskin, Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition, a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages
• The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd edition, Houghton Mifflin (1992), hardcover,
2140 pages, ISBN 0-395-44895-6
• Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.
Abstraction 6

External links
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege (http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm)
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/)
• Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy (http://originresearch.com/sd/sd1.cfm)
[[pt:Abstração]

Bricolage
Bricolage (pronounced /ˌbriːkɵˈlɑːʒ/ or /ˌbrɪkɵˈlɑːʒ/) is a term used in several disciplines, among them the visual
arts, to refer to the construction or creation of a work from a diverse range of things that happen to be available, or a
work created by such a process. The term is borrowed from the French word bricolage, from the verb bricoler, the
core meaning in French being, "fiddle, tinker" and, by extension, "to make creative and resourceful use of whatever
materials are at hand (regardless of their original purpose)". In contemporary French the word is the equivalent of the
English do it yourself, and is seen on large shed retail outlets throughout France. A person who engages in bricolage
is a bricoleur.

The arts

Music
Instrumental bricolage in music includes the use of found objects as instruments, such as in the cases of:
• Irish Spoons
• Australian slap bass made from a tea chest
• comb and wax paper for humming through
• gumleaf humming
• Largophone (made from a stick and bottle tops)
• Trinidadian Steel drums (made from industrial storage drums)
• African drums and thumb pianos made from recycled pots and pans.
• American super instruments made from recorders and bicycle bells or metal rods and keys
• Stomp (dance troupe) is an example of the use of bricolage in music and dance. They utilize everyday objects,
such as trash cans and broom sticks, to produce music.
• Many of the musical instruments created by American composer Harry Partch utilize unusual items, such as
hubcaps and pyrex carboys.
Stylistic bricolage is the inclusion of common musical devices with new uses. Shuker writes "Punk best emphasized
such stylistic bricolage".[1]
Musical Bricolage flourishes in music of sub-cultures where:
• experimentation is part of daily life (pioneers, immigrants, artistic communities),
• access to resources is limited (such as in remote, discriminated or financially disconnected sub-cultures) which
limits commercial influence (e.g. acoustic performers, gypsies, ghetto music, hippie, folk or traditional musicians)
and
• there is a political or social drive to seek individuality (e.g. Rap music, peace-drives, drummers circles)
Unlike other bricolage fields the intimate knowledge of resources is not necessary. Many punk musicians, for
instance, are not musically trained, since training can discourage creativity in preference for accuracy. Also, careful
observation and listening is not necessary, it is common in spontaneous music to welcome 'errors' and disharmony.
Like other bricolage fields, Bricolage music still values trusting one's ideas and self-correcting structures such as
Bricolage 7

targeted audiences.

Visual art
In art, bricolage is a technique where works are constructed from various materials available or on hand, and is seen
as a characteristic of postmodern works.
These materials may be mass-produced or "junk". See also: Merz, polystylism, collage, assemblage.
Bricolage can also be applied to theatrical form of improvisation. More commonly known as Improv. The idea of
using one's environment and materials which are at hand is the main goal in Improv. The environment is the stage
and the materials are often pantomimed. The use of the stage and the imaginary materials are all made up on the spot
so the materials which are at hand ar actually things that the players know from past experiences. (i.e. an
improvisation of ordering fast food: One player would start with the common phrase "How May I help You").
Bricolage is also applied in interior design, through blending styles and accessorizing spaces with what is "on hand".
Many designers use bricolage to come up with innovative and unique ideas.

Architecture
Bricolage is considered the jumbled effect produced by the close proximity of buildings from different periods and in
different architectural styles.[2]

Academics

Cultural studies
In cultural studies bricolage is used to mean the processes by which people acquire objects from across social
divisions to create new cultural identities. In particular, it is a feature of subcultures such as, for example, the punk
movement. Here, objects that possess one meaning (or no meaning) in the dominant culture are acquired and given a
new, often subversive meaning. For example, the safety pin became a form of decoration in punk culture.

Philosophy
In his book The Savage Mind (1962, English translation 1966), French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss used the
word bricolage to describe any spontaneous action, further extending this to include the characteristic patterns of
mythological thought. The reasoning here being that, since mythological thought is all generated by human
imagination, it is based on personal experience, and so the images and entities generated through 'mythological
thought' rise from pre-existing things in the imaginer's mind.[3]
Jacques Derrida extends this notion to any discourse. "If one calls bricolage the necessity of borrowing one's concept
from the text of a heritage which is more or less coherent or ruined, it must be said that every discourse is bricoleur."
[4]

Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, in their 1972 book Anti-Oedipus, identify bricolage as the characteristic mode of
production of the schizophrenic producer.[5]
Bricolage 8

Biology
In biology the biologist François Jacob uses the term bricolage to describe the apparently cobbled-together character
of much biological structure (cf. kludge), and views it as a consequence of the evolutionary history of the
organism.[6]

Education
In the discussion of constructionism, Seymour Papert discusses two styles of solving problems. Contrary to the
analytical style of solving problems he describes bricolage as a way to learn and solve problems by trying, testing,
playing around.
Joe L. Kincheloe has used the term bricolage in educational research to denote the use of multiperspectival research
methods. In Kincheloe's conception of the research bricolage, diverse theoretical traditions are employed in a broader
critical theoretical/critical pedagogical context to lay the foundation for a transformative mode of
multimethodological inquiry. Using these multiple frameworks and methodologies researchers are empowered to
produce more rigorous and praxiological insights into socio-political and educational phenomena. Kincheloe
theorizes a critical multilogical epistemology and critical connected ontology to ground the research bricolage. These
philosophical notions provide the research bricolage with a sophisticated understanding of the complexity of
knowledge production and the interrelated complexity of both researcher positionality and phenomena in the world.
Such complexity demands a more rigorous mode of research that is capable of dealing with the complications of
socio-educational experience. Such a critical form of rigor avoids the reductionism of many monological, mimetic
research orientations (see Kincheloe, 2001, 2005; Kincheloe & Berry, 2004).

Information technology

Information systems
In information systems, bricolage is used by Claudio Ciborra to describe the way in which strategic information
systems (SIS) can be built in order to maintain successful competitive advantage over a longer period of time than
standard SIS. By valuing tinkering and allowing SIS to evolve from the bottom-up, rather than implementing it from
the top-down, the firm will end up with something that is deeply rooted in the organisational culture that is specific
to that firm and is much less easily imitated.[7]
There is also a content management system called Bricolage.

Internet
In her book Life on the Screen (1995), Sherry Turkle discusses the concept of bricolage as it applies to problem
solving in code projects and workspace productivity. She advocates the "bricoleur style" of programming as a valid
and underexamined alternative to what she describes as the conventional structured "planner" approach. In this style
of coding, the programmer works without an exhaustive preliminary specification, opting instead for a step-by-step
growth and re-evaluation process. In her essay "Epistemological Pluralism", Turkle writes: "The bricoleur resembles
the painter who stands back between brushstrokes, looks at the canvas, and only after this contemplation, decides
what to do next."[8]
Bricolage 9

Business
Karl Weick identifies the following requirements for successful bricolage in organizations.[9]
• intimate knowledge of resources
• careful observation and listening
• trusting one's ideas
• self-correcting structures, with feedback

In popular culture

Fashion
In his essay "Subculture: The Meaning of Style", Dick Hebdige discusses how an individual can be identified as a
bricoleur when they "appropriated another range of commodities by placing them in a symbolic ensemble which
served to erase or subvert their original straight meanings".[10] The fashion industry uses bricolage-like styles by
incorporating items typically utilized for other purposes. For example, candy wrappers are woven together to
produce a purse [11]. The movie Zoolander parodies this concept with "Derelicte", a line of clothing made from trash.

Television
• MacGyver is a television series in which the protagonist is the paragon of a bricoleur,[12] creating solutions for the
problem to be solved out of immediately available found objects.
• The A-Team is another example of bricolage, with the team often finding themselves in situation which required
creating, mainly weapons, out of any objects available.
• The Wombles, a children's program based on creatures living in Wimbledon Common, is also a fine example of
bricolage. In the theme song composed by Mike Batt, the lyrics include "making good use of the things that they
find, things that the everyday folk leave behind".

References
Notes
[1] Shuker Popular Music: Key Concepts 1988
[2] http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ bricolage
[3] Claude Lévi-Strauss, La Pensée sauvage (Paris, 1962). English translation as The Savage Mind (Chicago, 1966). ISBN 0-226-47484-4.
See also: http:/ / tesugen. com/ archives/ 03/ 08/ bricolage and http:/ / varenne. tc. columbia. edu/ bib/ info/ levstcld066savamind. html
[4] Jacques Derrida, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" (http:/ / hydra. humanities. uci. edu/ derrida/ sign-play.
html)
[5] Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane.
Continuum edition. London: Continuum, 2004 (1972). p.7-8.
[6] Molino, Jean (2000). "Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Music and Language", The Origins of Music. Cambridge, Mass: A Bradford Book,
The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-23206-5. (p.169). See also "Bicoid, nanos, and bricolage" (http:/ / pharyngula. org/ index/ weblog/ comments/
bicoid_nanos_and_bricolage/ ) by PZ Myers.
[7] Ciborra, Claudio (1992). "From Thinking to Tinkering: The Grassroots of Strategic Information Systems", The Information Society 8,
297-309
[8] Turkle, Sherry. "Epistemological Pluralism" (http:/ / www. papert. org/ articles/ EpistemologicalPluralism. html)
[9] Karl Weick, "Organizational Redesign as Improvisation", reprinted in Making Sense of the Organization
[10] "Subculture: The Meaning of Style". Dick Hebdige. Cultural Studies: An Anthology. Ed. Michael Ryan. 2008. Pg. 592
[11] http:/ / www. ecoist. com/ pc/ catalog/ UL%20(01)_md. jpg
[12] Ian Bogost, Comparative Video Game Criticism (http:/ / gac. sagepub. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 1/ 1/ 41), Games and Culture, Vol. 1, No.
1, 41-46 (2006).
Bricolage 10

External links
• Bricolage Wiki (http://wiki.bricolage.cc)

Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by
holding conflicting ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive
dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to
reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes,
beliefs, and actions.[2] Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,
blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and
extensively studied theories in social psychology.

Experience can clash with expectations, as, for example, with

buyer's remorse following the purchase of an expensive item. In a
state of dissonance, people may feel surprise,[2] dread, guilt, anger,
or embarrassment. People are biased to think of their choices as
correct, despite any contrary evidence. This bias gives dissonance
theory its predictive power, shedding light on otherwise puzzling
irrational and destructive behavior.

A classical example of this idea (and the origin of the expression

"sour grapes") is expressed in the fable The Fox and the Grapes by
Aesop (ca. 620–564 BCE). In the story, a fox sees some
high-hanging grapes and wishes to eat them. When the fox is
unable to think of a way to reach them, he surmises that the grapes
are probably not worth eating, as they must not be ripe or that they
are sour. This example follows a pattern: one desires something, The Fox and the Grapes by Aesop. When the fox fails
finds it unattainable, and reduces one's dissonance by criticizing it. to reach the grapes, he decides he does not want them
Jon Elster calls this pattern "adaptive preference formation."[1] after all, an example of adaptive preference formation,
[1]
designed to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Examples
The most famous case in the early study of cognitive dissonance
was described by Leon Festinger and others in the book When
Prophecy Fails.[3] The authors infiltrated a group that was
expecting the imminent end of the world on a certain date. When
that prediction failed, the movement did not disintegrate, but grew
instead. By sharing cult beliefs with others, they gained acceptance
and thus reduced their own dissonance (see further discussion
below).

Smoking is often postulated as an example of cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance diagram because it is widely accepted that cigarettes can cause lung cancer,
Cognitive dissonance 11

yet virtually everyone wants to live a long and healthy life. In terms of the theory, the desire to live a long life is
dissonant with the activity of doing something that will most likely shorten one's life. The tension produced by these
contradictory ideas can be reduced by quitting smoking, denying the evidence of lung cancer, or justifying one's
smoking.[4] For example, smokers could rationalize their behavior by concluding that only a few smokers become ill,
that it only happens to very heavy smokers, or that if smoking does not kill them, something else will.[5] While
chemical addiction may operate in addition to cognitive dissonance for existing smokers, new smokers may exhibit a
simpler case of the latter.
This case of dissonance could also be interpreted in terms of a threat to the self-concept.[6] The thought, "I am
increasing my risk of lung cancer" is dissonant with the self-related belief, "I am a smart, reasonable person who
makes good decisions." Because it is often easier to make excuses than it is to change behavior, dissonance theory
leads to the conclusion that humans are sometimes rationalizing and not always rational beings.

Other related phenomena

There are a number of phenomena that relate to cognitive dissonance theory:
• effort justification, where working for something causes someone to like it more;
• Self-evaluation maintenance theory, in which the skills or interests that define us can cause dissonance when they
appear superior in others close to us;
• counter-attitudinal advocacy, where behaviours supporting a dissonant attitude cause one to adopt that attitude;
• post-decision dissonance, where one justifies an unalterable decision as the right one;
• insufficient punishment, the practice of punishing a person without doing it so harshly that they can tell
themselves "I still like the behaviour, but I avoid it because of the devastating punishment";
• overjustification effect, when an intrinsic (internal) motivation is shifted to extrinsic motivations through external
reward;
• balance theory, a general tendency to seek consonance between our views of others, and our views of their
attitudes;
• self-handicapping, avoiding effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem;
• justification of altruism, a habit of attributing kind actions to selfish motivations to avoid feeling committed to
being a 'good person', or to thinking the deed was 'the right thing to do'.

Ben Franklin effect

One situation that may create dissonance is when someone does a favor for a person that they dislike. Here, the
dissonance is between those negative feelings for the other person, and the awareness of having expended effort to
help them. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that people will try to resolve this dissonance, by adopting a more
positive attitude towards the other person. Several experiments have borne out this prediction.[7] [8] This has been
named the Ben Franklin effect because it was anticipated by Franklin when he served in the Pennsylvania legislature
in the 18th Century.[7] In his autobiography, he explains how he dealt with the animosity of a rival legislator:
Having heard that he had in his library a certain very scarce and curious book, I wrote a note to him,
expressing my desire of perusing that book, and requesting he would do me the favour of lending it to
me for a few days. He sent it immediately, and I return'd it in about a week with another note, expressing
strongly my sense of the favour. When we next met in the House, he spoke to me (which he had never
done before), and with great civility; and he ever after manifested a readiness to serve me on all
occasions, so that we became great friends, and our friendship continued to his death. This is another
instance of the truth of an old maxim I had learned, which says, "He that has once done you a kindness
will be more ready to do you another, than he whom you yourself have obliged."[9]
A counterpart to this effect is when someone's actions hurt another person, whom they regard positively or neutrally.
In this case, one way to resolve the dissonance is to think more negatively about that person, so that they seem to
Cognitive dissonance 12

deserve what happened to them.[7]

Variants
An overarching principle of cognitive dissonance is that it involves the formation of an idea or emotion in conflict
with a fundamental element of the self-concept, such as "I am a successful/functional person", "I am a good person",
or "I made the right decision." The anxiety that comes with the possibility of having made a bad decision can lead to
rationalization, the tendency to create additional reasons or justifications to support one's choices. A person who just
spent too much money on a new car might decide that the new vehicle is much less likely to break down than his or
her old car. This belief may or may not be true, but it would reduce dissonance and make the person feel better.
Dissonance can also lead to confirmation bias, the denial of dis-confirming evidence, and other ego defense
mechanisms.
Within this overarching principle, there are two main forms of dissonance: hedonistic dissonance and moral
dissonance (Holland, Meertens & Van-Vugt, 2002).
• Hedonistic dissonance is elicited when people act in a way which results in negative consequences for
themselves. For instance, a person is late for a meeting because of traffic but could have been on time had he
taken the subway.
• Moral dissonance is aroused when people act in a way that causes negative consequence for others. For instance,
cheating and lying.

Theory and research

Most of the research on cognitive dissonance takes the form of one of four major paradigms. Important research
generated by the theory has been concerned with the consequences of exposure to information inconsistent with a
prior belief, what happens after individuals act in ways that are inconsistent with their prior attitudes, what happens
after individuals make decisions, and the effects of effort expenditure.

The Belief Disconfirmation Paradigm

Dissonance is aroused when people are confronted with information that is inconsistent with their beliefs. If the
dissonance is not reduced by changing one's belief, the dissonance can result in misperception or rejection or
refutation of the information, seeking support from others who share the beliefs, and attempting to persuade others to
restore consonance.
An early version of cognitive dissonance theory appeared in Leon Festinger's 1956 book, When Prophecy Fails. This
book gave an inside account of the increasing belief which sometimes follows the failure of a cult's prophecy. The
believers met at a pre-determined place and time, believing they alone would survive the Earth's destruction. The
appointed time came and passed without incident. They faced acute cognitive dissonance: had they been the victim
of a hoax? Had they donated their worldly possessions in vain? Most members chose to believe something less
dissonant: the aliens had given earth a second chance, and the group was now empowered to spread the word:
earth-spoiling must stop. The group dramatically increased their proselytism despite the failed prophecy.[10]

The Induced-Compliance Paradigm

In Festinger and Carlsmith's classic 1959 experiment, students were asked to spend an hour on boring and tedious
tasks (e.g., turning pegs a quarter turn, over and over again). The tasks were designed to generate a strong, negative
attitude. Once the subjects had done this, the experimenters asked some of them to do a simple favor. They were
asked to talk to another subject (actually an actor) and persuade them that the tasks were interesting and engaging.
Some participants were paid $20 (inflation adjusted to 2010, this equates to $150) for this favor, another group was
paid $1 (or $7.50 in "2010 dollars"), and a control group was not asked to perform the favor.
Cognitive dissonance 13

When asked to rate the boring tasks at the conclusion of the study (not in the presence of the other "subject"), those
in the $1 group rated them more positively than those in the $20 and control groups. This was explained by Festinger
and Carlsmith as evidence for cognitive dissonance. The researchers theorized that people experienced dissonance
between the conflicting cognitions, "I told someone that the task was interesting", and "I actually found it boring."
When paid only $1, students were forced to internalize the attitude they were induced to express, because they had
no other justification. Those in the $20 condition, however, had an obvious external justification for their behavior,
and thus experienced less dissonance.[11]
In subsequent experiments, an alternative method of inducing dissonance has become common. In this research,
experimenters use counter-attitudinal essay-writing, in which people are paid varying amounts of money (e.g. $1 or
$10) for writing essays expressing opinions contrary to their own. People paid only a small amount of money have
less external justification for their inconsistency and must produce internal justification in order to reduce the high
degree of dissonance that they are experiencing.
A variant of the induced-compliance paradigm is the forbidden toy paradigm. An experiment by Aronson and
Carlsmith in 1963 examined self-justification in children.[12] In this experiment, children were left in a room with a
variety of toys, including a highly desirable toy steam-shovel (or other toy). Upon leaving the room, the
experimenter told half the children that there would be a severe punishment if they played with that particular toy
and told the other half that there would be a mild punishment. All of the children in the study refrained from playing
with the toy. Later, when the children were told that they could freely play with whatever toy they wanted, the ones
in the mild punishment condition were less likely to play with the toy, even though the threat had been removed. The
children who were only mildly threatened had to justify to themselves why they did not play with the toy. The degree
of punishment by itself was not strong enough, so the children had to convince themselves that the toy was not worth
playing with in order to resolve their dissonance.[12]

The Free-Choice Paradigm

In a different type of experiment conducted by Jack Brehm, 225 female students rated a series of common appliances
and were then allowed to choose one of two appliances to take home as a gift. A second round of ratings showed that
the participants increased their ratings of the item they chose, and lowered their ratings of the rejected item.[13] This
can be explained in terms of cognitive dissonance. When making a difficult decision, there are always aspects of the
rejected choice that one finds appealing and these features are dissonant with choosing something else. In other
words, the cognition, "I chose X" is dissonant with the cognition, "There are some things I like about Y." More
recent research has found similar results in four-year-old children and capuchin monkeys.[14]

The Effort-Justification Paradigm

Dissonance is aroused whenever individuals voluntarily engage in an unpleasant activity to achieve some desired
goal. Dissonance can be reduced by exaggerating the desirability of the goal. Aronson & Mills[15] had individuals
undergo a severe or mild "initiation" in order to become a member of a group. In the severe-initiation condition, the
individuals engaged in an embarrassing activity. The group turned out to be very dull and boring. The individuals in
the severe-initiation condition evaluated the group as more interesting than the individuals in the mild-initiation
condition.
All of the above paradigms continue to be used in fruitful research.
Washing one's hands has been shown to eliminate post-decisional dissonance, presumably because the dissonance is
often caused by moral disgust (with oneself) which is related to disgust from unsanitary conditions.[16] [17]
Cognitive dissonance 14

Challenges and qualifications

Daryl Bem was an early critic of cognitive dissonance theory. He proposed self-perception theory as a more
parsimonious alternative explanation of the experimental results. According to Bem, people do not think much about
their attitudes, let alone whether they are in conflict. Bem interpreted people in the Festinger and Carlsmith study or
the induced-compliance paradigm as inferring their attitudes from their behavior. Thus, when asked "Did you find
the task interesting?" they decided that they must have found it interesting because that is what they told someone.
Bem suggested that people paid $20 had a salient, external incentive for their behavior and were likely to perceive
the money as their reason for saying the task was interesting, rather than concluding that they actually found it
interesting.[18] [19]
In many experimental situations, Bem's theory and Festinger's dissonance theory make identical predictions, but only
dissonance theory predicts the presence of unpleasant tension or arousal. Lab experiments have verified the presence
of arousal in dissonance situations.[20] [21] This provides support for cognitive dissonance theory and makes it
unlikely that self-perception by itself can account for all the laboratory findings.
In 1969, Elliot Aronson reformulated the theory by linking it to the
self-concept. According to this new interpretation, cognitive
dissonance does not arise because people experience dissonance
between conflicting cognitions. Instead, it occurs when people see their
actions as conflicting with their normally positive view of themselves.
Thus, about the original Festinger and Carlsmith study using the
induced-compliance paradigm, Aronson stated that the dissonance was
between the cognition, "I am an honest person" and the cognition, "I
lied to someone about finding the task interesting."[6] Other
psychologists have argued that maintaining cognitive consistency is a
way to protect public self-image, rather than private self-concept.[23]
However, a recent result [24] seems to rule out such an explanation by
showing revaluation of items following a choice even when people
have forgotten their choices.
Elliot Aronson's 1968 restatement of the theory
[22]
gave a central role to the self-concept.
During the 1980s, Cooper and Fazio argued that dissonance was
caused by aversive consequences, rather than inconsistency. According
to this interpretation, the fact that lying is wrong and hurtful, not the inconsistency between cognitions, is what
makes people feel bad.[25] Subsequent research, however, found that people experience dissonance even when they
feel they have not done anything wrong. For example, Harmon-Jones and colleagues showed that people experience
dissonance even when the consequences of their statements are beneficial—as when they convince sexually active
students to use condoms, when they, themselves are not using condoms.[26]

Chen and colleagues have criticized the free-choice paradigm and have suggested that the "Rank, choice, rank"
method of studying dissonance is invalid.[27] They argue that research design relies on the assumption that, if the
subject rates options differently in the second survey, then the subject's attitudes towards the options have therefore
changed. They show that there are other reasons one might get different rankings in the second survey—perhaps the
subjects were largely indifferent between choices. Although some follow-up studies have found supportive evidence
for Chen's concerns[28] , other studies that have controlled for Chen's concerns have not, instead suggesting that the
mere act of making a choice can indeed change preferences.[14] [29] [30] Nevertheless, this issue remains under active
investigation.[31]
Cognitive dissonance 15

Cognitive dissonance in the brain

Using fMRI, Van Veen and colleagues investigated the neural basis of cognitive dissonance in a modified version of
the classic induced compliance paradigm. While in the scanner, participants "argued" that the uncomfortable MRI
environment was nevertheless a pleasant experience. The researchers replicated the basic induced compliance
findings; participants in an experimental group enjoyed the scanner more than participants in a control group who
simply were paid to make their argument. Importantly, responding counter-attitudinally activated the dorsal anterior
cingulate cortex and the anterior insular cortex; furthermore, the degree to which these regions were activated
predicted individual participants' degree of attitude change. Van Veen and colleagues argue that these findings
support the original dissonance theory by Festinger, and support the "conflict theory" of anterior cingulate
functioning.[32]
Using the free choice paradigm, Sharot and colleagues have shown that after making a choice, activity in the
striatum changes to reflect the new evaluation of the choice object, increasing if the object was chosen and
decreasing if it was rejected.[33] Follow-up studies have largely confirmed these results.[29] [34]

Modeling in neural networks

Neural network models of cognition have provided the necessary framework to integrate the empirical research done
on cognitive dissonance and attitudes into one model of explanation of attitude formation and change.[35]
Various neural network models have been developed to predict how cognitive dissonance will influence an
individual's attitude and behavior. These include:
• Parallel Constraint Satisfaction Processes[35]
• The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes[36]
• Adaptive connectionist model of cognitive dissonance[37]
• Attitudes as constraint satisfaction model[38]

References
[1] Elster, Jon. Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion of Rationality. Cambridge 1983, p. 123ff.
[2] Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
[3] Festinger, L. (1956). When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of A Modern Group that Predicted the Destruction of the
World, by Leon Festinger, Henry Riecken, and Stanley Schachter. Harper-Torchbooks, Jan. 1956. ISBN 0061311324
[4] Aronson, E., Akert, R.D., & Wilson, T.D. (2006). Social psychology (6th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
[5] Baron, R.A., & Byrne, D. (2004). Social Psychology (10th Ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
[6] Aronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 1–34. New York: Academic Press.
[7] Tavris, Carol; Elliot Aronson (2008). Mistakes were made (but not by me). Pinter and Martin. pp. 26–29. ISBN 9781905177219.
[8] Jecker, John; David Landy (1969). "Liking a Person as a Function of Doing Him a Favor". Human Relations 22 (4): 371–378.
doi:10.1177/001872676902200407.
[9] Franklin, Benjamin (1996). The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0486290735, 9780486290737.
Source: (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=D29W3OkXFq4C& pg=PA80& lpg=PA80& f=false) (accessed: Wednesday April 21,
2010), p.80
[10] Festinger, L., Riecken, H.W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
[11] Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. (http:/ / psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Festinger/ index.
htm) Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58(2), 203–210.
[12] Aronson, E., & Carlsmith, J.M. (1963). Effect of the severity of threat on the devaluation of forbidden behavior. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1037/ h0039901) Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(6), 584–588.
[13] Brehm, J. (1956). Post-decision changes in desirability of alternatives. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1037/ h0041006) Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 52(3), 384–389.
[14] Egan, L.C., Bloom, P., & Santos, L.R. (2010). Choice-induced preferences in the absence of choice: Evidence from a blind two choice
paradigm with young children and capuchin monkeys. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jesp. 2009. 08. 014) Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 46(1), 204-207.
Cognitive dissonance 16

[15] Aronson, E. & Mills, J. (1956). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. (http:/ / faculty. uncfsu. edu/ tvancantfort/ Syllabi/
Gresearch/ Readings/ A_Aronson. pdf) Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 177–181.
[16] Lee, S.W.S., & Schwartz, N. (2010) Washing away postdecisional dissonance. (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 328/
5979/ 709) Science, 328(5979), 709.
[17] Zhong, C.B. & Liljenquist, K. (2006). Washing away your sins: Threatened morality and physical cleansing. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/
science. 1130726) Science, 313(5792), 1451-1452.
[18] Bem, D.J. (1965). An experimental analysis of self-persuasion. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0022-1031(65)90026-0) Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 1(3), 199–218.
[19] Bem, D.J. (1967). Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena. (http:/ / dbem. ws/ SP Theory
Cognitive Dissonance. pdf) Psychological Review, 74(3), 183–200.
[20] Zanna, M., & Cooper, J. (1974). Dissonance and the pill: An attribution approach to studying the arousal properties of dissonance. (http:/ /
psycnet. apa. org/ index. cfm?fa=search. displayRecord& uid=1974-32359-001) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29(5),
703–709.
[21] Kiesler, C.A., & Pallak, M.S. (1976). Arousal properties of dissonance manipulations. (http:/ / psycnet. apa. org/ index. cfm?fa=search.
displayRecord& uid=1977-21057-001) Psychological Bulletin, 83(6), 1014–1025.
[22] G. Greenwald, Anthony; David L. Ronis (1978). "Twenty Years of Cognitive Dissonance: Case Study of the Evolution of a Theory".
Psychological Review (American Psychological Association) 85 (1): 53–57. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.85.1.53. ISSN 1939-1471.
[23] Tedeschi, J.T., Schlenker, B.R., & Bonoma, T.V. (1971). Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination or public spectacle? (http:/ / psycnet.
apa. org/ journals/ amp/ 26/ 8/ 685) American Psychologist, 26(8), 685–695.
[24] Coppin, G., Delplanque, S., Cayeux, I., Porcherot, C., & Sander, D. (2010). I’m no longer torn after choice: How explicit choices implicitly
shape preferences of odors (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 20424088) Psychological Science, 21(8), 489–493.
[25] Cooper, J., & Fazio, R.H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol.
17, pp. 229–266). New York: Academic Press.
[26] Harmon-Jones, E., Brehm, J.W., Greenberg, J., Simon, L., & Nelson, D.E. (1996). Evidence that the production of aversive consequences is
not necessary to create cognitive dissonance. (http:/ / www. socialemotiveneuroscience. org/ pubs/ hj_etal96. pdf) Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 70(1), 5–16.
[27] Chen, M.K., & Risen J.L. (2010) How choice affects and reflects preferences: Revisiting the free-choice paradigm. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1037/ a0020217) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(4), 573-594.
[28] Holden, S. (In press). Do choices affect preferences? Some doubts and new evidence. (http:/ / folk. uio. no/ sholden/ publikasjoner/
cog-dis-article-jasp. pdf)
[29] Izuma, K., Matsumoto, M., Murayama, K., Samejima, K., Sadato, N., & Matsumoto, K. (2010). Neural correlates of cognitive dissonance
and choice-induced preference change. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. 1011879108) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
U.S.A., 107(51), 22014-22019.
[30] Sharot, T., Velasquez, C. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2010). Do decisions shape preference? Evidence from blind choice. (http:/ / pss. sagepub. com/
content/ 21/ 9/ 1231. abstract) Psychological Science, 21(9), 1231-1235.
[31] Risen J.L. & Chen, M.K. (2010) How to study choice-induced attitude change: Strategies for fixing the free-choice paradigm. (http:/ / www.
som. yale. edu/ faculty/ keith. chen/ papers/ Final_SPPC10. pdf) Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(12), 1151–1164.
[32] Van Veen, V., Krug, M.K., Schooler, J.W., & Carter, C.S. (2009). Neural activity predicts attitude change in cognitive dissonance. (http:/ /
vincentvanveen. net/ Documents/ van_Veen_NatureNeuro_2009. pdf) Nature Neuroscience, 12(11), 1469–1474.
[33] Sharot, T., De Martino, B., & Dolan, R.J. (2009). How choice reveals and shapes expected hedonic outcome (http:/ / www. fil. ion. ucl. ac.
uk/ ~tsharot/ Sharot_JofN_2009. pdf) Journal of Neuroscience, 29(12), 3760–3765.
[34] Qin, J., Kimel, S., Kitayama, S., Wang, X., Yang, X., & Han, S. (2011). How choice modifies preference: Neural correlates of choice
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[35] Read, S.J., Vanman, E.J., & Miller L.C. (1997). Connectionism, parallel constraint satisfaction processes, and Gestalt principles:
(Re)Introducing cognitive dynamics to social psychology. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1207/ s15327957pspr0101_3) Personality and Social
Psychology Review, 1(1), 26–53.
[36] Petty, R.E., Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K.G. (2007). The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement,
change, and strength. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1521/ soco. 2007. 25. 5. 657) Social Cognition, 25(5), 657–686.
[37] Van Overwalle, F., & Jordens, K. (2002). An adaptive connectionist model of cognitive dissonance. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1207/
S15327957PSPR0603_6) Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(3), 204–231.
[38] Monroe, B.M., & Read, S.J. (2008). A general connectionist model of attitude structure and change: The ACS (Attitudes as Constraint
Satisfaction) Model (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 18729597), Psychological Review, 115(3), 733–759.
Cognitive dissonance 17

Further reading
• Cooper, J. (2007). Cognitive dissonance: 50 years of a classic theory. London: Sage publications.
• Harmon-Jones, E., & J. Mills. (Eds.) (1999). Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social
Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Tavris, C.; Aronson, E. (2007). Mistakes were made (but not by me): Why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions,
and hurtful acts. Orlando, FL: Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-101098-1.

External links
• Cognitive dissonance entry in The Skeptic's Dictionary (http://www.skepdic.com/cognitivedissonance.html)
• Festinger and Carlsmith's original paper (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm)

Construct (philosophy of science)

A construct in the philosophy of science is an ideal object, where the existence
of the thing may be said to depend upon a subject's mind. This, as opposed to a
"real" object, where existence does not seem to depend on the existence of a
mind.[1]
In scientific theory, particularly Psychology, a hypothetical construct is an
explanatory variable which is not directly observable. For example, the concepts
of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psychology,
but neither is directly observable. A hypothetical construct differs from an
intervening variable in that it has properties and implications which have not
An object's center of mass is certainly
been demonstrated in empirical research. These serve as a guide to further
a real thing, but it is a construct (not
research. An intervening variable, on the other hand, is a summary of observed another object)
empirical findings.

The creation of constructs is a part of Operationalization. The usefulness of one conceptualization over another
depends largely on construct validity.

Construct versus object

Concepts that are considered constructs by this definition include that which is designated by the symbol "3" or the
word "liberty". Scientific hypotheses and theories (e.g., evolutionary theory, gravitational theory), as well as
classifications (e.g. in biological taxonomy) are also conceptual entities considered to be constructs.
Some simple examples of real objects(that are not constructs) are lawyers and undershirts.

History
Cronbach and Meehl (1948) define a hypothetical construct as a concept for which there is not a single observable
referent, which cannot be directly observed, and for which there exist multiple referents, but none all-inclusive. For
example, according to Cronbach and Meehl a fish is not a hypothetical construct because, despite variation in species
and varieties of fish, there is an agreed upon definition for a fish with specific characteristics that distinguish a fish
from a bird. Furthermore, a fish can be directly observed. On the other hand a hypothetical construct has no single
referent; rather, hypothetical constructs consist of groups of functionally related behaviors, attitudes, processes, and
experiences. Instead of seeing intelligence, love, or fear we see indicators or manifestations of what we have agreed
to call intelligence, love, or fear. Other examples of hypothetical constructs include gravity, creativity, menopause,
Construct (philosophy of science) 18

and guilt.
McCorquodale and Meehl (1948) discussed the distinction between
what they called intervening variables and these hypothetical
constructs. According to McCorquodale and Meehl (1948) intervening
variables are defined solely in terms of their antecedents and
consequences. Thus, intervening variables are operationally defined
congruent with the philosophy of Positivism that was popular at the
time. In contrast, McCorquodale and Meehl (1948) describe
hypothetical constructs as containing surplus meaning, as they imply
more than just the operations by which they are measured.

In the positivist tradition, Boring (1923) described intelligence as Diseases like Leukemia are important
explanatory concepts, but do not 'exist' in the
whatever the intelligence test measures. As a reaction to such
same way as a rock or a pencil
operational definitions, Cronbach and Meehl (1955) emphasized the
necessity of viewing constructs like intelligence as hypothetical
constructs. They asserted that there is no adequate criterion for the operational definition of constructs like abilities
and personality. Thus, according to Cronbach and Meehl (1955), a useful construct of intelligence or personality
should imply more than simply test scores. Instead these constructs should predict a wide range of behaviors.

Sources
Boring, E.G. (1923) Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic, 36, 35-37.
Cronbach, L.J., and Meehl, P.E. (1955) Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52,
281-302.
MacCorquodale, K.,& Meehl, P.E. (1948). On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening
variables. Psychological Review, 55, 95-107.

References
[1] Bunge, M. 1974. Treatise on Basic Philosophy, Vol. I Semantics I: Sense and Reference. Dordrecth-Boston: Reidel Publishing Co.
Continuous improvement process 19

Continuous improvement process

A continuous improvement process (CIP or CI) is an ongoing effort to improve products, services, or processes.
These efforts can seek "incremental" improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once.[1] Delivery
(customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and
flexibility.
Some see it as a meta-process for most management systems (Business Process Management, Quality Management,
Project Management). Deming saw it as part of the 'system' whereby feedback from the process and customer were
evaluated against organisational goals. The fact that it can be called a management process does not mean that it
needs to be executed by 'management' merely that it makes decisions about the implementation of the delivery
process and the design of the delivery process itself.
Some successful implementations use the approach known as Kaizen (the translation of kai (“change”) zen (“good”)
is “improvement”). This method became famous by the book of Masaaki Imai “Kaizen: The Key to Japan's
Competitive Success.”
• The core principle of CIP is the (self) reflection of processes. (Feedback)
• The purpose of CIP is the identification, reduction, and elimination of suboptimal processes. (Efficiency)
• The emphasis of CIP is on incremental, continuous steps rather than giant leaps. (Evolution)
Key features of Kaizen:
• Improvements are based on many, small changes rather than the radical changes that might arise from Research
and Development
• As the ideas come from the workers themselves, they are less likely to be radically different, and therefore easier
to implement
• Small improvements are less likely to require major capital investment than major process changes
• The ideas come from the talents of the existing workforce, as opposed to using R&D, consultants or equipment –
any of which could be very expensive
• All employees should continually be seeking ways to improve their own performance
• It helps encourage workers to take ownership for their work, and can help reinforce team working, thereby
improving worker motivation
The elements above are the more tactical elements of CIP. The more strategic elements include deciding how to
increase the value of the delivery process output to the customer (Effectiveness) and how much flexibility is valuable
in the process to meet changing needs.[2] [3]

Implementation
The involvement of all workers require training, it is necessary to be able to distinguish between symptom and
ailment so that efforts are spent solving the root causes of the problem.
One example of broad training in continuous improvement techniques is Facila, the southern European Lifelong
Learning program where students learn to apply mathematics to everyday situations by preparing Kaizen style
projects.

Continuous improvement in environmental management

Whereas the CIP as outlined above is a concept of Quality Management, the CIP-concept is also known in
Environmental Management Systems (EMS), such as ISO 14000 and EMAS. Several differences exist between these
two concepts. Most of all: CIP in EMS aims to improve the natural consequences of products and activities, not the
products and activities as such. Also, there is no client-orientation in EMS-related CIP. And - very important - CIP in
Continuous improvement process 20

EMS is not limited to small, incremental improvements as in Kaizen, it also contains innovations of any scale
(Gastl)[4]

References
[1] ASQ: Learn About Quality — http:/ / www. asq. org/ learn-about-quality/ continuous-improvement/ overview/ overview. html
[2] Imai, Masaaki (1986). Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success. McGraw-Hill/Irwin. ISBN 0-07-554332-X.
[3] Imai, Masaaki (1997). Gemba Kaizen: A Commonsense, Low-Cost Approach to Management, 1st edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-031446-2.
[4] Gastl, René: CIP in Environmental Management (http:/ / www. envirocip. com/ downloadables/ summary-of-basic-cip-concept. html), an
Abstract of Gastl, René: Kontinuierliche Verbesserung im Umweltmanagement, 2nd Edition, 2009, vdf, Zurich

Deskilling
Deskilling is the process by which skilled labor within an industry or economy is eliminated by the introduction of
technologies operated by semiskilled or unskilled workers. This results in cost savings due to lower investment in
human capital, and reduces barriers to entry, weakening the bargaining power of the human capital.[1]
It is criticized[2] for decreasing quality, demeaning labor (rendering work mechanical, rather than thoughtful and
making workers automatons rather than artisans), and undermining community.

Examples
Examples of deprofessionalization can be found across many professions, and include:
• assembly line workers replacing artisans and craftsmen[1]
• CNC machine tools replacing machinists
• super-automatic espresso machines replacing skilled baristas
• doctors; the M.D. is being replaced by "Health Care Providers"
• nurses
• pharmacists
• social workers
• librarians

Impact
Work is fragmented, and individuals lose the integrated skills and comprehensive knowledge of the crafts persons.[3]
In an application to the arts, Benjamin Buchloh defines deskilling as "a concept of considerable importance in
describing numerous artistic endeavors throughout the twentieth century with relative precision. All of these are
linked in their persistent effort to eliminate artisanal competence and other forms of manual virtuosity from the
horizon of both artist competence and aesthetic valuation."
Deskilling 21

Related
Related to the topic of deskilling is deprofessionalization and labor-saving devices. See also the Luddite fallacy.

References
[1] Braverman, Harry (1974) Labor and monopoly capital. New York: Monthly Review
[2] Lerner, Sally (1994) "The future of work in North America: Good jobs, bad jobs, beyond jobs". Futures, 26(2):185-196. DOI
10.1016/0016-3287(94)90108-2. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ B6V65-45P08JF-36/ 2/
23fd0ad6af28b8b0b88d774bd2b4ca84)
[3] "Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences" (http:/ / bitbucket. icaap. org/ dict. pl?term=DESKILLING). . Retrieved 2007-04-08.

Further reading
• Stephen Wood (December 1981). Degradation of Work: Skill, Deskilling and the Braverman Debate.
HarperCollins. ISBN 0091454018.
• Hal Foster, Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, and Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (March 2005). Art Since 1900:
Modernism, Antimodernism, Postmodernism. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0500238189.
• Beatrice Edwards. "Deskilling AND Downsizing: Some Thoughts About The Future Of Technical Education"
(http://iacd.oas.org/La Educa 123-125/edw.htm). Retrieved 2007-04-08.
• Sociology Department, Langara College (http://www.langara.bc.ca/sociology/Deskilling.html)
• Sociology Department, McMaster University (http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/soc/courses/soc4jj3/stuweb/
pbl_3/skills.htm)
• Technology, Capitalism and Anarchism (http://flag.blackened.net/blackflag/219/219techn.htm)

Dualism (philosophy of mind)

In philosophy of mind, dualism is a set of views about the
relationship between mind and matter, which begins with the
claim that mental phenomena are, in some respects,
non-physical.[1]
Ideas on mind/body dualism are presented in Hebrew Scripture (as
early as Genesis 2:7) where the Creator is said to have formed the
first human a living, psycho-physical fusion of mind and body—a
holisitic dualism. Mind/body dualism is also seen in the writings
of Zarathushtra. Plato and Aristotle deal with speculations as to the
existence of an incorporeal soul that bore the faculties of
intelligence and wisdom. They maintained, for different reasons,
that people's "intelligence" (a faculty of the mind or soul) could
not be identified with, or explained in terms of, their physical
body.[2] [3]

A generally well-known version of dualism is attributed to René

René Descartes's illustration of dualism. Inputs are
Descartes (1641), which holds that the mind is a nonphysical
passed on by the sensory organs to the epiphysis in the
substance. Descartes was the first to clearly identify the mind with brain and from there to the immaterial spirit.
consciousness and self-awareness and to distinguish this from the
brain, which was the seat of intelligence. Hence, he was the first to formulate the mind-body problem in the form in
which it exists today.[4] Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of monism, including physicalism and
phenomenalism. Substance dualism is contrasted with all forms of materialism, but property dualism may be
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 22

considered a form of emergent materialism and thus would only be contrasted with non-emergent materialism.[5]
This article discusses the various forms of dualism and the arguments which have been made both for and against
this thesis.

Historical overview

Plato and Aristotle

In the dialogue Phaedo, Plato formulated his famous Theory of Forms as distinct and immaterial substances of which
the objects and other phenomena that we perceive in the world are nothing more than mere shadows.[2] Plato's
doctrine was the prototype of all future manifestations of substance dualism in ontology. But Plato's doctrine of the
Forms need not be considered some sort of ancient and superseded metaphysical notion because it has precise
implications for the philosophy of mind and the mind-body problem in particular.
Plato makes it clear, in the Phaedo, that the Forms are the universalia ante res, i.e. they are universal concepts (or
ideas) which make all of the phenomenal world intelligible. Consequently, in order for the intellect (the most
important aspect of the mind in philosophy up until Descartes) to have access to any kind of knowledge with regard
to any aspect of the universe, it must necessarily be a non-physical, immaterial entity (or property of some such
entity) itself. So, it is clear on the basis of the texts that Plato was a very powerful precursor of Descartes and his
subsequent more stringent formulation of the doctrine of substance dualism.[2]
Aristotle strongly rejected Plato's notion of Forms as independently existing entities. In the Metaphysics, he already
points to the central problems with this idea.[3] On the one hand, if we say that the particulars of the phenomenal
world participate or share in the Form, we seem to be destroying the Form's essential and indispensable unity.
However, if we say that the particulars merely resemble, or are copies of, the Form, we seem to need an extra form to
explain the connection between the members of the class consisting of the-particulars-and-the-form, and so on,
leading to an infinite regress. This argument, originally formulated by Plato himself in the Parmenides, was later
given the name of the "third man argument" by Aristotle.[3]
For these reasons, Aristotle revised the theory of forms so as to eliminate the idea of their independent existence
from concrete, particular entities.[6] The form of something, for Aristotle, is the nature or essence (ousia, in Greek)
of that thing. To say that Socrates and Callias are both men is not to say that there is some transcendent entity "man"
to which both Socrates and Callias belong. The form is indeed substance but it is not substance over and above the
substance of the concrete entities which it characterizes. Aristotle rejects both universalia in rebus as well as
universalia ante res.[6] Some philosophers and thinkers have taken this to be a form of materialism and there may be
something to their arguments. However, what is important from the perspective of philosophy of mind is that
Aristotle does not believe that intellect can be conceived of as something material. He argues as follows: if the
intellect were material then it could not receive all of the forms. If the intellect were a specific material organ (or part
of one) then it would be restricted to receiving only certain kinds of information, as the eye is restricted to receiving
visual data and the ear is restricted to receiving auditory data. Since the intellect is capable of receiving and
reflecting on all forms of data, then it must not be a physical organ and, hence, it must be immaterial.[6]

From Neoplatonism to Scholasticism

Early Christianity seems to have struggled to come to terms with the identification of a unique position with regard
to the question of the relationship between mind and body, just as it struggled to define the relationship of the
ontological status of Christ himself (see homoousianism, homoiousianism, Arianism, etc.). In the early Middle Ages,
a consensus seemed to emerge around what is now called Neoplatonism. The doctrines of Neoplatonism were
essentially minor modifications on Plato's general ideas about the immortality of the soul and the nature of the
Forms. The Neoplatonic Christians identified the Forms with souls and believed that the soul was the substance of
each individual human being, while the body was just a shadow or copy of these eternal phenomena.[7]
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 23

Later philosophers, following in the neo-Aristotelian trail blazed by Thomas Aquinas, came to develop a trinitarian
notion of forms which paralleled the Trinitarian doctrine of Father, Son and Holy Spirit: forms, intellect and soul
were three aspects or parts of the same singular phenomenon. For Aquinas, the soul (or intellect) remained the
substance of the human being, but, somewhat similarly to Aristotle's proposal, it was only through its manifestation
inside the human body that a person could be said to be a person. While the soul (intellect or form) could exist
independently of the body the soul by itself did not constitute a person. Hence, Aquinas suggested that instead of
saying "St. Peter pray for us" one should rather say something like "soul of St. Peter pray for us", since all that
remained of St. Peter, after his death, was his soul. All things connected with the body, such as personal memories,
were cancelled out with the end of one's corporeal existence.[8]
There are different views on this question in modern Christianity. Official Catholic Church doctrine claims that at
the Second Coming of Christ, the body is reunited with the soul at the resurrection, and the whole person (i.e. body
and soul) then goes to Heaven or Hell. Hence, there is a sort of inseparability of soul, mind and body which is even
more strongly reminiscent of Aristotle than the positions expressed by Thomas Aquinas.[9] A small minority of
revisionist Protestant theologians do not accept this doctrine and insist, instead, that only the immaterial soul (and
hence mind or intellect) goes to Heaven, leaving the body (and brain) behind it forever.[10]

Descartes and his disciples

In his Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes embarked upon a quest in which he called all his previous beliefs
into doubt, in order to find out of what he could be certain.[4] In so doing, he discovered that he could doubt whether
he had a body (it could be that he was dreaming of it or that it was an illusion created by an evil demon), but he
could not doubt whether he had a mind. This gave Descartes his first inkling that the mind and body were different
things. The mind, according to Descartes, was a "thinking thing" (lat. res cogitans), and an immaterial substance.
This "thing" was the essence of himself, that which doubts, believes, hopes, and thinks. The distinction between
mind and body is argued in Meditation VI as follows: I have a clear and distinct idea of myself as a thinking,
non-extended thing, and a clear and distinct idea of body as an extended and non-thinking thing. Whatever I can
conceive clearly and distinctly, God can so create. So, Descartes argues, the mind, a thinking thing, can exist apart
from its extended body. And therefore, the mind is a substance distinct from the body, a substance whose essence is
thought.[4]
The central claim of what is often called Cartesian dualism, in honour of Descartes, is that the immaterial mind and
the material body, while being ontologically distinct substances, causally interact. This is an idea which continues to
feature prominently in many non-European philosophies. Mental events cause physical events, and vice-versa. But
this leads to a substantial problem for Cartesian dualism: How can an immaterial mind cause anything in a material
body, and vice-versa? This has often been called the "problem of interactionism."
Descartes himself struggled to come up with a feasible answer to this problem. In his letter to Elisabeth of Bohemia,
Princess Palatine, he suggested that animal spirits interacted with the body through the pineal gland, a small gland in
the centre of the brain, between the two hemispheres.[4] The term "Cartesian dualism" is also often associated with
this more specific notion of causal interaction through the pineal gland. However, this explanation was not
satisfactory: how can an immaterial mind interact with the physical pineal gland? Because Descartes' was such a
difficult theory to defend, some of his disciples, such as Arnold Geulincx and Nicholas Malebranche, proposed a
different explanation: That all mind-body interactions required the direct intervention of God. According to these
philosophers, the appropriate states of mind and body were only the occasions for such intervention, not real causes.
These occasionalists maintained the strong thesis that all causation was directly dependent on God, instead of
holding that all causation was natural except for that between mind and body.[11]
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 24

Types of mind-body dualism

Ontological dualism makes dual commitments about the nature of existence as it relates to mind and matter, and can
be divided into three different types:
1. Substance dualism asserts that mind and matter are fundamentally distinct kinds of substances.[1]
2. Property dualism suggests that the ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and
matter (as in emergentism).[1]
3. Predicate dualism claims the irreducibility of mental predicates to physical predicates.[1]

Substance dualism
Substance dualism is a type of dualism most famously defended by Descartes, which states that there are two
fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material.[5] According to his philosophy, which is specifically called
Cartesian dualism, the mental does not have extension in space, and the material cannot think. Substance dualism is
important historically for having given rise to much thought regarding the famous mind-body problem. Substance
dualism is a philosophical position compatible with most theologies which claim that immortal souls occupy an
independent "realm" of existence distinct from that of the physical world.[1] David Chalmers recently developed a
thought experiment inspired by the movie The Matrix in which substance dualism could be true: Consider a
computer simulation in which the bodies of the creatures are controlled by their minds and the minds remain strictly
external to the simulation. The creatures can do all the science they want in the world, but they will never be able to
figure out where their minds are, for they do not exist in their observable universe. This is a case of substance
dualism with respect to computer simulation. This naturally differs from a computer simulation in which the minds
are part of the simulation. In such a case, substance monism would be true.[12]

Property dualism
Property dualism asserts that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter,
and that consciousness is ontologically irreducible to neurobiology and physics. It asserts that when matter is
organized in the appropriate way (i.e., in the way that living human bodies are organized), mental properties emerge.
Hence, it is a sub-branch of emergent materialism. What views properly fall under the property dualism rubric is
itself a matter of dispute. There are different versions of property dualism, some of which claim independent
categorisation.[13]

Non-reductive physicalism
Non-reductive physicalism is a form of Property Dualism, in which it is asserted that all mental states are causally
reducible to physical states. One argument for this has been made in the form of anomalous monism expressed by
Donald Davidson, where it is argued that mental events are identical to physical events, and there can be strict
law-governed causal relationships. Another argument for this has been expressed by John Searle, who is the
advocate of a distinctive form of physicalism he calls biological naturalism. His view is that although mental states
are ontologically irreducible to physical states, they are causally reducible (see causality). He has acknowledged that
"to many people" his views and those of property dualists look a lot alike. But he thinks the comparison is
misleading.[13]

Epiphenomenalism
Epiphenomenalism is a form of Property Dualism, in which it is asserted that one or more mental states do not have
any influence on physical states (both ontologically and causally irreducible). It asserts that while material causes
give rise to sensations, volitions, ideas, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further: they are
causal dead-ends. This can be contrasted to interactionism, on the other hand, in which mental causes can produce
material effects, and vice-versa.[14]
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 25

Predicate dualism
Predicate dualism is the view espoused by most nonreductive physicalists, such as Donald Davidson and Jerry
Fodor, who maintain that while there is only one ontological category of substances and properties of substances
(usually physical), the predicates that we use to describe mental events cannot be redescribed in terms of (or reduced
to) physical predicates of natural languages.[15] [16] If we characterize predicate monism as the view subscribed to by
eliminative materialists, who maintain that such intentional predicates as believe, desire, think, feel, etc., will
eventually be eliminated from both the language of science and from ordinary language because the entities to which
they refer do not exist, then predicate dualism is most easily defined as the negation of this position. Predicate
dualists believe that so-called "folk psychology", with all of its propositional attitude ascriptions, is an ineliminable
part of the enterprise of describing, explaining and understanding human mental states and behavior.
Davidson, for example, subscribes to Anomalous Monism, according to which there can be no strict psycho-physical
laws which connect mental and physical events under their descriptions as mental and physical events. However, all
mental events also have physical descriptions. It is in terms of the latter that such events can be connected in law-like
relations with other physical events. Mental predicates are irreducibly different in character (rational, holistic and
necessary) from physical predicates (contingent, atomic and causal).[15]

Dualist views of mental causation

Interactionism
Interactionism is the view that mental
states, such as beliefs and desires,
causally interact with physical states.
This is a position which is very Four varieties of dualist causal interaction. The arrows indicate the direction of the
appealing to common-sense intuitions, interactions.
notwithstanding the fact that it is very
difficult to establish its validity or correctness by way of logical argumentation or empirical proof. It seems to appeal
to common-sense because we are surrounded by such everyday occurrences as a child's touching a hot stove
(physical event) which causes him to feel pain (mental event) and then yell and scream (physical event) which
causes his parents to experience a sensation of fear and protectiveness (mental event) and so on.[5]

Parallelism
Psycho-physical parallelism is a very unusual view about the interaction between mental and physical events which
was most prominently, and perhaps only truly, advocated by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Like Malebranche and
others before him, Leibniz recognized the weaknesses of Descartes' account of causal interaction taking place in a
physical location in the brain. Malebranche decided that such a material basis of interaction between material and
immaterial was impossible and therefore formulated his doctrine of occasionalism, stating that the interactions were
really caused by the intervention of God on each individual occasion. Leibniz's idea is that God has created a
pre-established harmony such that it only seems as if physical and mental events cause, and are caused by, one
another. In reality, mental causes only have mental effects and physical causes only have physical effects. Hence the
term parallelism is used to describe this view.[14]
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 26

Occasionalism
Occasionalism is a philosophical doctrine about causation which says that created substances cannot be efficient
causes of events. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God himself. The theory states that the illusion
of efficient causation between mundane events arises out of a constant conjunction that God had instituted, such that
every instance where the cause is present will constitute an "occasion" for the effect to occur as an expression of the
aforementioned power. This "occasioning" relation, however, falls short of efficient causation. In this view, it is not
the case that the first event causes God to cause the second event: rather, God first caused one and then caused the
other, but chose to regulate such behaviour in accordance with general laws of nature. Some of its most prominent
historical exponents have been Louis de la Forge, Arnold Geulincx, and Nicholas Malebranche.[11]

Epiphenomenalism
According to epiphenomenalism, all mental events are caused by a physical event and have no physical
consequences, and that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states. So, the mental event
of deciding to pick up a rock ("M") is caused by the firing of specific neurons in the brain ("P"). When the arm and
hand move to pick up the rock ("E") this is not caused by the preceding mental event M, nor by M and P together,
but only by P. The physical causes are in principle reducible to fundamental physics, and therefore mental causes are
eliminated using this reductionist explanation. If P causes both M and E, there is no overdetermination in the
explanation for E.[5]
The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in
animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further
explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Huxley (1874).[17]

Non-reductive physicalism
Non-reductive physicalism is the idea that while mental states are physical they are not reducible to physical
properties, in that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between the properties of mind and matter.
According to non-reductive physicalism all mental states are causally reducible to physical states where mental
properties map to physical properties and vice-versa. A prominent form of non-reductive physicalism called
anomalous monism was first proposed by Donald Davidson in his 1970 paper Mental events, where it is claimed that
mental events are identical with physical events, and that the mental is anomalous, i.e. under their mental
descriptions these mental events are not regulated by strict physical laws.
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 27

Arguments for dualism

Subjective argument in support of dualism

A very important argument against physicalism (and hence in favor of
some sort of dualism) consists in the idea that the mental and the
physical seem to have quite different and perhaps irreconcilable
properties.
Mental events have a certain subjective quality to them, whereas
physical seem not to. So, for example, one may ask what a burned
finger feels like, or what the blueness of the sky looks like, or what
nice music sounds like.[18]
Philosophers of mind call the subjective aspects of mental events
qualia (or raw feels). There is something that it's like to feel pain, to
see a familiar shade of blue, and so on. There are qualia involved in Another one of Descartes' illustrations. The fire
displaces the skin, which pulls a tiny thread,
these mental events. And the claim is that qualia seem particularly
which opens a pore in the ventricle (F) allowing
difficult to reduce to anything physical.[1] the "animal spirit" to flow through a hollow tube,
Thomas Nagel, himself a physicalist, first characterized the problem of which inflates the muscle of the leg, causing the
foot to withdraw.
qualia for physicalistic monism in his article, "What is it like to be a
bat?". Nagel argued that even if we knew everything there was to know
from a third-person, scientific perspective about a bat's sonar system, we still wouldn't know what it is like to be a
bat.
Frank Jackson formulated his famous knowledge argument based upon similar considerations. In this thought
experiment, known as Mary's room, he asks us to consider a neuroscientist, Mary, who was born, and has lived all of
her life, in a black and white room with a black and white television and computer monitor where she collects all the
scientific data she possibly can on the nature of colours. Jackson asserts that as soon as Mary leaves the room, she
will come to have new knowledge which she did not possess before: the knowledge of the experience of colours (i.e.,
what they are like). Although, by hypothesis, Mary had already known everything there is to know about colours
from an objective, third-person perspective, she never knew, according to Jackson, what it was like to see red,
orange, or green.
If Mary really learns something new, it must be knowledge of something non-physical, since she already knew
everything there is to know about the physical aspects of colour.[19] David Lewis' response to this argument, now
known as the ability argument, is that what Mary really came to know was simply the ability to recognize and
identify color sensations to which she had previously not been exposed.[20] Daniel Dennett and others also provide
arguments against this notion, see Mary's room for details.

Special sciences argument

This argument says that, if predicate dualism is correct, then there are special sciences which are irreducible to
physics. These irreducible special sciences, which are the source of allegedly irreducible predicates, presumably
differ from the hard sciences in that they are interest-relative. If they are interest-relative, then they must be
dependent on the existence of minds which are capable of having interested perspectives. Psychology is, of course,
the paragon of special sciences; therefore, it and its predicates must depend even more profoundly on the existence
of the mental.
Physics, at least ideally, sets out to tell us how the world is in itself, to carve up the world at its joints and describe it
to us without the interference of individual perspectives or personal interests. On the other hand, such things as the
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 28

patterns of the weather seen in meteorology or the behavior of human beings are only of interest to human beings as
such. The point is that having a perspective on the world is a psychological state. Therefore, the special sciences
presuppose the existence of minds which can have these states. If one is to avoid ontological dualism, then the mind
that has a perspective must be part of the physical reality to which it applies its perspective. If this is the case, then in
order to perceive the physical world as psychological, the mind must have a perspective on the physical. This, in
turn, presupposes the existence of mind.[14]

The zombie argument

The zombie argument is based on a thought experiment proposed by David Chalmers. The basic idea is that one can
imagine, and therefore conceive the existence of, one's body without any conscious states being associated with it.
Chalmers' argument is that it seems very plausible that such a being could exist because all that is needed is that all
and only the things that the physical sciences describe about a zombie must be true of it. Since none of the concepts
involved in these sciences make reference to consciousness or other mental phenomena, and any physical entity can
be by definition described scientifically via physics, the move from conceivability to possibility is not such a large
one.[21]
Others such as Dennett have argued that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent,[22] or unlikely,[23]
concept. In particular, nothing proves that an entity (e.g. a computer or robot) which would perfectly mimic human
beings, and especially perfectly mimic expressions of feelings (like joy, fear, anger, ...), would not indeed experience
them, thus having similar states of consciousness to what a real human would have. It is argued that under
physicalism, one must either believe that anyone including oneself might be a zombie, or that no one can be a
zombie - following from the assertion that one's own conviction about being (or not being) a zombie is a product of
the physical world and is therefore no different from anyone else's.

Argument from personal identity

This argument concerns the differences between the applicability of counterfactual conditionals to physical objects,
on the one hand, and to conscious, personal agents on the other.[24] In the case of any material object, e.g. a printer,
we can formulate a series of counterfactuals in the following manner:
1. This printer could have been made of straw.
2. This printer could have been made of some other kind of plastics and vacuum-tube transistors.
3. This printer could have been made of 95% of what it is actually made of and 5% vacuum-tube transistors, etc..
Somewhere along the way from the printer's being made up exactly of the parts and materials which actually
constitute it to the printer's being made up of some different matter at, say, 20%, the question of whether this printer
is the same printer becomes a matter of arbitrary convention.
Imagine the case of a person, Frederick, who has a counterpart born from the same egg and a slightly genetically
modified sperm. Imagine a series of counterfactual cases corresponding to the examples applied to the printer.
Somewhere along the way, one is no longer sure about the identity of Frederick. In this latter case, it has been
claimed, overlap of constitution cannot be applied to the identity of mind. As Madell puts it:
"But while my present body can thus have its partial counterpart in some possible world, my present
consciousness cannot. Any present state of consciousness that I can imagine either is or is not mine. There is
no question of degree here."[24]
If the counterpart of Frederick, Frederickus, is 70% constituted of the same physical substance as Frederick, does
this mean that it is also 70% mentally identical with Frederick? Does it make sense to say that something is mentally
70% Frederick?[25] A possible solution to this dilemma is that of open individualism.
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 29

Argument from reason

Philosophers and scientists such as Victor Reppert, William Hasker and Alvin Plantinga have developed an
argument for dualism dubbed the "Argument from Reason" and credit C.S. Lewis—who called it "The Cardinal
Difficulty of Naturalism," the title of chapter three of the book—with first bringing the argument to light in his book
Miracles.[26]
In short the argument holds that if, as thoroughgoing naturalism entails, all of our thoughts are the effect of a
physical cause, then we have no reason for assuming that they are also the consequent of a reasonable ground.
Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent. Therefore, if naturalism were true,
there would be no way of knowing it—or anything else not the direct result of a physical cause—and we could not
even suppose it, except by a fluke.[26]
By this logic, the statement "I have reason to believe naturalism is valid" is self-referentially incoherent in the same
manner as the sentence "One of the words of this sentence does not have the meaning that it appears to have," or the
statement "I never tell the truth."[27] That is, in each case to assume the veracity of the conclusion would eliminate
the possibility of valid grounds from which to reach it. To summarize the argument in the book, Lewis quotes J. B.
S. Haldane who appeals to a similar line of reasoning:[28]
If my mental processes are determined wholly by the motions of atoms in my brain, I have no reason to
suppose that my beliefs are true ... and hence I have no reason for supposing my brain to be composed of
atoms.
—J. B. S. Haldane, Possible Worlds, page 209
In his essay Is Theology Poetry, Lewis himself summarises the argument in a similar fashion when he writes:
If minds are wholly dependent on brains, and brains on biochemistry, and biochemistry (in the long run) on the
meaningless flux of the atoms, I cannot understand how the thought of those minds should have any more
significance than the sound of the wind in the trees.
—C. S. Lewis, The Weight of Glory, page 139

Causal Interaction
If consciousness (the mind) can exist independently of physical reality (the brain), one must explain how physical
memories are created concerning consciousness. Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical
reality.
One possible explanation is that of a miracle, proposed by Arnold Geulincx and Nicholas Malebranche, where all
mind-body interactions require the direct intervention of God.
Although at the time C. S. Lewis wrote Miracles,[29] Quantum Mechanics (and physical indeterminism) was only in
the initial stages of acceptance, he stated the logical possibility that if the physical world was proved to be
indeterministic this would provide an entry (interaction) point into the traditionally viewed closed system, where a
scientifically described physically probable/improbable event could be philosophically described as an action of a
non physical entity on physical reality.

Arguments against dualism

Causal interaction
One argument against Dualism is with regards to causal interaction. If consciousness (the mind) can exist
independently of physical reality (the brain), one must explain how physical memories are created concerning
consciousness. Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality. One of the main
objections to dualistic interactionism is lack of explanation of how the material and immaterial are able to interact.
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 30

Varieties of dualism according to which an immaterial mind causally affects the material body and vice-versa have
come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially in the 20th century. Critics of dualism have often
asked how something totally immaterial can affect something totally material - this is the basic problem of causal
interaction.
First, it is not clear where the interaction would take place. For example, burning one's fingers causes pain.
Apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to
something happening in the peripheral nerves of one's body that lead to one's brain, to something happening in a
particular part of one's brain, and finally resulting in the sensation of pain. But pain is not supposed to be spatially
locatable. It might be responded that the pain "takes place in the brain." But, intuitively, pains are not located
anywhere. This may not be a devastating criticism. However, there is a second problem about the interaction.
Namely, the question of how the interaction takes place , where in dualism 'the mind' is assumed to be non physical
and by definition outside of the realm of science. The mechanism which explains the connection between the mental
and the physical would therefore be a philosophical proposition as compared to a scientific theory. For example,
compare such a mechanism to a physical mechanism that is well understood. Take a very simple causal relation,
such as when a cue ball strikes an eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket. What happens in this case is that the
cue ball has a certain amount of momentum as its mass moves across the pool table with a certain velocity, and then
that momentum is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket. Compare this to the situation in
the brain, where one wants to say that a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus causes a body to move across
the room. The intention to "cross the room now" is a mental event and, as such, it does not have physical properties
such as force. If it has no force, then it would seem that it could not possibly cause any neuron to fire. However, with
Dualism, an explanation is required of how something without any physical properties has physical effects.
By assuming a deterministic physical universe, the objection can be formulated more precisely. When a person
decides to walk across a room, it is generally understood that the decision to do so, a mental event, immediately
causes a group of neurons in that person's brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in his walking
across the room. The problem is that if there is something totally nonphysical causing a bunch of neurons to fire,
then there is no physical event which causes the firing. This means that some physical energy is required to be
generated against the physical laws of the deterministic universe - this is by definition a miracle and there can be no
scientific explanation of (repeatable experiment performed regarding) where the physical energy for the firing came
from.[30] Such interactions would violate the fundamental laws of physics. In particular, if some external source of
energy is responsible for the interactions, then this would violate the law of the conservation of energy.[31] Dualistic
interactionism has therefore been argued against in that it violates a general heuristic principle of science: the causal
closure of the physical world.

Replies
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentions two possible replies to this objection.[5] The first reply says that it
might be possible for mind to influence the distribution of energy, without altering its quantity. Another possibility is
to deny that the human body is a closed system. Since the principle of conservation of energy applies only to closed
systems, the objection becomes irrelevant. Catholic Encyclopedia mentions the same replies.[32] These replies may
protect The Law of Conservation of Energy, but they do not in themselves offer an explanation of how the
interaction takes place (- it may be assumed to be a miracle).
Another reply to this objection is to assume some modification of causal relations in the physical universe - Mills has
responded by pointing out that mental events may be causally overdetermined. Causal overdetermination means that
some features of an effect may not be fully explained by its sufficient cause. For example, "the high pitched music
caused the glass to break but this is the third time that that glass has broken in the last week." It is certain that the
high-pitched music is the sufficient cause of the breaking of the glass, but it does not explain the feature of the event
that is identified by the phrase "this is the third time this week...". That feature is causally related, in some sense, to
the two prior events of the glasses having broken in the last week. In response, it has been pointed out that we should
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 31

probably focus on the inherent or intrinsic features of situations or events, if they exist, and apply the idea of causal
closure to just those specific features.
Another reply to this objection is that there is a possibility that the interaction may involve dark energy, dark matter
or some other currently undefined scientific process,[14] however in this case dualism is replaced with physicalism,
or the interaction point is left for study at a later time when these physical processes are understood.
Another reply to this objection is made with respect to the derivation of an indeterministic physical universe, where
perhaps the interaction which takes place in the human body is not at all of the classical "billiard ball" type of
Newtonian mechanics. There is an important question of physical determinism versus physical indeterminism. If a
non deterministic interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct then events at the microscopic level are necessarily
indeterminate, where the degree of determinism increases as a function of the scale of the system (see Quantum
decoherence). One particular example of such indeterminism is Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, where the more
precisely one can localize the position of an electron along an axis, the more imprecise becomes the ability to
determine its linear momentum along this axis and vice-versa. Philosophers such as Karl Popper and John Eccles
have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply even at the macroscopic scale.[33]

Argument from brain damage

This argument has been formulated by Paul Churchland, among others. The point is simply that when the brain
undergoes some kind of damage (caused by automobile accidents, drug abuse or pathological diseases), it is always
the case that the mental substance and/or properties of the person are significantly compromised. If the mind were a
completely separate substance from the brain, how could it be possible that every single time the brain is injured, the
mind is also injured? Indeed, it is very frequently the case that one can even predict and explain the kind of mental or
psychological deterioration or change that human beings will undergo when specific parts of their brains are
damaged. So the question for the dualist to try to confront is how can all of this be explained if the mind is a separate
and immaterial substance from, or if its properties are ontologically independent of, the brain.[34] Property dualism
and emergent dualism avoid this problem by asserting that the mind is a property or substance that emerges from the
appropriate arrangement of physical matter, and therefore could be affected by any rearrangement.
Phineas Gage, who suffered destruction of one or both frontal lobes by a projectile iron rod, is often cited. Gage
certainly exhibited mental changes after his accident, though the extent of those changes is less certain. But
undoubtedly this physical event, the destruction of part of his brain, caused some kind of change in his mind,
suggesting a correlation between brain states and mental states. Moreover, in more modern experiments, it can be
demonstrated that the relation is much more than simple correlation. By damaging, or manipulating, specific areas of
the brain repeatedly under controlled conditions, for example in monkeys, and obtaining the same results in terms of
changes in mental state each time, neuroscientists have shown that the relation between damage to the brain and
mental deterioration is causal.

Argument from biological development

Another common argument against dualism consists in the idea that since human beings (both phylogenetically and
ontogenetically) begin their existence as entirely physical or material entities and since nothing outside of the
domain of the physical is added later on in the course of development, then we must necessarily end up being fully
developed material beings. Phylogenetically, the human species evolved, as did all other species, from a single cell
made up of matter. Since all the events that later occurred which ended up in the formation of our species can be
explained through the processes of random mutation and natural selection, the difficulty for the dualist is to explain
where and why there could have intervened some non-material, non-physical event in this process of natural
evolution. Ontogenetically, we begin life as a simple fertilized ovum. There is nothing non-material or mentalistic
involved in conception, the formation of the blastula, the gastrula, and so on. Our development can be explained
entirely in terms of the accumulation of matter through the processes of nutrition. The postulation of a non-physical
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 32

mind would seem superfluous.

Argument from simplicity

The argument from simplicity is probably the simplest and also the most common form of argument against dualism
of the mental. The dualist is always faced with the question of why anyone should find it necessary to believe in the
existence of two, ontologically distinct, entities (mind and brain), when it seems possible and would make for a
simpler thesis to test against scientific evidence, to explain the same events and properties in terms of one. It is a
heuristic principle in science and philosophy not to assume the existence of more entities than is necessary for clear
explanation and prediction (see Occam's razor).
This argument was criticized by Peter Glassen in a debate with J. J. C. Smart in the pages of Philosophy in the late
1970s and early 1980s.[35] Glassen argued that, because it is not a physical entity, Occam's Razor cannot consistently
be appealed to by a physicalist or materialist as a justification of mental states or events, such as the belief that
dualism is false. The idea is that Occam's razor may not be as 'unrestricted' as it is normally described (applying to
all qualitative postulates, even abstract ones) but instead concrete (only applies to physical objects). If one applies
Occam's Razor unrestrictedly, then it recommends monism until pluralism either receives more support, or until it is
disproved. If one applies Occam's Razor only concretely, then it may not be used on abstract concepts (this route,
however, has serious consequences for selecting between hypotheses about the abstract).[36]

References
[1] Hart, W.D. (1996) "Dualism", in A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, ed. Samuel Guttenplan, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 265-7.
[2] Plato (390s-347 BC) Platonis Opera, vol. 1, Euthyphro, Apologia Socratis, Crito, Phaedo, Cratylus, Theaetetus, Sophistes, Politicus, ed. E.A.
Duke, W.F. Hicken, W.S.M. Nicoll, D.B. Robinson and J.C.G. Strachan, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.
[3] Aristotle (c. mid 4th century BC) Metaphysics (Metaphysica), ed. W.D. Ross, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1924, 2 vols; Books IV-VI,
trans. C.A. Kirwan, Clarendon Aristotle Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971; Books VII-VIII trans. D. Bostock, Clarendon Aristotle
Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; Books XIII-XIV trans. J. Annas, Clarendon Aristotle Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1976.
[4] Descartes, R. (1641) Meditations on First Philosophy, in The Philosophical Writings of René Descartes, trans. by J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff
and D. Murdoch, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, vol. 2, pp. 1-62.
[5] Robinson, Howard, "Dualism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition), ed. Edward N. Zalta, http:/ / plato. stanford.
edu/ archives/ fall2003/ entries/ dualism/ .
[6] Aristotle (c. mid 4th century BC) On the Soul (De anima), ed. R.D. Hicks, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907; Books II-III trans.
D.W. Hamlyn, Clarendon Aristotle Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968.
[7] Whittaker (1901) The Neo-Platonists, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Aquinas, Thomas (1266-71) Summa Theologica. trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province, 2d, rev. ed., 22 vols., London: Burns,
Oates & Washbourne, 1912-36; reprinted in 5 vols., Westminster, MD: Christian Classics, 1981.
[9] "Apostles' Creed" (http:/ / www. va/ archive/ catechism/ p1s1c3a2. htm#credo). Catechism of the Catholic Church. . Retrieved June 21, 2005.
[10] Spong, John Selby (1994) Resurrection: Myth or Reality, New York: HarperCollins Publishing. ISBN 0-06-067546-2.
[11] Schmaltz, Tad, "Nicolas Malebranche", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2002 Edition), ed. Edward N. Zalta, http:/ /
plato. stanford. edu/ archives/ sum2002/ entries/ malebranche/
[12] Chalmers, David, "The Matrix as Metaphysics", http:/ / consc. net/ papers/ matrix. html, Note 6.
[13] Searle, John (1983) "Why I Am Not a Property Dualist", http:/ / ist-socrates. berkeley. edu/ ~jsearle/ 132/ PropertydualismFNL. doc.
[14] Robinson, H. (2003) "Dualism", in The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind, ed. S. Stich and T. Warfield, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 85-101.
[15] Donald Davidson (1980) Essays on Actions and Events, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924627-0.
[16] Fodor, Jerry (1968) Psychological Explanation, Random House. ISBN 0-07-021412-3.
[17] Gallagher, S. 2006. "Where's the action? Epiphenomenalism and the problem of free will". In W. Banks, S. Pockett, and S. Gallagher. Does
Consciousness Cause Behavior? An Investigation of the Nature of Intuition (109-124). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[18] Nagel, Thomas (1986) The View From Nowhere, New York: Oxford University Press.
[19] Jackson, Frank (1977) Perception: A Representative Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[20] Lewis, David (1988) "What Experience Teaches", in Papers in Metaphysics and Epistemology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999, pp. 262-290.
[21] Chalmers, David (1997). The Conscious Mind. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511789-1.
[22] Dennett, Daniel (1995). "The unimagined preposterousness of zombies". J Consciousness Studies 2: 322\u20136.
[23] Dennett, Daniel (1991). Consciousness Explained. Little, Brown and Co.. p. 95. ISBN 0316180653.
Dualism (philosophy of mind) 33

[24] Madell, G. (1981) The Identity of the Self, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
[25] Shoemaker, S. and Swinburne, R. (1984) Personal Identity, Oxford: Blackwell.
[26] Victor Reppert C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8308-2732-3
[27] A Response to Richard Carrier's Review of C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea (http:/ / www. infidels. org/ library/ modern/ darek_barefoot/
dangerous. html)
[28] The Cardinal Difficulty Of Naturalism (http:/ / www. philosophy. uncc. edu/ mleldrid/ Intro/ csl3. html)
[29] Lewis, C.S (1947). Miracles. ISBN 0688173691.
[30] Baker, Gordon and Morris, Katherine J. (1996) Descartes' Dualism, London: Routledge.
[31] Lycan, William (1996) "Philosophy of Mind" in The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, ed. Nicholas Bunnin and E. P. Tsui-James,
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
[32] Maher, Michael (1909) "The Law of Conservation of Energy", Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 5, pp. 422 ff, http:/ / www. newadvent. org/
cathen/ 05422a. htm.
[33] Popper, Karl R. and Eccles, John C. (1977) The Self and Its Brain, Berlin: Springer.
[34] Churchland, Paul (1988) Matter and Consciousness, Revised Edition, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[35] Glassen, Peter (1976) "J. J. C. Smart, Materialism and Occam's Razor", Philosophy 51, pp. 349-352; J. J. C. Smart (1978) "Is Occam's Razor
a Physical Thing?", Philosophy 53, pp. 382-385; Peter Glassen (1983) "Smart, Materialism and Believing", Philosophy 58, pp. 95-101.
[36] Plato Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simplicity. Excerpt:"Perhaps scientists apply an unrestricted version of Occam's Razor to that
portion of reality in which they are interested, namely the concrete, causal, spatiotemporal world. Or perhaps scientists apply a ‘concretized’
version of Occam's Razor unrestrictedly. Which is the case? The answer determines which general philosophical principle we end up with:
ought we to avoid the multiplication of objects of whatever kind, or merely the multiplication of concrete objects? The distinction here is
crucial for a number of central philosophical debates. Unrestricted Occam's Razor favors monism over dualism, and nominalism over
platonism. By contrast, ‘concretized’ Occam's Razor has no bearing on these debates, since the extra entities in each case are not concrete"
(http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ simplicity/ )

Further reading
• Bracken, Patrick, and Thomas, Philip (December 21, 2002) "Time to move beyond the mind-body split" (http://
www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/325/7378/1433), editorial, British Medical Journal 325, pp. 1433–1434. A
controversial perspective on the use and possible overuse of the Mind-Body split and its application in medical
practice.
• Spenard, Michael (June 2, 2009) "Dueling with Dualism: the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul" (http://www.
memeoid.net/books/Spenard/Spenard-Dueling_with Dualism-DRAFT.pdf), essay. An historical account of
mind body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position.
• Amoroso, Richard L. (2010) "Complementarity of Mind and Body: Realizing the Dream of Descartes, Einstein
and Eccles" (https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=12759), book. History
making volume with first comprehensive model of dualism-interactionism, that is also empirically testable.

External links
• Dualism (http://philosophy.uwaterloo.ca/MindDict/dualism.html) in the online Dictionary of Philosophy of
Mind
• Dualism (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/) in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Zombies (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/zombies/) in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Mind and body, Rene Descartes to William James (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Table.html)
• Online Papers on Materialism and Dualism (http://www.u.arizona.edu/~chalmers/online1.html#materialism)
• Dual-Subjective Reality (http://lettergram.org/?p=30.html)
Empirical 34

Empirical
The word empirical denotes information gained by means of observation or experiments.[1] Empirical data is data
produced by an experiment or observation.
A central concept in modern science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically
based, that is, dependent on evidence or consequences that are observable by the senses. It is usually differentiated
from the philosophic usage of empiricism by the use of the adjective empirical or the adverb empirically. The term
refers to the use of working hypotheses that are testable using observation or experiment. In this sense of the word,
scientific statements are subject to, and derived from, our experiences or observations.
The standard positivist view of empirically acquired information has been that observation, experience, and
experiment serve as neutral arbiters between competing theories. However, since the 1960s, Thomas Kuhn [2] has
promoted the concept that these methods are influenced by prior beliefs and experiences. Consequently it cannot be
expected that two scientists when observing, experiencing, or experimenting on the same event will make the same
theory-neutral observations. The role of observation as a theory-neutral arbiter may not be possible.
Theory-dependence of observation means that, even if there were agreed methods of inference and interpretation,
scientists may still disagree on the nature of empirical data.[3]

Variations
In a second sense "empirical" in science may be synonymous with "experimental." In this sense, an empirical result
is an experimental observation. In this context, the term semi-empirical is used for qualifying theoretical methods
which use in part basic axioms or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to
theoretical ab initio methods which are purely deductive and based on first principles.
In statistics, "empirical" quantities are those computed from observed values, as opposed to derived from theoretical
considerations.
In economics, "empirical" generally refers to statistical or econometric analysis of numeric data. Other forms of
observation-based hypothesis testing are not considered to be "empirics."
The use of the adjective empirical, especially in scientific studies using statistics, may also indicate that a particular
correlation between two parameters has been found, but that so far, no theory for the mechanism of the connection is
known.

References
[1] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 71/ E0117100. html).
Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by the Houghton Mifflin Company.
[2] Khun, Thomas, 1962/1970a, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1970, 2nd edition, with
postscript):
[3] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ thomas-kuhn/
Gestalt psychology 35

Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's complete form") of the Berlin
School is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and
analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The Gestalt effect is the form-generating capability of our senses,
particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple
lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism and Wundt. The phrase "The whole is
greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining Gestalt theory.[1]

Origins
The concept of Gestalt was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Christian von Ehrenfels
(a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of Gestalt has its roots in theories by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the
"Gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the parts of which it was composed, rather than being a secondary quality
that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been.
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der
Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of
Gestalt and Figural Moment, respectively.
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf)
saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global
construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception -- seemingly innate mental
laws which determined the way in which objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way you
view things. It can be broken up into two: figure or ground, at first glance do you see the figure in front of you or the
background?
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global
process. Although Gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further
research into the perception of patterns and objects ( Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking,
problem solving and psychopathology.
It should also be emphasized that Gestalt psychology is distinct from Gestalt psychotherapy. One has little to do with
the other.

Theoretical framework and methodology

The investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology,
divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the
complexity of this object. Contrary to this methodology, the school of Gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and
methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research.
The theoretical principles are the following:
• Principle of Totality - The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the
physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each
component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships.
• Principle of psychophysical isomorphism - A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral
activity.
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
Gestalt psychology 36

• Phenomenon Experimental Analysis - In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should
take as a starting point phenomena and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.
• Biotic Experiment - The School of Gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments which sharply
contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations,
developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be
habitual for a subject.[2]

Support from Cybernetics and Neurology

In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism
of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and
fundamental than 'seeing' as such:
A Frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must
center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of
stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His
choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an
insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but
by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision
and he is not distracted.[3]
Cyberneticist Valentin Turchin points out that the gestalts observed in what we usually imagine to be 'still images'
are in fact exactly the kind of 'moving objects' which cause the frog retina to respond:
The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the
concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in
amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea
of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a
person looks at an immobile object, “fixes” it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile;
they make small involuntary movements. As a result the image of the object on the retina is constantly in
motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image “marks time” in the
vicinity of this point.[4]

Properties
The key principles of Gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.[5]

Emergence
Emergence is the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules. It is demonstrated by the perception of
the Dog Picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not
recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component
parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and
not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not explain how the percept of a dog emerges.
Gestalt psychology 37

Reification
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of
perception, by which the experienced percept
contains more explicit spatial information than the
sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle will be perceived in picture
A, although no triangle has actually been drawn. In
pictures B and D the eye will recognize disparate
shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a
complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in
actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study
of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual
system as "real" contours.
Reification

Multistability
Multistability (or multistable perception) is the
tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop
back and forth unstably between two or more
alternative interpretations. This is seen for example
in the Necker cube, and in Rubin's Figure/Vase
illusion shown here. Other examples include the
Three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork
the Necker Cube and the Rubin vase, two examples of multistability and the appearance of flashing marquee lights
moving first one direction and then suddenly the
other. Again, Gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
Gestalt psychology 38

Invariance
Invariance is the property of perception whereby
simple geometrical objects are recognized
independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as
well as several other variations such as elastic
deformations, different lighting, and different
component features. For example, the objects in A in
the figure are all immediately recognized as the same
basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable
from the forms in B. They are even recognized
despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C,
and when depicted using different graphic elements
as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as
those by David Marr, have had more success in
explaining how objects are classified.

Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance

are not necessarily separable modules to be modeled
individually, but they could be different aspects of a
Invariance
single unified dynamic mechanism.

Prägnanz
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (German for pithiness) which says that we
tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists
attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically
allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".[6] These include:
• Law of Closure — The mind may experience elements it does not
perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure
(that is, to increase regularity).
• Law of Similarity — The mind groups similar elements into
collective entities or totalities. This similarity might depend on
relationships of form, color, size, or brightness.
• Law of Proximity — Spatial or temporal proximity of elements may Law of Closure
induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality.
• Law of Symmetry (Figure ground relationships)— Symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite
of distance.
• Law of Continuity — The mind continues visual, auditory, and kinetic patterns.
• Law of Common Fate — Elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit.
Gestalt psychology 39

Gestalt views in psychology

Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a
whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways:
productive and reproductive.[6]
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and
environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous
experiences and what is already known. (1945/1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given
Law of Similarity
several segments of information, he/she deliberately examines the
relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and
totality, he/she reaches the "aha!" moment, using what is already
known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by
reproductive thinking.

Law of Proximity

Other Gestalts psychologist Perkins believes insight deals with three processes:
1) Unconscious leap in thinking.[6]
2) The increased amount of speed in mental processing.
3) The amount of short-circuiting which occurs in normal reasoning.[7]
Other views going against the Gestalt psychology are:
1) Nothing-Special View
2) Neo-Gestalts View
3) The Three-Process View
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked
to Gestalt psychology. A strictly Gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy,
developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter.

Uses in human–computer interaction

The Gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as
guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive
human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns. Gestalt
psychology also has applications in computer vision for trying to make computers "see" the same things as humans
do.[8]
James J. Gibson was a Gestalt Psychologist who focused on vision and what he termed ecological perception. He
also coined the term affordance which has been productive of various human factors and usability research.
Gestalt psychology 40

Criticism
In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, Gestalt theories of
perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by
some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson[9] conclude the following regarding
Gestalt theory's influence on the study of visual perception:
"The physiological theory of the Gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive
principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws" of perceptual
organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or "simple" shape, for example?"

References
[1] David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven,(2004)
[2] William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen - World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic
Republic : papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988
[3] Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory
Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New York
[4] Valentin Fedorovich Turchin - The phenomenon of science - a cybernetic approach to human evolution - Columbia University Press, 1977
[5] http:/ / sharp. bu. edu/ ~slehar/ webstuff/ bubw3/ bubw3. html
[6] Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth© 2003.
[7] Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 1986,1995”>
[8] http:/ / www. interaction-design. org/ encyclopedia/ gestalt_principles_of_form_perception. html
[9] Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). LEA. pp. 110.

External links
• Gestalt Society of Croatia (http://www.gestalt-drustvo.hr/)
• International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications - GTA (http://gestalttheory.net/)
• Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design (http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/
EmbeddedFigures.html)
• On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso (http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/GestaltAndCamouflage.
html)
• On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory (http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/Gestalt/HowFormFunctions.html)
• The World In Your Head - by Steven Lehar (http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/book/WIYH.html)
• Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective Conscious Experience - by Steven Lehar (http://cns-alumni.
bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/bubw3/bubw3.html)
• The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century (http://www.enane.de/cont.htm)
• The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center (http://www.gestaltcenter.com/)
• Gestalt Theory (http://www.gestalttheory.com/)
• Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (http://www.amazon.com/Ecological-Approach-Visual-Perception/
dp/0898599598)
• James J. Gibson in brief (http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/281/James-Jerome-Gibson.html)
Heuristic 41

Heuristic
Heuristic ( /hjʉˈrɪstɪk/; or heuristics; Greek: "Εὑρίσκω", "find" or "discover") refers to experience-based
techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery. Heuristic methods are used to speed up the process of
finding a good enough solution, where an exhaustive search is impractical. Examples of this method include using a
"rule of thumb", an educated guess, an intuitive judgment, or common sense.
In more precise terms, heuristics are strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to
control problem solving in human beings and machines.[1]

Example
The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching bolts to bicycles to
finding the values of variables in algebra problems.
Here are a few other commonly used heuristics, from George Pólya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:[2]
• If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.
• If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that
("working backward").
• If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.
• Try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more
chances of success).

Psychology
In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules, hard-coded by evolutionary processes or learned, which have
been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments, and solve problems, typically when facing
complex problems or incomplete information. These rules work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases
lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.
Although much of the work of discovering heuristics in human decision-makers was done by Amos Tversky and
Daniel Kahneman,[3] the concept was originally introduced by Nobel laureate Herbert Simon. Gerd Gigerenzer
focuses on how heuristics can be used to make judgments that are in principle accurate, rather than producing
cognitive biases – heuristics that are "fast and frugal".[4]
In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute
substitution which happens without conscious awareness.[5] According to this theory, when somebody makes a
judgment (of a target attribute) which is computationally complex, a rather easier calculated heuristic attribute is
substituted. In effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without
being aware of this happening.[5] This theory explains cases where judgments fail to show regression toward the
mean.[6] Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgements in healthcare.[7]
Heuristic 42

Theorized psychological heuristics

Well known
• Anchoring and adjustment
• Availability heuristic
• Representativeness heuristic
• Naïve diversification
• Escalation of commitment

Less well known

• Affect heuristic • Gaze heuristic • Similarity heuristic

• Contagion heuristic • Peak-end rule • Simulation heuristic
• Effort heuristic • Recognition heuristic • Social proof
• Familiarity heuristic • Scarcity heuristic • Take-the-best heuristic
• Fluency heuristic

Philosophy
In philosophy, especially in Continental European philosophy, the adjective "heuristic" (or the designation "heuristic
device") is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y.
A good example is a model which, as it is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic device to enable
understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in that sense. A classic
example is the notion of utopia as described in Plato's best-known work, The Republic. This means that the "ideal
city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for
development; rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another
(often with highly problematic results), if one would opt for certain principles and carry them through rigorously.
"Heuristic" is also often commonly used as a noun to describe a rule-of-thumb, procedure, or method.[8]
Philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and constructing scientific
theories.[9] (See The Logic of Scientific Discovery, and philosophers such as Imre Lakatos,[10] Lindley Darden, and
others.)

Law
In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case
analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body.[11]
For instance, in all states in the United States the legal drinking age is 21, because it is argued that people need to be
mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at
different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat
arbitrary deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature
for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the
completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal
alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one,
since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across the population.
The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors need to be protected in
order to have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that, in society's best interest, inventors should be issued with
a temporary government-granted monopoly on their product, so that they can recoup their investment costs and make
economic profit for a limited period. In the United States the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the
Heuristic 43

date the application for patent was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has
matured into a patent. However, like the drinking-age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be
different for every product in order to be efficient; a 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the
number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law
professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents –
should be protected for different lengths of time.[12]

Computer science
In computer science, a heuristic is a technique designed to solve a problem that ignores whether the solution can be
proven to be correct, but which usually produces a good solution or solves a simpler problem that contains or
intersects with the solution of the more complex problem. Most real-time, and even some on-demand, anti-virus
scanners use heuristic signatures to look for specific attributes and characteristics for detecting viruses and other
forms of malware.
Heuristics are intended to gain computational performance or conceptual simplicity, potentially at the cost of
accuracy or precision.
In their Turing Award acceptance speech, Herbert Simon and Allen Newell discuss the Heuristic Search Hypothesis:
a physical symbol system will repeatedly generate and modify known symbol structures until the created structure
matches the solution structure.
That is, each successive iteration depends upon the step before it, thus the heuristic search learns what avenues to
pursue and which ones to disregard by measuring how close the current iteration is to the solution. Therefore, some
possibilities will never be generated as they are measured to be less likely to complete the solution.
A heuristic method can accomplish its task by using search trees. However, instead of generating all possible
solution branches, a heuristic selects branches more likely to produce outcomes than other branches. It is selective at
each decision point, picking branches that are more likely to produce solutions.[13]
In human-computer interaction, heuristic evaluation is a usability-testing technique devised by expert usability
consultants. In heuristic evaluation, the user interface is reviewed by experts and its compliance to usability
heuristics (broadly stated characteristics of a good user interface, based on prior experience) is assessed, and any
violating aspects are recorded.

Software interface design

A well-designed user interface enables users to intuitively navigate complex systems without difficulty. It guides the
user when necessary using tooltips, help buttons, invitations to chat with support, etc., providing help when needed.
This is not always an easy process, however.
Software developers and targeted end-users alike disregard heuristics at their own peril. End users often need to
increase their understanding of the basic framework that a project entails (so that their expectations are realistic), and
developers often need to push to learn more about their target audience (so that their learning styles can be judged).
Business rules crucial to the organization are often so obvious to the end-user that they are not conveyed to the
developer, who may lack domain knowledge in the particular field of endeavor the application is meant to serve.
A proper Software Requirements Specification (SRS) models the heuristics of how a user will process the
information being rendered on-screen. An SRS is ideally shared with the end-user well before the actual Software
Design Specification (SDS) is written and the application is developed, so users' feedback about their experience can
be used to adapt the design of the application. This saves much time in the Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC). Unless heuristics are adequately considered, the project will likely suffer many implementation problems
and setbacks.
Heuristic 44

Engineering
In engineering, a heuristic is an experience-based method that can be used as an aid to solve process design
problems, varying from size of equipment to operating conditions. By using heuristics, time can be reduced when
solving problems. There are several methods which are available to engineers. These include Failure mode and
effects analysis and Fault tree analysis. The former relies on a group of qualified engineers to evaluate problems,
rank them in order of importance and then recommend solutions. The methods of forensic engineering are an
important source of information for investigating problems, especially by elimination of unlikely causes and using
the weakest link principle.
Because heuristics are fallible, it is important to understand their limitations. They are intended to be used as aids in
order to make quick estimates and preliminary process designs.

Pitfalls of heuristics
Heuristic algorithms are often employed because they may be seen to "work" without having been mathematically
proven to meet a given set of requirements. One common pitfall in implementing a heuristic method to meet a
requirement comes when the engineer or designer fails to realize that the current data set does not necessarily
represent future system states.
While the existing data can be pored over and an algorithm can be devised to successfully handle the current data, it
is imperative to ensure that the heuristic method employed is capable of handling future data sets. This means that
the engineer or designer must fully understand the rules that generate the data and develop the algorithm to meet
those requirements and not just address the current data sets.
Statistical analysis should be conducted when employing heuristics to estimate the probability of incorrect outcomes.
If one seeks to use a heuristic as a means of solving a search or knapsack problem, then one must be careful to make
sure that the heuristic function which one is choosing to use is an admissible heuristic. Given a heuristic function
labeled as:
which is meant to approximate the true optimal distance to the goal node in a directed
graph containing total nodes or vertexes labeled .
"Admissible" means that for all where .
If a heuristic is not admissible, it might never find the goal, by ending up in a dead end of graph or by skipping
back and forth between two nodes and where .

References
[1] Pearl, Judea (1983). Heuristics: Intelligent Search Strategies for Computer Problem Solving. New York, Addison-Wesley, p. vii. ISBN
978-0201055948
[2] Polya, George (1945) How To Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN
0-691-02356-5   ISBN 0-691-08097-6
[3] Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky and Paul Slovic, eds. (1982) Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics & Biases. Cambridge, UK,
Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-28414-7
[4] Gerd Gigerenzer, Peter M. Todd, and the ABC Research Group (1999). Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart. Oxford, UK, Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-514381-7
[5] Kahneman, Daniel; Shane Frederick (2002). "Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment". In Thomas
Gilovich, Dale Griffin, Daniel Kahneman. Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 49–81. ISBN 9780521796798. OCLC 47364085.
[6] Kahneman, Daniel (December 2003). "Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Economics". American Economic Review
(American Economic Association) 93 (5): 1449–1475. doi:10.1257/000282803322655392. ISSN 0002-8282.
[7] Cioffi, Jane (1997). "Heuristics, servants to intuition, in clinical decision making". Journal of Advanced Nursing 26: 203-208.
[8] K. M. Jaszczolt (2006). "Defaults in Semantics and Pragmatics" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ defaults-semantics-pragmatics/ ), The
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 1095-5054
Heuristic 45

[9] Roman Frigg and Stephan Hartmann (2006). "Models in Science" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ models-science/ ), The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 1095-5054
[10] Olga Kiss (2006). "Heuristic, Methodology or Logic of Discovery? Lakatos on Patterns of Thinking" (http:/ / www. mitpressjournals. org/
doi/ pdf/ 10. 1162/ posc. 2006. 14. 3. 302), Perspectives on Science, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 302-317, ISSN 1063-6145
[11] Gerd Gigerenzer and Christoph Engel, eds. (2007). Heuristics and the Law, Cambridge, The MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-07275-5
[12] Eric E. Johnson (2006). "Calibrating Patent Lifetimes" (http:/ / www. eejlaw. com/ writings/ Johnson_Calibrating_Patent_Lifetimes. pdf),
Santa Clara Computer & High Technology Law Journal, vol. 22, p. 269-314
[13] Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1976). Computer science as empirical inquiry: symbols and search. Comm. Of the ACM. 19, 113-126.

Further reading
• How To Solve It: Modern Heuristics, Zbigniew Michalewicz and David B. Fogel, Springer Verlag, 2000. ISBN
3-540-66061-5
• Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (http://aima.cs.berkeley.
edu/) (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-790395-2
• The Problem of Thinking Too Much (http://www-stat.stanford.edu/~cgates/PERSI/papers/thinking.pdf),
2002–12–11, Persi Diaconis

External links
• The Heuristic Wiki (http://greenlightwiki.com/heuristic)

Hidden curriculum
Hidden curriculum, in general terms, is “some of the outcomes or by-products of schools or of non-school settings,
particularly those states which are learned but not openly intended.”[1] However, a variety of definitions have been
developed based on the broad range of perspectives of those who study this phenomenon. Any setting, including
traditionally recreational and social activities, may teach unintended lessons since it is tied not necessarily to schools
but rather to learning experiences.[2] But most often, hidden curriculum refers to various types of knowledge gained
in primary and secondary school settings, usually with a negative connotation referring to inequalities suffered as a
result of its presence. This attitude stems from the commitment of the school system of the United States to promote
democracy and ensure equal intellectual development, goals that are hindered by these intangible lessons.[3] In this
context, hidden curriculum is said to reinforce existing social inequalities by educating students in various matters
and behaviors according to their class and social status. In the same way that there is an unequal distribution of
cultural capital in this society, there is a corresponding distribution of knowledge amongst its students.[4] The hidden
curriculum can also refer to the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in both the formal educational
content and the social interactions within these schools.[5] Hidden curriculum is difficult to explicitly define because
it varies among its students and their experiences and because is it constantly changing as the knowledge and beliefs
of a society evolve.
The concept that the hidden curriculum expresses is the idea that schools do more than simply transmit knowledge,
as laid down in the official curricula. Behind it lies criticism of the social implications, political underpinnings, and
cultural outcomes of modern educative activities. While early examinations were concerned with identifying the
anti-democratic nature of schooling, later studies have taken various tones, including those concerned with socialism,
capitalism, and anarchism in education.
Hidden curriculum 46

Educational history
Early workers in the field of education were influenced by the notion that the preservation of the social privileges,
interests, and knowledge of one group within the population was worth the exploitation of less powerful groups.[6]
Over time this theory has become less blatant, yet its underlying tones remain a contributing factor to the issue of the
hidden curriculum.
Several educational theories have been developed to help give meaning and structure to the hidden curriculum and to
illustrate the role that schools play in socialization. Three of these theories, as cited by Henry Giroux and Anthony
Penna, are a structural-functional view of schooling, a phenomenological view related to the “new” sociology of
education, and a radical critical view corresponding to the neo-Marxist analysis of the theory and practice of
education. The structural-functional view focuses on how norms and values are conveyed within schools and how
their necessities for the functioning of society become indisputably accepted. The phenomenological view suggests
that meaning is created through situational encounters and interactions, and it implies that knowledge is somewhat
objective. The radical critical view recognizes the relationship between economic and cultural reproduction and
stresses the relationships among the theory, ideology, and social practice of learning. Although the first two theories
have contributed to the analysis of the hidden curriculum, the radical critical view of schooling provides the most
insight.[7] Most importantly it acknowledges the perpetuated economic and social aspects of education that are
clearly illustrated by the hidden curriculum. It also illustrates the significance of abstract characteristics like theory
and ideology that help define this phenomenon.

Sources
Various aspects of learning contribute to the success of the hidden curriculum, including practices, procedures, rules,
relationships, and structures.[8] Many school-specific sources, some of which may be included in these aspects of
learning, give rise to important elements of the hidden curriculum. These sources may include, but are not limited to,
the social structures of the classroom, the teacher’s exercise of authority, rules governing the relationship between
teachers and students, standard learning activities, the teacher’s use of language, textbooks, audio-visual aids,
furnishings, architecture, disciplinary measures, timetables, tracking systems, and curricular priorities.[9] Variations
among these sources promote the disparities found when comparing the hidden curricula corresponding to various
class and social statuses.
While the actual material that students absorb through the hidden curriculum is of utmost importance, the personnel
who convey it elicit special investigation. This particularly applies to the social and moral lessons conveyed by the
hidden curriculum, for the moral characteristics and ideologies of teachers and other authority figures are translated
into their lessons, albeit not necessarily with intention.[10] Yet these unintended learning experiences can result from
interactions with not only instructors, but also with peers. Like interactions with authority figures, interactions
amongst peers can promote moral and social ideals. But they can also foster the exchange of information and are
thus important sources of knowledge that contribute to the success of the hidden curriculum.

Function
Although the hidden curriculum conveys a great deal of knowledge to its students, the inequality promoted through
its disparities among classes and social statuses often invokes a negative connotation. For example, Pierre Bourdieu
asserts that education-related capital must be accessible to promote academic achievement. The effectiveness of
schools becomes limited when these forms of capital are unequally distributed.[11] Since the hidden curriculum is
considered to be a form of education-related capital, it promotes this ineffectiveness of schools as a result of its
unequal distribution. As a means of social control, the hidden curriculum promotes the acceptance of a social destiny
without promoting rational and reflective consideration.[12] According to Elizabeth Vallance, the functions of hidden
curriculum include “the inculcation of values, political socialization, training in obedience and docility, the
Hidden curriculum 47

perpetuation of traditional class structure-functions that may be characterized generally as social control.”[13] Hidden
curriculum can also be associated with the reinforcement of social inequality, as evidenced by the development of
different relationships to capital based on the types of work and work-related activities assigned to students varying
by social class.[14]

Higher education and tracking

While studies on the hidden curriculum mostly focus on fundamental primary and secondary education, higher
education also feels the effects of this latent knowledge. For example, gender biases become present in specific fields
of study; the quality of and experiences associated with prior education become more significant; and class, gender,
and race become more evident at higher levels of education.[15]
One additional aspect of hidden curriculum that plays a major part in the development of students and their fates is
tracking. This method of imposing educational and career paths upon students at young ages relies on various factors
such as class and status to reinforce socioeconomic differences. Children tend to be placed on tracks guiding them
towards socioeconomic occupations similar to that of their parents, without real considerations for their strengths and
weaknesses. As students advance through the educational system, they follow along their tracks by completing the
predetermined courses.[16] This is one of the main factors limiting social mobility in America today.

Literary references
John Dewey explored the hidden curriculum of education in his early 20th century works, particularly his classic,
Democracy and Education. Dewey saw patterns evolving and trends developing in public schools which lent
themselves to his pro-democratic perspectives. His work was quickly rebutted by educational theorist George
Counts, whose 1929 book, Dare the School Build a New Social Order challenged the presumptive nature of Dewey's
works. Where Dewey (and other child development theorists including Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson and Maria
Montessori) hypothesized a singular path through which all young people travelled in order to become adults, Counts
recognized the reactive, adaptive, and multifaceted nature of learning. This nature caused many educators to slant
their perspectives, practices, and assessments of student performance in particular directions which affected their
students drastically. Counts' examinations were expanded on by Charles Beard, and later, Myles Horton as he created
what became the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee.
The phrase "hidden curriculum" was reportedly coined by Philip W. Jackson (Life In Classrooms, 1968). He argued
that we need to understand "education" as a socialization process. Shortly after Jackson's coinage, MIT's Benson
Snyder published The Hidden Curriculum, which addresses the question of why students—even or especially the
most gifted—turn away from education. Snyder advocates the thesis that much of campus conflict and students'
personal anxiety is caused by a mass of unstated academic and social norms, which thwart the students' ability to
develop independently or think creatively.
The hidden curriculum has been further explored by a number of educators. Starting with Pedagogy of the
Oppressed, published in 1972, through the late 1990s, Brazilian educator Paulo Freire explored various effects of
presumptive teaching on students, schools, and society as a whole. Freire's explorations were in sync with those of
John Holt and Ivan Illich, each of whom were quickly identified as radical educators.
More recent definitions were given by Roland Meighan ("A Sociology of Education", 1981):
The hidden curriculum is taught by the school, not by any teacher...something is coming across to the pupils
which may never be spoken in the English lesson or prayed about in assembly. They are picking-up an
approach to living and an attitude to learning.
and Michael Haralambos ("Sociology: Themes and Perspectives", 1991):
The hidden curriculum consists of those things pupils learn through the experience of attending school rather
than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.
Hidden curriculum 48

Recently a variety of authors, including Neil Postman, Henry Giroux, bell hooks, and Jonathan Kozol have examined
the effects of hidden curriculum. One increasingly popular proponent, John Taylor Gatto, radically criticizes
compulsory education in his book Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling (1992).

References
[1] Martin, Jane. “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed.
Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122–139.
[2] Martin, Jane. “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed.
Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122–139.
[3] Cornbleth, Catherine. “Beyond Hidden Curriculum?” Journal of Curriculum Studies. 16.1(1984): 29–36.
[4] Apple, Michael and Nancy King. “What Do Schools Teach?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David
Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 82–99.
[5] Giroux, Henry and Anthony Penna. “Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum.” The Hidden Curriculum
and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 100–121.
[6] Apple, Michael and Nancy King. “What Do Schools Teach?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David
Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 82–99.
[7] Giroux, Henry and Anthony Penna. “Social Education in the Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum.” The Hidden Curriculum
and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 100–121.
[8] Martin, Jane. “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed.
Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122–139.
[9] Martin, Jane. “What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed.
Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 122–139.
[10] Kohlberg, Lawrence. “The Moral Atmosphere of the School.” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David
Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 61–81.
[11] Gordon, Edmumd W., Beatrice L. Bridglall, and Aundra Saa Meroe. Preface. Supplemental Education: The Hidden Curriculum of High
Academic Achievement. By Gordon, Edmumd W., Beatrice L. Bridglall, and Aundra Saa Meroe. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc., 2005. ix–x.
[12] Greene, Maxine. Introduction. The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. By Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California:
McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 1–5.
[13] Vallance, Elizabeth. “Hiding the Hidden Curriculum: An Interpretation of the Language of Justification in Nineteenth-Century Educational
Reform.” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing
Corporation, 1983. 9–27.
[14] Anyon, Jean. “Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work.” The Hidden Curriculum and Moral Education. Ed. Giroux, Henry and
David Purpel. Berkeley, California: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1983. 143–167.
[15] Margolis, Eric, Michael Soldatenko, Sandra Acker, and Marina Gair. “Peekaboo: Hiding and Outing the Curriculum.” The Hidden
Curriculum in Higher Education. Ed. Margolis, Eric. New York: Routledge, 2001.
[16] Rosenbaum, James E. The Hidden Curriculum of High School Tracking. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
Lateral thinking 49

Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is not
immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic. The
term lateral thinking was coined by Edward de Bono in the book New Think: The Use of Lateral Thinking published
in 1967.

Methods
Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the true value of statements and seeking errors. Lateral thinking
is more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person would use lateral thinking when they
want to move from one known idea to creating new ideas. Edward de Bono defines four types of thinking tools:
• Idea generating tools that are designed to break current thinking patterns—routine patterns, the status quo
• Focus tools that are designed to broaden where to search for new ideas
• Harvest tools that are designed to ensure more value is received from idea generating output
• Treatment tools that are designed to consider real-world constraints, resources, and support[1]
Random Entry Idea Generating Tool: Choose an object at random, or a noun from a dictionary, and associate that
with the area you are thinking about.
For example imagine you are thinking about how to improve a web site. Choosing an object at random from an
office you might see a fax machine. A fax machine transmits images over the phone to paper. Fax machines are
becoming rare. People send faxes directly to phone numbers. Perhaps this could be a new way to embed the web
site's content in emails and other sites.
Provocation Idea Generating Tool: choose to use any of the provocation techniques—wishful thinking,
exaggeration, reversal, escape, or arising. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to
move your thinking forward to new ideas.
Challenge Idea Generating Tool: A tool which is designed to ask the question "Why?" in a non-threatening way:
why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of "Why?" which
naturally leads to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not just items which are
problems.
For example you could challenge the handles on coffee cups. The reason for the handle seems to be that the cup is
often too hot to hold directly. Perhaps coffee cups could be made with insulated finger grips, or there could be
separate coffee cup holders similar to beer holders.
Concept Fan Idea Generating Tool: Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and
number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider.
Disproving: Based on the idea that the majority is always wrong (Henrik Ibsen, John Kenneth Galbraith), take
anything that is obvious and generally accepted as "goes without saying", question it, take an opposite view, and try
to convincingly disprove it.
The other focus, harvesting and treatment tools deal with the output of the generated ideas and the ways to use them.
Lateral thinking 50

Lateral thinking and problem solving

Problem Solving: When something creates a problem, the performance or the status quo of the situation drops.
Problem solving deals with finding out what caused the problem and then figuring out ways to fix the problem. The
objective is to get the situation to where it should be.
For example, a production line has an established run rate of 1000 items per hour. Suddenly, the run rate drops to
800 items per hour. Ideas as to why this happened and solutions to repair the production line must be thought of.
Creative Problem Solving: Using creativity, one must solve a problem in an indirect and unconventional manner.
For example, if a production line produced 1000 books per hour, creative problem solving could find ways to
produce more books per hour, use the production line, or reduce the cost to run the production line.
Creative Problem Identification: Many of the greatest non-technological innovations are identified while realizing
an improved process or design in everyday objects and tasks either by accidental chance or by studying and
documenting real world experience....

Further reading
• De Bono, Edward (1970). Lateral thinking: creativity step by step [2]. Harper & Row. pp. 300.
ISBN 0-14-021978-1.
• De Bono, Edward (1972). Po: Beyond Yes and No. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-021715-0.
• De Bono, Edward (1992). Serious creativity: using the power of lateral thinking to create new ideas [3].
HarperBusiness. pp. 338. ISBN 0-88730-635-7.
• Sloane, Paul (1994). Test your Lateral Thinking IQ [4]. Sterling Publishing. pp. 96. ISBN 0-8069-0684-7.
• The Leader's Guide to Lateral Thinking Skills, Paul Sloane, (Kogan Page, 2006), ISBN 0-7494-4797-4

References
[1] Lateral Thinking: The Power of Provocation manual: Published in 2006 by de Bono Thinking Systems
[2] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=H-ROAAAAMAAJ
[3] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NbB9AAAAMAAJ
[4] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0op9AAAAMAAJ
Mathematical morphology 51

Mathematical morphology
Mathematical morphology (MM) is a theory and technique for the
analysis and processing of geometrical structures, based on set theory,
lattice theory, topology, and random functions. MM is most commonly
applied to digital images, but it can be employed as well on graphs,
surface meshes, solids, and many other spatial structures.
Topological and geometrical continuous-space concepts such as size,
shape, convexity, connectivity, and geodesic distance, can be
characterized by MM on both continuous and discrete spaces. MM is
also the foundation of morphological image processing, which consists
of a set of operators that transform images according to the above
characterizations.

MM was originally developed for binary images, and was later

extended to grayscale functions and images. The subsequent
generalization to complete lattices is widely accepted today as MM's A shape (in blue) and its morphological dilation
theoretical foundation. (in green) and erosion (in yellow) by a
diamond-shape structuring element.

History
Mathematical Morphology was born in 1964 from the collaborative work of Georges Matheron and Jean Serra, at the
École des Mines de Paris, France. Matheron supervised the PhD thesis of Serra, devoted to the quantification of
mineral characteristics from thin cross sections, and this work resulted in a novel practical approach, as well as
theoretical advancements in integral geometry and topology.
In 1968, the Centre de Morphologie Mathématique was founded by the École des Mines de Paris in Fontainebleau,
France, led by Matheron and Serra.
During the rest of the 1960s and most of the 1970s, MM dealt essentially with binary images, treated as sets, and
generated a large number of binary operators and techniques: Hit-or-miss transform, dilation, erosion, opening,
closing, granulometry, thinning, skeletonization, ultimate erosion, conditional bisector, and others. A random
approach was also developed, based on novel image models. Most of the work in that period was developed in
Fontainebleau.
From mid-1970s to mid-1980s, MM was generalized to grayscale functions and images as well. Besides extending
the main concepts (such as dilation, erosion, etc...) to functions, this generalization yielded new operators, such as
morphological gradients, top-hat transform and the Watershed (MM's main segmentation approach).
In the 1980s and 1990s, MM gained a wider recognition, as research centers in several countries began to adopt and
investigate the method. MM started to be applied to a large number of imaging problems and applications.
In 1986, Jean Serra further generalized MM, this time to a theoretical framework based on complete lattices. This
generalization brought flexibility to the theory, enabling its application to a much larger number of structures,
including color images, video, graphs, meshes, etc... At the same time, Matheron and Serra also formulated a theory
for morphological filtering, based on the new lattice framework.
The 1990s and 2000s also saw further theoretical advancements, including the concepts of connections and levelings.
In 1993, the first International Symposium on Mathematical Morphology (ISMM) took place in Barcelona, Spain.
Since then, ISMMs are organized every 2–3 years, each time in a different part of the world: Fontainebleau, France
(1994); Atlanta, USA (1996); Amsterdam, Netherlands (1998); Palo Alto, CA, USA (2000); Sydney, Australia
Mathematical morphology 52

(2002); Paris, France (2004); Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2007); and Groningen, Netherlands (2009).

References
• "Introduction" by Pierre Soille, in (Serra et al. (Eds.) 1994), pgs. 1-4.
• "Appendix A: The 'Centre de Morphologie Mathématique', an overview" by Jean Serra, in (Serra et al. (Eds.)
1994), pgs. 369-374.
• "Foreword" in (Ronse et al. (Eds.) 2005)

Binary morphology
In binary morphology, an image is viewed as a subset of an Euclidean space or the integer grid , for some
dimension d.

Structuring element
The basic idea in binary morphology is to probe an image with a simple, pre-defined shape, drawing conclusions on
how this shape fits or misses the shapes in the image. This simple "probe" is called structuring element, and is itself a
binary image (i.e., a subset of the space or grid).
Here are some examples of widely used structuring elements (denoted by B):
• Let ; B is an open disk of radius r, centered at the origin.
• Let ; B is a 3x3 square, that is, B={(-1,-1), (-1,0), (-1,1), (0,-1), (0,0), (0,1), (1,-1), (1,0), (1,1)}.
• Let ; B is the "cross" given by: B={(-1,0), (0,-1), (0,0), (0,1), (1,0)}.

Basic operators
The basic operations are shift-invariant (translation invariant) operators strongly related to Minkowski addition.
Let E be a Euclidean space or an integer grid, and A a binary image in E.

Erosion

The erosion of the binary image A by the structuring element B is

defined by:

The erosion of the dark-blue square by a disk,

resulting in the light-blue square.

,
where Bz is the translation of B by the vector z, i.e., , .
When the structuring element B has a center (e.g., B is a disk or a square), and this center is located on the origin of
E, then the erosion of A by B can be understood as the locus of points reached by the center of B when B moves
Mathematical morphology 53

inside A. For example, the erosion of a square of side 10, centered at the origin, by a disc of radius 2, also centered at
the origin, is a square of side 6 centered at the origin.

The erosion of A by B is also given by the expression: .

Example application: Assume we have received a fax of a dark photocopy. Everything looks like it was written with
a pen that is bleeding. Erosion process will allow thicker lines to get skinny and detect the hole inside the letter "o".

Dilation

The dilation of A by the structuring element B is defined by:

The dilation of the dark-blue square by a disk,

resulting in the light-blue square with rounded
corners.

The dilation is commutative, also given by: .

If B has a center on the origin, as before, then the dilation of A by B can be understood as the locus of the points
covered by B when the center of B moves inside A. In the above example, the dilation of the square of side 10 by the
disk of radius 2 is a square of side 14, with rounded corners, centered at the origin. The radius of the rounded corners
is 2.
The dilation can also be obtained by: , where Bs denotes the symmetric of
B, that is, .
Example application: Dilation is the opposite of the erosion. Figures that are very lightly drawn get thick when
"dilated". Easiest way to describe it is to imagine the same fax/text is written with a thicker pen.
Mathematical morphology 54

Opening

The opening of A by B is obtained by the erosion of A by B, followed

by dilation of the resulting image by B:

The opening of the dark-blue square by a disk,

resulting in the light-blue square with round
corners.

The opening is also given by , which means that it is the locus of translations of the structuring

element B inside the image A. In the case of the square of side 10, and a disc of radius 2 as the structuring element,
the opening is a square of side 10 with rounded corners, where the corner radius is 2.
Example application: Let's assume someone has written a note on a non-soaking paper that writing looks like it is
growing tiny hairy roots all over. Opening essentially removes the outer tiny "hairline" leaks and restores the text.
The side effect is that it rounds off things. The sharp edges start to disappear.

Closing

The closing of A by B is obtained by the dilation of A by B, followed

by erosion of the resulting structure by B:

The closing of the dark-blue shape (union of two

squares) by a disk, resulting in the union of the
dark-blue shape and the light-blue areas.

.
The closing can also be obtained by , where Xc denotes the complement of X relative to E
(that is, ). The above means that the closing is the complement of the locus of
translations of the symmetric of the structuring element outside the image A.
Mathematical morphology 55

Properties of the basic operators

Here are some properties of the basic binary morphological operators (dilation, erosion, opening and closing):
• They are translation invariant.
• They are increasing, that is, if , then , and , etc.
• The dilation is commutative.
• If the origin of E belongs to the structuring element B, then .
• The dilation is associative, i.e., . Moreover, the erosion satisfies
.
• Erosion and dilation satisfy the duality .
• Opening and closing satisfy the duality .
• The dilation is distributive over set union
• The erosion is distributive over set intersection
• The dilation is a pseudo-inverse of the erosion, and vice-versa, in the following sense: if and
only if .
• Opening and closing are idempotent.
• Opening is anti-extensive, i.e., , whereas the closing is extensive, i.e., .

Other operators and tools

• Hit-or-miss transform
• Pruning transform
• Morphological skeleton
• Filtering by reconstruction
• Ultimate erosions and conditional bisectors
• Granulometry
• Geodesic distance functions

Grayscale morphology

Cardiac MRI image Watershed of the gradient of the cardiac image

Grayscale structuring elements are also functions of the same format, called "structuring functions".
Denoting an image by f(x) and the structuring function by b(x), the grayscale dilation of f by b is given by

,
where "sup" denotes the supremum.
Mathematical morphology 56

Similarly, the erosion of f by b is given by

,
where "inf" denotes the infimum.
Just like in binary morphology, the opening and closing are given respectively by
, and
.

Flat structuring functions

It is common to use flat structuring elements in morphological applications. Flat structuring functions are functions
b(x) in the form

where .
In this case, the dilation and erosion are greatly simplified, and given respectively by

, and

.
In the bounded, discrete case (E is a grid and B is bounded), the supremum and infimum operators can be replaced
by the maximum and minimum. Thus, dilation and erosion are particular cases of order statistics filters, with dilation
returning the maximum value within a moving window (the symmetric of the structuring function support B), and
the erosion returning the minimum value within the moving window B.
In the case of flat structuring element, the morphological operators depend only on the relative ordering of pixel
values, regardless their numerical values, and therefore are especially suited to the processing of binary images and
grayscale images whose light transfer function is not known.

Other operators and tools

• Morphological Gradients
• Top-hat transform
• Watershed algorithm
By combining these operators one can obtain algorithms for many image processing tasks, such as feature detection,
image segmentation, image sharpening, image filtering, and classification.
Mathematical morphology 57

Mathematical morphology on complete lattices

Complete lattices are partially ordered sets, where every subset has an infimum and a supremum. In particular, it
contains a least element and a greatest element (also denoted "universe").

Adjunctions (Dilation and Erosion)

Let be a complete lattice, with infimum and supremum symbolized by and , respectively. Its
universe and least element are symbolized by U and , respectively. Moreover, let be a collection of
elements from L.
A dilation is any operator that distributes over the supremum, and preserves the least element. I.e.:

• ,

• .
An erosion is any operator that distributes over the infimum, and preserves the universe. I.e.:

• ,

• .
Dilations and erosions form Galois connections. That is, for all dilation there is one and only one erosion that
satisfies

for all .
Similarly, for all erosion there is one and only one dilation satisfying the above connection.
Furthermore, if two operators satisfy the connection, then must be a dilation, and an erosion.
Pairs of erosions and dilations satisfying the above connection are called "adjunctions", and the erosion is said to be
the adjoint erosion of the dilation, and vice-versa.

Opening and Closing

For all adjunction , the morphological opening and morphological closing are
defined as follows:
, and
.
The morphological opening and closing are particular cases of algebraic opening (or simply opening) and algebraic
closing (or simply closing). Algebraic openings are operators in L that are idempotent, increasing, and anti-extensive.
Algebraic closings are operators in L that are idempotent, increasing, and extensive.

Particular cases
Binary morphology is a particular case of lattice morphology, where L is the power set of E (Euclidean space or
grid), that is, L is the set of all subsets of E, and is the set inclusion. In this case, the infimum is set intersection,
and the supremum is set union.
Similarly, grayscale morphology is another particular case, where L is the set of functions mapping E into
, and , , and , are the point-wise order, supremum, and infimum, respectively. That is,
is f and g are functions in L, then if and only if ; the infimum is given by
; and the supremum is given by .
Mathematical morphology 58

References
• Image Analysis and Mathematical Morphology by Jean Serra, ISBN 0126372403 (1982)
• Image Analysis and Mathematical Morphology, Volume 2: Theoretical Advances by Jean Serra, ISBN
0-12-637241-1 (1988)
• An Introduction to Morphological Image Processing by Edward R. Dougherty, ISBN 0-8194-0845-X (1992)
• Morphological Image Analysis; Principles and Applications by Pierre Soille, ISBN 3540-65671-5 (1999), 2nd
edition (2003)
• Mathematical Morphology and its Application to Signal Processing, J. Serra and Ph. Salembier (Eds.),
proceedings of the 1st international symposium on mathematical morphology (ISMM'93), ISBN 84-7653-271-7
(1993)
• Mathematical Morphology and Its Applications to Image Processing, J. Serra and P. Soille (Eds.), proceedings of
the 2nd international symposium on mathematical morphology (ISMM'93), ISBN 0-7923-3093-5 (1994)
• Mathematical Morphology and its Applications to Image and Signal Processing, Henk J.A.M. Heijmans and Jos
B.T.M. Roerdink (Eds.), proceedings of the 4th international symposium on mathematical morphology
(ISMM'98), ISBN 0-7923-5133-9 (1998)
• Mathematical Morphology: 40 Years On, Christian Ronse, Laurent Najman, and Etienne Decencière (Eds.), ISBN
1-4020-3442-3 (2005)
• Mathematical Morphology and its Applications to Signal and Image Processing, Gerald J.F. Banon, Junior
Barrera, Ulisses M. Braga-Neto (Eds.), proceedings of the 8th international symposium on mathematical
morphology (ISMM'07), ISBN 978-85-17-00032-4 (2007)
• Mathematical morphology: from theory to applications, Laurent Najman and Hugues Talbot (Eds). ISTE-Wiley.
ISBN 978-18-48-21215-2. (520 pp.) June 2010

External links
• Online course on mathematical morphology (http://cmm.ensmp.fr/~serra/cours/index.htm), by Jean Serra (in
English, French, and Spanish)
• Center of Mathematical Morphology (http://cmm.ensmp.fr/index_eng.html), Paris School of Mines
• History of Mathematical Morphology (http://cmm.ensmp.fr/~serra/pdf/birth_of_mm.pdf), by Georges
Matheron and Jean Serra
• Morphology Digest, a newsletter on mathematical morphology (http://mdigest.jrc.ec.europa.eu), by Pierre
Soille
• Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lectures
16-18 are on Mathematical Morphology (http://www.archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing), by
Alan Peters
• Mathematical Morphology; from Computer Vision lectures (http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/
LOCAL_COPIES/OWENS/LECT3/node3.html), by Robyn Owens
• Free SIMD Optimized Image processing library (http://fulguro.sourceforge.net)
• Java applet demonstration (http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~majid/mengine/morph.html)
• FILTERS : a free open source image processing library (http://filters.sourceforge.net/)
• Fast morphological erosions, dilations, openings, and closings (http://www.ulg.ac.be/telecom/research/
libmorphoDoc/index.html)
• Morphological analysis of neurons using Matlab (http://www.johanneshjorth.se/SynD)
Montessori sensorial materials 59

Montessori sensorial materials

Montessori sensorial materials are materials used in the Montessori classroom to help a child develop and refine
his or her five senses. Use of these materials constitutes the next level of difficulty after those of practical life.
Like many other materials in the Montessori classroom, sensorial materials have what is called "control of error",
meaning that the child not only works with the material, but has a way to check the work rather than seeking out the
teacher. This is done to help promote independence on the part of the child.

The cylinder blocks

There are four cylinder blocks. Their purpose is to provide various dimensions of size to help the child distinguish
between large and small, tall and short, thick and thin, and combinations of these.
The cylinder blocks are ten wooden cylinders of various dimensions that can be removed from a fitted container
block using a knobbed handle. To remove the cylinders, the child tends to naturally use the same three-finger grip
used to hold pencils.
Several activities can be done with the cylinder blocks. The main activity involves removing the cylinders from the
block and replacing them. The control of error is constituted in the child's inability to replace a cylinder in the wrong
hole.

The pink tower

The pink tower has ten pink cubes. The smallest cube is 1 cubic centimeter in volume, and the largest cube is 1000
cubic centimeters in volume (each side is 10 cm in length). The work is designed to provide the child with a concept
of "big" and "small."
The child starts with the largest cube and puts the second-largest cube on top of it. This continues until all ten cubes
are stacked on top of each other.
The control of error is visual. The child sees the cubes are in the wrong order. The successive dimensions of each
cube are such that if the cubes are stacked flush with a corner, the smallest cube may be fit squarely on the ledge of
each level. If the smallest cube is too small or big to fit on the ledge, the tower cubes are in the wrong order
Montessori sensorial materials 60

The broad stair

The broad stair (also called Brown Stair) is designed to teach the concepts of "thick" and "thin". It comprises ten sets
of wooden prisms with a natural or brown stain finish. Each stair is 20 cm in length and varies in thickness from 1 to
10 cm. When put together from thickest to thinnest, they make an even staircase.
As an extension, the broad stairs are often used with the pink tower to allow the child to make many designs.

The pink tower and the broad stair are

shown here together in an extension
activity. The child can make a variety
of designs limited only by his or her
imagination and the constraints of the
material.

The red rods

The red rods are rods of equal diameter, varying only in length. The smallest is 10 cm long and the largest is one
meter long. Each rod is 1 square inch thick. By holding the ends of the rods with two hands, the material is designed
to give the child a sense of long and short.

The colored cylinders

Also called the knobless cylinders, the colored cylinders are exactly the same dimensions as the cylinder blocks
mentioned above.
There are 4 boxes of cylinders:
• Yellow cylinders that vary in height and width. The shortest cylinder is the thinnest and the tallest cylinder is the
thickest.
• Red cylinders that are the same height, but vary in width.
• Blue cylinders that have the same width, but vary in height.
• Green cylinders that vary in height and width. The shortest cylinder is the thickest and the tallest cylinder is the
thinnest.
The child can do a variety of exercises with these materials, including matching them with the cylinder blocks,
stacking them on top of each other to form a tower, and arranging them in size or different patterns. When the
yellow, red, and green cylinders are placed on top of each other, they all are the same height.[1]
Montessori sensorial materials 61

Colored Cylinders laid out in a design. The green, yellow, and red cylinders are Here, the knobless cylinders are used with the
stacked on top of each other. cylinders from the cylinder block.

The binomial cube

The binomial cube is a cube that has the following pieces: one red cube, three black and red prisms, three black and
blue prisms, and one blue cube.
A box with eight prisms represent the elements of or:
The pieces are stored in a box with two hinged opening sides. The color pattern of the cube is painted all around the
outside of the box (except the bottom).
The material is not designed as for math education until the elementary years of Montessori education. In the
primary levels (ages 3–6), it is used as sensorial material.

The Binomial Cube

Montessori sensorial materials 62

The trinomial cube

The trinomial cube is similar to the binomial cube, but has the following pieces:
• 1 red cube and 6 black and red prisms (varying in size)
• 1 blue cube and 6 black and blue prisms (varying in size)
• 1 yellow cube and 6 black and yellow prisms (varying in size)
• 6 black prisms (same size)
This is similar to the binomial cube, but is a physical representation of the formula:

Other materials
There are many Montessori sensorial materials, and more are being investigated and developed by teachers. Other
popular Montessori sensorial materials include:
Monomial cube
A cube similar to the binomial and trinomial cube. The child has a sensorial experience of the power of
multiplying by two and developing that into a cube.
Geometric cabinet
Several different shapes are inset into wood and placed in drawers. The child distinguishes the different
shapes, learns their names, and learns how to discriminate from the shapes.
The constructive triangles
Different triangles are put together to form various shapes. Shapes made with the triangles include the
parallelogram, hexagon, rhombus, and trapezoid.
Color tablets
Boxes with tablets inside. The sides are usually made of wood or plastic. The middle is painted wood or
plastic. The only difference between them is the colors in the middle. There are three color boxes. The first has
the three primary colors (red, blue, and yellow). The second has 12 different colors. The third box has nine
colors, but in different grades from light to dark.
Geometric solids
Ten Geometric three-dimensional shapes made from wood and usually painted blue. The shapes are:
• Sphere
• Cone
• Ovoid
• Ellipsoid
• Triangle-based pyramid
• Square-based pyramid
• Cube
• Cylinder
• Rectangular prism
• Triangular prism
The mystery bag
The mystery bag contains various object that the child feels and sorts without looking into the bag. The object
is removed after the child has decided how to sort it and a visual check is done. (Though this may also be done
blindfolded to add to the experience).
Rough and smooth boards
Montessori sensorial materials 63

Sandpaper is glued onto a smooth wood board. Various grading of sandpaper are used later as an extension of
this activity to help the child discriminate between them.
Fabric box
Different fabric materials are used that the child must feel and match. A blindfold is usually used so the child
cannot see the materials.
Thermic bottles
Water of different temperatures is added to metal bottles. The child lines them up from hottest to coldest.
Baric tablets
Wooden tablets of various weight to help the child discriminate between weight.
Sound cylinders
Two boxes, each containing six cylinders. One set has a red top and the other a blue top. When shaken, each
cylinder of the same color gives off a different sound. The sound from the red cylinder is matched with the
same exact sound from the blue cylinder.
Bells
Twenty-six bells are used to help develop a sense of musical tones.

The Color Tablets: Box 3 The Geometric Solids The Montessori Bells

References
[1] http:/ / flickr. com/ photos/ 27682674@N02/ 2582293141/
Object (philosophy) 64

Object (philosophy)
In English the word object is derived from the Latin objectus (pp. of obicere) with the meaning of "to throw, or put
before or against", from ob-(pref.) and jacere, "to throw".[1] As such it is a root for several important words used in
to derive meaning, such as objectify (to materialize), objective (a future reference), and objectivism (a philosophical
doctrine that knowledge is based on objective reality). In epistemology, a branch of philosophy concerning itself
with the study of knowing, it is used as a technical term. Aristotle had said,[2] "All men by nature desire to know."
René Descartes expanded this knowing into the grounds of certainty with cogito ergo sum, typically translated as "I
think therefore I am." The thinker cannot be certain of his thinking and his existing unless he knows it; that is, the
very act of thinking delivers self-knowledge to the thinker. Descartes formulated this grounds as an answer to the
dream doubt, which questions whether anything can be identified as real and not a dream. However, one cannot
dream without thinking.
Consciousness therefore is an act of cognition that takes in the self, which can never be doubted, as it would have to
be the self who doubts, and some doubtable notes, which philosophy calls objects, which carry with them the
understood possibility of being in error. If not in error they are granted the status of objectivity, or reality, and are
believed to exist without reference to the subject. Bertrand Russell updated this classical term with one more in use
by science: the fact:[3] "Everything that there is in the world I call a fact." Facts, objects, are opposed to beliefs,
which may be errors on the part of the knower; as their source is he, and he is the subject (who is certain of himself
and little else), they are subjective.
This framework of presumptions is termed the Theory of the Real.[4] One cannot even doubt it without implying it,
as all doubt implies the possibility of error and therefore admits the distinction between subject and object,
subjectivity and objectivity. The knower, whether considered mind, soul, thinker or some other subject, is limited in
his ability to discern fact from belief, objects from true objects. An individual engages in reality testing, an activity
that will result in more or less certainty regarding the reality of the object. According to Russell,[5] "we need a
description of the fact which would make a given belief true" where "Truth is a property of beliefs." Knowledge is
"true beliefs".[6]
Until that distinction can be made, every object must be viewed as possibly true; that is, a quasi-object. This
credibility extends even to the notes that are known to be subjective; that is, the population of knowers (or thinkers,
etc.) or individual knowers may agree or determine to create a logical or rational entity to be treated as quasi-real; for
example, a corporation, a fund, a population of elves, etc. These are typically the subjects of cultural anthropology.
Where object in a strict sense is used to refer to independent being, in a general sense it is any entity subjective or
objective. Thus objects are things as diverse as the pyramids, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, a disbelief in
predestination, and the fear of dogs. The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the broad notion of an object as
anything that we can think or talk about.[7]

Objecthood
In ontology, objecthood is the state of being an object. Metaphysical frameworks differ in whether they consider
objects to exist independently of their properties and, if so, in the nature of that existence.
In ontologies that include objects as a fundamental category of entity, the nature of objecthood determines the types
of claims that can be made about objects in general. The following conversation illustrates two incompatible
metaphysical schemes:
Philosopher A sees a white flash.
Philosopher A: What was that object?
Philosopher B: A bike.
Object (philosophy) 65

Philosopher A: No, it was clearly a motorbike.

Philosopher B: Well, you are not really being objective.

Objects as properties and relations

One approach to defining objecthood is in terms of objects' properties and relations. Bodies, for example, have
properties and relations. It seems that descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their
properties and relations. For example, it seems that the only way to describe an apple is by describing its properties
and how it is related to other things. Its properties may include its redness, its size, and its composition, while its
relations may include "on the table", "in the room", and "being bigger than other apples".
The philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and
relations. For example, ignoring relations for simplicity, the nature of objecthood includes the nature of the
relationship between objects and their properties.

Problems of objecthood
The notion of an object is a primitive concept in some ontologies, that is, it is meaningful but cannot be explained in
terms of anything else. Whether a metaphysical scheme includes objecthood as a primitive concept, and if so the
specific nature the scheme gives objecthood, is what most differentiates the various ontologies. The properties of
objecthood apply to all objects, by definition.
Theories of objecthood address two problems:
• the change problem
• the problem of substance

The change problem

Properties of an object are the attributes of it that can be experienced (e.g. its color, size, weight, smell, taste, and
location). Objects manifest themselves as clusters of their properties. Those clusters seem to change in a regular and
unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that underlying thing
is. According to substance theory, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change.

The problem of substance

Because substances are only experienced through their properties, a substance itself is never directly experienced.
The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance cannot be seen or
scientifically verified. According to bundle theory, the answer is: none; thus an object is merely its properties.
Some philosophies include theories of both bodies (physical substances) and minds (mental substances). So, the
problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.
Object (philosophy) 66

Substance theory vs. bundle theory

Whether objects are just collections of properties or separate from those properties appears to be a strict dichotomy.
That is, it seems that objects must be either collections of properties or something else. The leading theories about
objecthood are substance theory, wherein substances (objects) are distinct from their properties, and bundle theory,
wherein objects are no more than bundles of their properties.

Nagarjuna
In the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā Nagarjuna seizes this dichotomy (objects are either just collections of properties or
that they are separate from those properties) in a Tetralemma to demonstrate that both assertions fall apart under
analysis. By uncovering this paradox, he then provides a solution (pratītyasamutpāda - dependent origination ) which
lies at the very root of Buddhist praxis.
Although pratītyasamutpāda is normally limited to caused objects, Nagarjuna extends his argument to objects in
general by differentiating Pratītyasamutpāda into two distinct ideas - dependent designation and dependent
origination (MMK 24-18). He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion
regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context. The validity of objects can only be established
within those conventions that assert them.[8]

Other applications

Value theory
Value theory concerns the value of objects. When it concerns economic value, it generally deals with physical
objects. However, when concerning philosophic or ethic value, an object may be both a physical object and an
abstract object (e.g. an action).

Physics
Limiting discussions of objecthood to the realm of physical objects may simplify them. However, defining physical
objects in terms of fundamental particles (e.g. quarks) leaves open the question of what is the nature of a
fundamental particle and thus asks what categories of being can be used to explain physical objects.

Semantics
Symbols represent objects; how they do so, the map-territory relation, is the basic problem of semantics.

Notes
[1] Klein, Ernest, Dr., A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language, Vol II, Elsevier publishing company, Amsterdam,
1969, pp.1066-1067
[2] Metaphysics, Book I, Section 1 (Paragraph 980a)
[3] Russell 1948, p. 143.
[4] Taylor 1903, pp. 16–17
[5] Russell 1948, pp. 148–149.
[6] Russell 1948, p. 154.
[7] Peirce, Charles S.. "Object" (http:/ / www. helsinki. fi/ science/ commens/ terms/ object. html). University of Helsinki. . Retrieved
2009-03-19.
[8] Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies pp296-297 - Karl H. Potter, Harold G Coward
Object (philosophy) 67

References
• Russell, Bertrand (1948). Human Knowledge Its Scope and Limits. New York: Simon and Schuster.
• Taylor, Alfred Edward (1903). Elements of metaphysics. London: Methuen & Co..

External links
• Object (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/object) entry by Henry Laycock in the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Abstract objects (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects) entry by Gideon Rosen in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Object of the mind

An object of the mind is an object which exists in the imagination, but which, in the real world, can only be
represented or modeled. Some such objects are mathematical abstractions, literary concepts, or fictional scenarios.
Closely related are intentional objects, which are what thoughts and feelings are about, even if they are not about
anything real (such as thoughts about unicorns, or feeling of apprehension about a dental appointment which is
subsequently cancelled).[1] However, intentional objects can coincide with real objects (as in thoughts about horses,
or a feeling of regret about a missed appointment).

Mathematical objects
Mathematics and geometry describe abstract objects that sometimes correspond to familiar shapes, and sometimes do
not. Circles, triangles, rectangles, and so forth describe two-dimensional shapes that are often found in the real
world. However, mathematical formulas do not describe individual physical circles, triangles, or rectangles. They
describe ideal shapes that are objects of the mind. The incredible precision of mathematical expression permits a vast
applicability of mental abstractions to real life situations.
Many more mathematical formulas describe shapes that are unfamiliar, or do not necessarily correspond to objects in
the real world. For example, the Klein bottle[2] is a one-sided, sealed surface with no inside or outside (in other
words, it is the three-dimensional equivalent of the Möbius strip). Such objects can be represented by twisting and
cutting or taping pieces of paper together, as well as by computer simulations. To hold them in the imagination,
abstractions such as extra or fewer dimensions are necessary.

Logical sequences
If-then arguments posit logical sequences that sometimes include objects of the mind. For example, a counterfactual
argument proposes a hypothetical or subjunctive possibility which could or would be true, but might not be false.
Conditional sequences involving subjunctives use intensional language, which is studied by modal logic,[3] whereas
classical logic studies the extensional language of necessary and sufficient conditions.
In general, a logical antecedent is a necessary condition, and a logical consequent is a sufficient condition (or the
contingency) in a logical conditional. But logical conditionals accounting only for necessity and sufficiency do not
always reflect every day if-then reasoning, and for this reason they are sometimes known as material conditionals. In
contrast, indicative conditionals, sometimes known as non-material conditionals,[4] attempt to describe if-then
reasoning involving hypotheticals, fictions, or counterfactuals.
Truth tables for if-then statements identify four unique combinations of premises and conclusions: true premises and
true conclusions; false premises and true conclusions; true premises and false conclusions; false premises and false
Object of the mind 68

conclusions. Strict conditionals assign a positive truth-value to every case except the case of a true premise and a
false conclusion. This is sometimes regarded as counterintuitive, but makes more sense when false conditions are
understood as objects of the mind.

False antecedent
A false antecedent is a premise known to be false, fictional, imaginary, or unnecessary. In a conditional sequence, a
false antecedent may be the basis for any consequence, true or false.
The subjects of literature are sometimes false antecedents. For example, the contents of false documents, the origins
of stand-alone phenomena, or the implications of loaded words. Also, artificial sources, personalities, events, and
histories. False antecedents are sometimes referred to as "nothing", or "nonexistent", whereas nonexistent referents
are not referred to.
Art and acting often portray scenarios without any antecedent except an artist's imagination. For example, mythical
heroes, legendary creatures, gods, and goddesses.

False consequent
A false consequent, in contrast, is a conclusion known to be false, fictional, imaginary, or insufficient. In a
conditional statement, a fictional conclusion is known as a non sequitur, which literally means out of sequence. A
conclusion that is out of sequence is not contingent on any premises that precede it, and it does not follow from
them, so such a sequence is not conditional. A conditional sequence is a connected series of statements. A false
consequent cannot follow from true premises in a connected sequence. But, on the other hand, a false consequent can
follow from a false antecedent.
As an example, the name of a team, a genre, or a nation is a collective term applied ex post facto to a group of
distinct individuals. None of the individuals on a sports team is the team itself, nor is any musical chord a genre, nor
any person America. The name is an identity for a collection that is connected by consensus or reference, but not by
sequence. A different name could equally follow, but it would have different social or political significance.

Philosophy of mind
In philosophy, mind-body dualism is the doctrine that mental activities exist apart from the physical body, notably
posited by René Descartes in Meditations on First Philosophy.

Invented sources
Many objects in fiction follow the example of false antecedents or false consequents. For example, The Lord of the
Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien is based on an imaginary book. In the Appendices to The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien's
characters name the Red Book of Westmarch as the source material for The Lord of the Rings, which they describe as
a translation. But the Red Book of Westmarch is a fictional document that chronicles events in an imaginary world.
One might imagine a different translation, by another author.
Object of the mind 69

Convenient fictions
Social reality is composed of many standards and inventions that facilitate communication, but which are ultimately
objects of the mind. For example, money is an object of the mind which currency represents. Similarly, languages
signify ideas and thoughts.
Objects of the mind are frequently involved in the roles that people play. For example, Acting is a profession which
predicates real jobs on fictional premises. Charades is a game people play by guessing imaginary objects from short
play-acts.
Imaginary personalities and histories are sometimes invented to enhance the verisimilitude of fictional universes, and
the immersion of role-playing games. In the sense that they exist independently of extant personalities and histories,
they are believed to be fictional characters and fictional time frames.
Science fiction is abundant with future times, alternate times, and past times that are objects of the mind. For
example, in the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, the number 1984 represented a year that had not yet
passed.
Calendar dates also represent objects of the mind, specifically, past and future times. In The Transformers: The
Movie, which was released in 1986, the narration opens with the statement, "It is the year 2005." In 1986, that
statement was futuristic. During the year 2005, that reference to the year 2005 was factual. Now, The Transformers:
The Movie is retro-futuristic. The number 2005 did not change, but the object of the mind that it represents did
change.
Deliberate invention also may reference an object of the mind. The intentional invention of fiction for the purpose of
deception is usually referred to as lying, in contrast to invention for entertainment or art. Invention is also often
applied to problem solving. In this sense the physical invention of materials is associated with the mental invention
of fictions.
Convenient fictions also occur in science.

Science
The theoretical posits of one era's scientific theories may be demoted to mere objects of the mind by subsequent
discoveries: some standard examples include phlogiston and ptolemaic epicycles.
This raises questions, in the debate between scientific realism and instrumentalism about the status of current posits,
such as black holes and quarks. Are they still merely intentional, even if the theory is correct?
The situation is further complicated by the existence in scientific practice of entities which are explicitly held not to
be real, but which nonetheless serve a purpose—convenient fictions. Examples include lines of force, centers of
gravity, and electron holes in semiconductor theory.

Self-reference
A reference that names an imaginary source is in some sense also a self-reference. A self-reference automatically
makes a comment about itself. Premises that name themselves as premises are premises by self-reference;
conclusions that name themselves as conclusions are conclusions by self-reference.
In their respective imaginary worlds the Necronomicon, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, and the Red Book of
Westmarch are realities, but only because they are referred to as real. Authors use this technique to invite readers to
pretend or to make-believe that their imaginary world is real. In the sense that the stories that quote these books are
true, the quoted books exist; in the sense that the stories are fiction, the quoted books do not exist.
Object of the mind 70

Nonexistent objects
Austrian philosopher Alexius Meinong (1853–1920) advanced nonexistent objects in the 20th and 21st century
within a “theory of objects”. He was interested in intentional states which are directed at nonexistent objects. Starting
with the “principle of intentionality”, mental phenomena are intentionally directed towards an object. People may
imagine, desire or fear something that does not exist. Other philosophers concluded that intentionality is not a real
relation and therefore does not require the existence of an object, while Meinong concluded there is an object for
every mental state whatsoever—if not an existent then at least a nonexistent one. [5]

References
[1] Tim Crane - Intentional Objects (http:/ / web. mac. com/ cranetim/ iWeb/ Tim's website/ Online papers_files/ Intentional objects-1. pdf)
[2] The Teaching Company, Course No. 1423. "Joy of Thinking: The Beauty and Power of Classical Mathematical Ideas." Lecture 14 - "A
One-Sided, Sealed Surface - the Klein Bottle." Professors Edward B. Burger, Michael Starbird.
[3] Modal Logic. Springer Online Reference Works. (http:/ / eom. springer. de/ M/ m064320. htm)
[4] Payne, W. Russ The non-material conditional (http:/ / facweb. bcc. ctc. edu/ wpayne/ non-material conditional. htm)
[5] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Nonexistent Objects, First published Tue Aug 22, 2006; substantive revision Thu Sep 7, 2006,
Accessed May 18, 2010 (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ nonexistent-objects/ #HisRooAleMeiProInt)

External links
• Creatures of Imagination and Fiction - Olav Ashelm (http://www.hf.uio.no/ifikk/filosofi/njpl/vol1no1/
creatures/creatures.html)

Packing problem
Packing problems are a class of optimization problems in recreational mathematics which involve attempting to
pack objects together (often inside a container), as densely as possible. Many of these problems can be related to real
life storage and transportation issues. Each packing problem has a dual covering problem, which asks how many of
the same objects are required to completely cover every region of the container, where objects are allowed to
overlap.
In a packing problem, you are given:
• 'containers' (usually a single two- or three-dimensional convex region, or an infinite space)
• 'goods' (usually a single type of shape), some or all of which must be packed into this container
Usually the packing must be without overlaps between goods and other goods or the container walls. The aim is to
find the configuration with the maximal density. In some variants the overlapping (of goods with each other and/or
with the boundary of the container) is allowed but should be minimised.

Packing infinite space

Many of these problems, when the container size is increased in all directions, become equivalent to the problem of
packing objects as densely as possible in infinite Euclidean space. This problem is relevant to a number of scientific
disciplines, and has received significant attention. The Kepler conjecture postulated an optimal solution for packing
spheres hundreds of years before it was proven correct by Thomas Callister Hales. Many other shapes have received
attention, including ellipsoids, tetrahedra, icosahedra, and unequal-sphere dimers.
Packing problem 71

Hexagonal packing of circles

These problems are mathematically distinct from the ideas in the circle
packing theorem. The related circle packing problem deals with
packing circles, possibly of different sizes, on a surface, for instance
the plane or a sphere.
The counterparts of a circle in other dimensions can never be packed
with complete efficiency in dimensions larger than one (in a one
dimensional universe, the circle analogue is just two points). That is,
there will always be unused space if you are only packing circles. The
most efficient way of packing circles, hexagonal packing, produces
approximately 91% efficiency.[1]

Sphere packings in higher dimensions The hexagonal packing of circles on a

2-dimensional Euclidean plane.
In three dimensions, the face-centered cubic lattice offers the best
lattice packing of spheres, and is believed to be the optimal of all packings. The 8-dimensional E8 lattice and
24-dimensional Leech lattice are also believed to be optimal.

Packings of Platonic solids in three dimensions

Cubes can easily be arranged to fill three-dimensional space completely, the most natural packing being the cubic
honeycomb. No other Platonic solid can tile space on its own, but some preliminary results are known. Tetrahedra
can achieve a packing of at least 85%. One of the best packings of regular dodecahedra is based on the
aforementioned face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice.
Tetrahedra and octahedra together can fill all of space in an arrangement known as the tetrahedral-octahedral
honeycomb.

Packing in 3-dimensional containers

Spheres into a Euclidean ball

The problem of finding the smallest ball such that disjoint open unit balls may be packed inside it has a simple
and complete answer in -dimensional Euclidean space if , and in an infinite dimensional Hilbert space
with no restrictions. It is worth describing in detail here, to give a flavor of the general problem. In this case, a
configuration of pairwise tangent unit balls is available. Place the centers at the vertices of a regular
dimensional simplex with edge 2; this is easily realized starting from an orthonormal basis. A small
computation shows that the distance of each vertex from the barycenter is . Moreover, any other point of

the space necessarily has a larger distance from at least one of the vertices. In terms of inclusions of balls, the
open unit balls centered at are included in a ball of radius , which is minimal for this

configuration.
To show that this configuration is optimal, let be the centers of disjoint open unit balls contained in a ball
of radius centered at a point . Consider the map from the finite set into taking in the
corresponding for each . Since for all , this map is 1-Lipschitz and by the
Kirszbraun theorem it extends to a 1-Lipschitz map that is globally defined; in particular, there exists a point such
that for all one has , so that also . This shows that there are
disjoint unit open balls in a ball of radius if and only if . Notice that in an infinite dimensional Hilbert
space this implies that there are infinitely many disjoint open unit balls inside a ball of radius if and only if
Packing problem 72

. For instance, the unit balls centered at , where is an orthonormal basis, are disjoint and included in a ball of ra
centered at the origin. Moreover, for , the maximum number of disjoint open unit balls inside a ball of radius r is

Spheres in a cuboid
Determine the number of spherical objects of given diameter d can be packed into a cuboid of size a × b × c.

Packing in 2-dimensional containers

Packing circles

Circles in circle
Some of the more non-trivial circle packing problems are packing unit circles into the smallest possible larger circle.
Minimum solutions:[2]

Number of Enclosing Density Optimality Diagram

unit circles circle radius

1 1 1.0000 Trivially optimal.

2 2 0.5000 Trivially optimal.

3 0.6466... Trivially optimal.

≈ 2.154...

4 0.6864... Trivially optimal.

≈ 2.414...

5 0.6854... Proved optimal

[3]
by Graham in 1968.
≈ 2.701...

6 3 0.6667... Proved optimal

[3]
by Graham in 1968.

7 3 0.7778... Proved optimal

[3]
by Graham in 1968.

8 0.7328... Proved optimal

[4]
by Pirl in 1969.
≈ 3.304...

9 0.6895... Proved optimal

[4]
≈ 3.613... by Pirl in 1969.
Packing problem 73

10 3.813... 0.6878... Proved optimal

[4]
by Pirl in 1969.

11 0.7148... Proved optimal

[5]
by Melissen in 1994.
≈ 3.923...

12 4.029... 0.7392... Proved optimal

[6]
by Fodor in 2000.

13 0.7245... Proved optimal

≈4.236... [7]
by Fodor in 2003.

14 4.328... 0.7474... Conjectured optimal.[8]

15 4.521... 0.7339... Conjectured optimal.[8]

16 4.615... 0.7512... Conjectured optimal.[8]

17 4.792... 0.7403... Conjectured optimal.[8]

18 0.7611... Conjectured optimal.[8]

≈ 4.863...
19 0.8034... Proved optimal
≈ 4.863... [9]
by Fodor in 1999.

20 5.122... 0.7623... Conjectured optimal.[8]

Circles in square

Pack n unit circles into the smallest possible square. This is closely
related to spreading points in a unit square with the objective of finding
the greatest minimal separation, dn, between points.[10] To convert
between these two formulations of the problem, the square side for unit
circles will be L=2+2/dn.
Optimal solutions have been proven for n≤30.[11]

Circles in isosceles right triangle

Pack n unit circles into the smallest possible isosceles right triangle
(lengths shown are length of leg)
Minimum solutions:
The optimal packing of 15 circles in a square.
Packing problem 74

Number of circles Length

1 3.414...

2 4.828...

3 5.414...

4 6.242...

5 7.146...

7.414...
7 8.181...

8 8.692...

9 9.071...

10 9.414...

11 10.059...

12 10.422...

13 10.798...

14 11.141...

15 11.414...

Circles in equilateral triangle

Pack n unit circles into the smallest possible equilateral triangle (lengths shown are side length).
Minimum solutions:

Number of circles Length

1 3.464...

2 5.464...

3 5.464...

6.928...
5

7.464...
6 7.464...

7 8.928...

8 9.293...
Packing problem 75

9 9.464...

10 9.464...

11 10.730...

12 10.928...

13 11.406...

14 11.464...

15 11.464...

Circles in regular hexagon

Pack n unit circles into the smallest possible regular hexagon (lengths shown are side length).
Minimum solutions:

Number of circles Length

1 1.154...

2 2.154...

3 2.309...

4 2.666...

5 2.999...

6 3.154...

7 3.154...

8 3.709...

9 4.011...

10 4.119...

11 4.309...

12 4.309...

13 4.618...

14 4.666...

15 4.961...

Packing squares

Squares in square
A problem is the square packing problem, where one must determine how many squares of side 1 (unit squares)
you can pack into a square of side a. Obviously, if a is an integer, the answer is a2, but the precise, or even
asymptotic, amount of wasted space for a a non-integer is open.
Proven minimum solutions:[12]
Packing problem 76

Number of squares Square size

1 1

2 2

3 2

4 2

2.707 (2 + 2 −1/2)
6 3

3
8 3

9 3

10

3.707 (3 + 2 −1/2)

Other results:
• If you can pack n2 − 2 unit squares in a square of side a, then a ≥ n.[13]
• The naive approach (side matches side) leaves wasted space of less than 2a + 1.[12]
• The wasted space is asymptotically o(a7/11).[14]
• The wasted space is not asymptotically o(a1/2).[15]
• 11 unit squares cannot be packed in a square of side less than .[16]

Squares in circle
Pack n squares in the smallest possible circle.
Minimum solutions:
Packing problem 77

Number of squares Circle radius

1 0.707...

2 1.118...

3 1.288...

4 1.414...

5 1.581...

6 1.688...

7 1.802...

8 1.978...

9 2.077...

10 2.121...

11 2.215...

12 2.236...

Packing rectangles

Identical rectangles in a rectangle

The problem of packing multiple instances of a single rectangle of size (l,w), allowing for 90o rotation, in a bigger
rectangle of size (L,W) has some applications such as loading of boxes on pallets and, specifically, woodpulp
stowage.
For example, it is possible to pack 147 rectangles of size (137,95) in a rectangle of size (1600,1230).[17]

Related fields
In tiling or tesselation problems, there are to be no gaps, nor overlaps. Many of the puzzles of this type involve
packing rectangles or polyominoes into a larger rectangle or other square-like shape.
There are significant theorems on tiling rectangles (and cuboids) in rectangles (cuboids) with no gaps or overlaps:
Klarner's theorem: An a × b rectangle can be packed with 1 × n strips iff n | a or n | b.[18]
de Bruijn's theorem: A box can be packed with a harmonic brick a × a b × a b c if the box has dimensions a p
× a b q × a b c r for some natural numbers p, q, r (i.e., the box is a multiple of the brick.)
The study of polyomino tilings largely concerns two classes of problems: to tile a rectangle with congruent tiles, and
to pack one of each n-omino into a rectangle.
A classic puzzle of the second kind is to arrange all twelve pentominoes into rectangles sized 3×20, 4×15, 5×12 or
6×10.
Packing problem 78

Packing of irregular objects

Packing of irregular objects is a problem not lending itself well to closed form solutions; however, the applicability
to practical environmental science is quite important. For example, irregularly shaped soil particles pack differently
as the sizes and shapes vary, leading to important outcomes for plant species to adapt root formations and to allow
water movement in the soil.[19]

Notes
[1] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ CirclePacking. html
[2] Erich Friedman, Circles in Circles on Erich's Packing Center (http:/ / www2. stetson. edu/ ~efriedma/ cirincir/ )
[3] R.L. Graham, Sets of points with given minimum separation (Solution to Problem El921), Amer. Math. Monthly 75 (1968) 192-193.
[4] U. Pirl, Der Mindestabstand von n in der Einheitskreisscheibe gelegenen Punkten, Math. Nachr. 40 (1969) 111-124.
[5] H. Melissen, Densest packing of eleven congruent circles in a circle, Geom. Dedicata 50 (1994) 15-25.
[6] F. Fodor, The Densest Packing of 12 Congruent Circles in a Circle, Beiträge zur Algebra und Geometrie, Contributions to Algebra and
Geometry 41 (2000) ?, 401–409.
[7] F. Fodor, The Densest Packing of 13 Congruent Circles in a Circle, Beiträge zur Algebra und Geometrie, Contributions to Algebra and
Geometry 44 (2003) 2, 431–440.
[8] Graham RL, Lubachevsky BD, Nurmela KJ,Ostergard PRJ. Dense packings of congruent circles in a circle. Discrete Math
1998;181:139–154.
[9] F. Fodor, The Densest Packing of 19 Congruent Circles in a Circle, Geom. Dedicata 74 (1999), 139–145.
[10] Croft, Hallard T.; Falconer, Kenneth J.; Guy, Richard K. (1991). Unsolved Problems in Geometry. New York: Springer-Verlag.
pp. 108–110. ISBN 0-387-97506-3.
[11] Eckard Specht (20 May 2010). "The best known packings of equal circles in a square" (http:/ / hydra. nat. uni-magdeburg. de/ packing/ csq/
csq. html). . Retrieved 25 May 2010.
[12] Erich Friedman, "Packing unit squares in squares: a survey and new results" (http:/ / www. combinatorics. org/ Surveys/ ds7. html), The
Electronic Journal of Combinatorics DS7 (2005).
[13] M. Kearney and P. Shiu, "Efficient packing of unit squares in a square" (http:/ / www. combinatorics. org/ Volume_9/ Abstracts/ v9i1r14.
html), The Electronic Journal of Combinatorics 9:1 #R14 (2002).
[14] P. Erdős and R. L. Graham, "On packing squares with equal squares" (http:/ / www. math. ucsd. edu/ ~sbutler/ ron/ 75_06_squares. pdf),
Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A 19 (1975), pp. 119–123.
[15] K. F. Roth and R. C. Vaughan, "Inefficiency in packing squares with unit squares", Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A 24 (1978),
pp. 170-186.
[16] W. Stromquist, "Packing 10 or 11 unit squares in a square" (http:/ / www. combinatorics. org/ Volume_10/ Abstracts/ v10i1r8. html), The
Electronic Journal of Combinatorics 10 #R8 (2003).
[17] E G Birgin, R D Lobato, R Morabito, "An effective recursive partitioning approach for the packing of identical rectangles in a rectangle",
Journal of the Operational Research Society, 2010, 61, pp. 306-320.
[18] Wagon, Stan (August–September 1987). "Fourteen Proofs of a Result About Tiling a Rectangle" (http:/ / mathdl. maa. org/ images/
upload_library/ 22/ Ford/ Wagon601-617. pdf). The American Mathematical Monthly 94 (7): 601–617. . Retrieved 6 Jan 2010.
[19] C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Abiotic factor. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland. National Council for Science and
the Environment (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Abiotic_factor?topic=49461). Washington DC

References
• Weisstein, Eric W., " Klarner's Theorem (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/KlarnersTheorem.html)" from
MathWorld.
• Weisstein, Eric W., " de Bruijn's Theorem (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/deBruijnsTheorem.html)" from
MathWorld.

External links
Many puzzle books as well as mathematical journals contain articles on packing problems.
• Links to various MathWorld articles on packing (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Packing.html)
• MathWorld notes on packing squares. (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SquarePacking.html)
• Erich's Packing Center (http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/packing.html)
Packing problem 79

• www.packomania.com (http://www.packomania.com/) A site with tables, graphs, calculators, references, etc.

• "Box Packing" (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BoxPacking/) by Ed Pegg, Jr., the Wolfram
Demonstrations Project, 2007.
• Best known packings of equal circles in a circle, up to 1100 (http://hydra.nat.uni-magdeburg.de/packing/cci/
cci.html#overview)
• Solving packaging problem in PHP (http://www.phpqa.in/2010/10/solving-packaging-problem-in-php.html)

Poiesis
Poïesis is etymologically derived from the ancient Greek term ποιέω, which means "to make". This word, the root of
our modern "poetry", was first a verb, an action that transforms and continues the world. Neither technical
production nor creation in the romantic sense, poïetic work reconciles thought with matter and time, and man with
the world. It is often used as a suffix as in the biology terms hematopoiesis and erythropoiesis, the former being the
general formation of blood cells and the latter being the formation of red blood cells specifically.
In the Symposium (a Socratic dialogue written by Plato), Diotima describes how mortals strive for immortality in
relation to poieses. In all begetting and bringing forth upon the beautiful there is a kind of making/creating or poiesis.
In this genesis there is a movement beyond the temporal cycle of birth and decay. "Such a movement can occur in
three kinds of poiesis: (1) Natural poiesis through sexual procreation, (2) poiesis in the city through the attainment of
heroic fame and finally, and (3) poiesis in the soul through the cultivation of virtue and knowledge."[1]
Martin Heidegger refers to it as a 'bringing-forth', using this term in its widest sense. He explained poiesis as the
blooming of the blossom, the coming-out of a butterfly from a cocoon, the plummeting of a waterfall when the snow
begins to melt. The last two analogies underline Heidegger's example of a threshold occasion: a moment of ecstasis
when something moves away from its standing as one thing to become another.

References
[1] Robert Cavalier, "The Nature of Eros," http:/ / caae. phil. cmu. edu/ Cavalier/ 80250/ Plato/ Symposium/ Sym2. html

External links
• Overview of Plato's Symposium (http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80250/Plato/Symposium/Sym2.html)
• Original Transcript of Symposium (http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/symposium.html)
Praxis (process) 80

Praxis (process)
So, I tried to do a kind of semantic clarification in which praxis—if not on the thither side of this divide—was perhaps somehow between
the theoretical and the practical as they are generally understood, and particularly as they are understood in modern philosophy. Praxis as
the manner in which we are engaged in the world and with others has its own insight or understanding prior to any explicit formulation of
that understanding...Of course, it must be understood that praxis, as I understand it, is always entwined with communication.
[1]
—Calvin O. Schrag.

Praxis is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted or practiced, embodied and/or realized. "Praxis"
may also refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas. This has been a popular
topic in the field of philosophy, as Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Marx,
Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, and many others, have written about this topic. It has meaning in political,
educational, and spiritual realms.

Origins
In Ancient Greek the word praxis (πρᾶξις) referred to activity engaged in by free men. Aristotle held that there were
three basic activities of man: theoria, poiesis and praxis. There corresponded to these kinds of activity three types of
knowledge: theoretical, to which the end goal was truth; poietical, to which the end goal was production; and
practical, to which the end goal was action. Aristotle further divided practical knowledge into ethics, economics and
politics. He also distinguished between eupraxia (good praxis) and dyspraxia (bad praxis, misfortune).

Marxism
The 19th century socialist Antonio Labriola called Marxism the Philosophy of praxis. Marx himself also alluded to
this concept in his Theses on Feuerbach when he stated that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various
ways; the point is to change it." Simply put, Marx felt that philosophy's validity was in how it informed action.
Georg Lukács held that the task of political organization is to establish professional discipline over everyday
political praxis, consciously designing the form of mediation best suited to clear interactions between theory and
practice.

Hannah Arendt
In her The Human Condition, Hannah Arendt argues that Western philosophy too often has focused on the
contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and has neglected the active life (vita activa). This has led humanity to
frequently miss much of the everyday relevance of philosophical ideas to real life.[2] [3] Arendt calls “praxis” the
highest and most important level of the active life.[4] Thus, she argues that more philosophers need to engage in
everyday political action or praxis, which she sees as the true realization of human freedom.[5] According to Arendt,
our capacity to analyze ideas, wrestle with them, and engage in active praxis is what makes us uniquely human.
"Arendt's theory of action and her revival of the ancient notion of praxis represent one of the most original
contributions to twentieth century political thought."[6] "Moreover, by viewing action as a mode of human
togetherness, Arendt is able to develop a conception of participatory democracy which stands in direct contrast to the
bureaucratized and elitist forms of politics so characteristic of the modern epoch."[7]
Praxis (process) 81

Education
Praxis is used by educators to describe a recurring passage through a cyclical process of experiential learning, such
as the cycle described and popularised by David A. Kolb.[8]
Paulo Freire defines praxis in Pedagogy of the Oppressed as "reflection and action upon the world in order to
transform it." Through praxis, oppressed people can acquire a critical awareness of their own condition, and, with
their allies, struggle for liberation.[9]
In the BBC television documentary "New Order: Play At Home", Factory Records owner Tony Wilson describes
praxis as "doing something, and then only afterwards, finding out why you did it".
Praxis is also used in schools of community education, basically, practise and reflection.

Spirituality
Praxis is also key in meditation and spirituality, where emphasis is placed on gaining first-hand experience of
concepts and certain areas, such as union with the Divine, which can only be explored through praxis due to the
inability of the finite mind (and its tool, language) to comprehend or express the infinite. In an interview for YES!
Magazine, Matthew Fox explained it this way:
Wisdom is always taste -- in both Latin and Hebrew, the word for wisdom comes from the word for taste -- so
it's something to taste, not something to theorize about. "Taste and see that God is good," the psalm says; and
that's wisdom: tasting life. No one can do it for us. The mystical tradition is very much a Sophia tradition. It is
about tasting and trusting experience, before institution or dogma.[10]
According to Strong's Hebrew dictionary, the Hebrew word, ta‛am, is; properly a taste, that is, (figuratively)
perception; by implication intelligence; transitively a mandate: - advice, behaviour, decree, discretion, judgment,
reason, taste, understanding.

Organizations
While praxis usually refers to the process of putting theoretical knowledge into practice, the strategic and
organizational usage of the word emphasizes the need for a constant cycle of conceptualizing the meanings of what
can be learned from experience in order to reframe strategic and operational models.

Social work
In social work theory, praxis is the reflexive relationship between theories and action. It describes a cyclical process
of social work interactions developing new theories and refining old ones, as well as theories directing the delivery
of social work interactions.

Notes
[1] Ramsey, Ramsey Eric; Miller, David James (2003). Experiences between philosophy and communication: engaging the philosophical
contributions of Calvin O. Schrag (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Id7NornoMI8C). SUNY Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780791458754. .
Retrieved 1 August 2010.
[2] Yar, Majid, (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ arendt/ ), The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[3] Fry, Karin, (http:/ / www. women-philosophers. com/ Arendt. html), Arendt, Hannah in Women-philosophers.com.
[4] Fry, Karin, (http:/ / www. women-philosophers. com/ Arendt. html), Arendt, Hannah in Women-philosophers.com.
[5] Yar, Majid, (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ arendt/ ), The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[6] .d'Entreves, Maurizio Passerin (2006), (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ arendt/ #AreTheAct),Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[7] .d'Entreves, Maurizio Passerin (2006), (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ arendt/ #AreTheAct),Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[8] Kolb, D., david a. kolb on experiential learning (http:/ / www. infed. org/ biblio/ b-explrn. htm), Informal Education Encyclopedia.
[9] Freire, P. (1986) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. p. 36
[10] Holy Impatience: an interview with Matthew Fox (http:/ / www. yesmagazine. org/ article. asp?ID=1323), YES! Magazine.
Praxis (process) 82

Further reading
• Paulo Freire (1970), Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN.

External links
• Entry for praxis at the Encyclopaedia of Informal Education (http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-praxis.htm).
• Der Begriff Praxis (http://kaltric.de/mat/matphil/der-begriff-praxis/)

Semantic similarity
Semantic similarity or semantic relatedness is a concept whereby a set of documents or terms within term lists are
assigned a metric based on the likeness of their meaning / semantic content.
Concretely, this can be achieved for instance by defining a topological similarity, by using ontologies to define a
distance between words (a naive metric for terms arranged as nodes in a directed acyclic graph like a hierarchy
would be the minimal distance—in separating edges—between the two term nodes), or using statistical means such
as a vector space model to correlate words and textual contexts from a suitable text corpus (co-occurrence).

Taxonomy
The concept of semantic similarity is more specific than semantic relatedness, as the latter includes concepts as
antonymy and meronymy, while similarity does not .[1] However, much of the literature uses these terms
interchangeably, along with terms like semantic distance. In essence, semantic similarity, semantic distance, and
semantic relatedness all mean, "How much does term A have to do with term B?" The answer to this question is
usually a number between -1 and 1, or between 0 and 1, where 1 signifies extremely high similarity/relatedness, and
0 signifies little-to-none.

Visualisation
An intuitive way of visualising the semantic similarity of terms is by grouping together closer related terms and
spacing more distantly related ones wider apart. This is also common - if sometime subconscious - practice for mind
maps and concept maps.

Applications

Biomedical Informatics
Semantic similarity measures have been applied and developed in biomedical ontologies,[2] [3] namely, the Gene
Ontology (GO). They are mainly used to compare genes and proteins based on the similarity of their functions rather
than on their sequence similarity, but they are also being extended to other bioentities, such as chemical
compounds[4] and diseases.[5]
These comparisons can be done using tools freely available on the web:
• ProteInOn [6] can be used to find interacting proteins, find assigned GO terms and calculate the functional
semantic similarity of UniProt proteins and to get the information content and calculate the functional semantic
similarity of GO terms.
• CMPSim [7] provides a functional similarity measure between chemical compounds and metabolic pathways
using ChEBI based semantic similarity measures.
• CESSM [8] provides a tool for the automated evaluation of GO-based semantic similarity measures.
Semantic similarity 83

GeoInformatics
Similarity is also applied to find similar geographic features or feature types:
• SIM-DL similarity server [9] can be used to compute similarities between concepts stored in geographic feature
type ontologies.
• Geo-Net-PT Similarity Calculator [10] can be used to compute how well related two geographic concepts are in
the Geo-Net-PT ontology [11].

Linguistics
Several metrics use WordNet: (+) humanly constructed; (−) humanly constructed (not automatically learned), cannot
measure relatedness between multi-word term, non-incremental vocabulary

Measures

Topological similarity
There are essentially two types of approaches that calculate topological similarity between ontological concepts:
• Edge-based: which use the edges and their types as the data source;
• Node-based: in which the main data sources are the nodes and their properties.
Other measures calculate the similarity between ontological instances:
• Pairwise: measure functional similarity between two instances by combining the semantic similarities of the
concepts they represent
• Groupwise: calculate the similarity directly not combining the semantic similarities of the concepts they represent
Some examples:

Edge-based
• Pekar, Viktor; Staab, Steffen (2002). Taxonomy learning. 1. pp. 1. doi:10.3115/1072228.1072318.
• Cheng, J; Cline, M; Martin, J; Finkelstein, D; Awad, T; Kulp, D; Siani-Rose, MA (2004). "A knowledge-based
clustering algorithm driven by Gene Ontology". Journal of biopharmaceutical statistics 14 (3): 687–700.
doi:10.1081/BIP-200025659. PMID 15468759.
• Wu, H; Su, Z; Mao, F; Olman, V; Xu, Y (2005). "Prediction of functional modules based on comparative genome
analysis and Gene Ontology application". Nucleic acids research 33 (9): 2822–37. doi:10.1093/nar/gki573.
PMC 1130488. PMID 15901854.
• Del Pozo, Angela; Pazos, Florencio; Valencia, Alfonso (2008). "Defining functional distances over Gene
Ontology". BMC Bioinformatics 9: 50. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-9-50. PMC 2375122. PMID 18221506.
• IntelliGO: Benabderrahmane, Sidahmed; Smail Tabbone, Malika; Poch, Olivier; Napoli, Amedeo; Devignes,
Marie-Domonique. (2010). "IntelliGO: a new vector-based semantic similarity measure including annotation
origin". Biomed Central 11: 588. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-11-588. PMID 21122125.
Semantic similarity 84

Node-based
• Resnik [12]
• based on the notion of information content
• Lin [13]
• Jiang and Conrath [14]
• GraSM: Graph-based Similarity Measure

Pairwise
• maximum of the pairwise similarities
• composite average in which only the best-matching pairs are considered (best-match average)

Groupwise
• Jaccard index
• simGIC [15]
• simLP [16]
• simUI [16]

Statistical similarity
• LSA (Latent semantic analysis) (+) vector-based, adds vectors to measure multi-word terms; (−) non-incremental
vocabulary, long pre-processing times
• PMI (Pointwise mutual information) (+) large vocab, because it uses any search engine (like Google); (−) cannot
measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents
• SOC-PMI (Second-order co-occurrence pointwise mutual information) (+) sort lists of important neighbor words
from a large corpus; (−) cannot measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents
• GLSA (Generalized Latent Semantic Analysis) (+) vector-based, adds vectors to measure multi-word terms; (−)
non-incremental vocabulary, long pre-processing times
• ICAN (Incremental Construction of an Associative Network) (+) incremental, network-based measure, good for
spreading activation, accounts for second-order relatedness; (−) cannot measure relatedness between multi-word
terms, long pre-processing times
• NGD (Normalized Google distance) (+) large vocab, because it uses any search engine (like Google); (−) cannot
measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents
• ESA (Explicit Semantic Analysis) [17] based on Wikipedia and the ODP
• n° of Wikipedia (noW) [18], inspired by the game Six Degrees of Wikipedia [19], is a distance metric based on the
hierarchical structure of Wikipedia. A directed-acyclic graph is first constructed and later, Dijkstra's shortest path
algorithm is employed to determine the noW value between two terms as the geodesic distance between the
corresponding topics (i.e. nodes) in the graph. Demo is available here [20].
• VGEM [21] (Vector Generation of an Explicitly-defined Multidimensional Semantic Space) (+) incremental
vocab, can compare multi-word terms (−) performance depends on choosing specific dimensions
• BLOSSOM [22] (Best path Length On a Semantic Self-Organizing Map) (+) uses a Self Organizing Map to reduce
high dimensional spaces, can use different vector representations (VGEM or word-document matrix), provides
'concept path linking' from one word to another (−) highly experimental, requires nontrivial SOM calculation
• SimRank
Semantic similarity 85

Notes
[1] Budanitsky, Alexander; Hirst, Graeme (2001). "Semantic distance in WordNet: An experimental, application-oriented evaluation of five
measures". Workshop on WordNet and Other Lexical Resources, Second meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association for
Computational Linguistics. Pittsburgh
[2] Pesquita, Catia; Faria, Daniel; Falcão, André O.; Lord, Phillip; Couto, Francisco M. (2009). Bourne, Philip E.. ed. "Semantic Similarity in
Biomedical Ontologies". PLoS Computational Biology 5 (7): e1000443. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000443. PMC 2712090. PMID 19649320.
[3] Benabderrahmane, Sidahmed; Smail Tabbone, Malika; Poch, Olivier; Napoli, Amedeo; Devignes, Marie-Domonique. (2010). "IntelliGO: a
new vector-based semantic similarity measure including annotation origin". Biomed Central 11: 588. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-11-588.
PMID 21122125.
[4] Ferreira, João D.; Couto, Francisco M. (2010). Mitchell, John B. O.. ed. "Semantic Similarity for Automatic Classification of Chemical
Compounds". PLoS Computational Biology 6 (9): e1000937. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000937. PMC 2944781. PMID 20885779.
[5] Köhler, S; Schulz, MH; Krawitz, P; Bauer, S; Dolken, S; Ott, CE; Mundlos, C; Horn, D et al. (2009). "Clinical diagnostics in human genetics
with semantic similarity searches in ontologies". American journal of human genetics 85 (4): 457–64. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.09.003.
PMC 2756558. PMID 19800049.
[6] http:/ / xldb. fc. ul. pt/ biotools/ proteinon/
[7] http:/ / xldb. di. fc. ul. pt/ biotools/ cmpsim/
[8] http:/ / xldb. fc. ul. pt/ biotools/ cessm/
[9] http:/ / sim-dl. sourceforge. net/
[10] http:/ / xldb. fc. ul. pt/ wiki/ Geographic_Similarity_calculator_GeoSSM
[11] http:/ / xldb. fc. ul. pt/ wiki/ Geo-Net-PT_02_in_English
[12] Philip Resnik. 1995. Using information content to evaluate semantic similarity in a taxonomy. In Proceedings of the 14th international joint
conference on Artificial intelligence - Volume 1 (IJCAI'95), Chris S. Mellish (Ed.), Vol. 1. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., San Francisco,
CA, USA, 448-453
[13] Dekang Lin. 1998. An Information-Theoretic Definition of Similarity. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Conference on Machine
Learning (ICML '98), Jude W. Shavlik (Ed.). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA, 296-304
[14] J. J. Jiang and D. W. Conrath. Semantic Similarity Based on Corpus Statistics and Lexical Taxonomy. In International Conference Research
on Computational Linguistics (ROCLING X), pages 9008+, September

1997
[15] Catia Pesquita, Daniel Faria, Hugo Bastos, António Ferreira, Andre O Falcao, Francisco Couto 2008: Metrics for GO based protein semantic
similarity: a systematic evaluation. BMC Bioinformatics Suppl 5(9), S4
[16] http:/ / www. bioconductor. org/
[17] http:/ / www. cs. technion. ac. il/ ~gabr/ papers/ ijcai-2007-sim. pdf
[18] http:/ / doi. acm. org/ 10. 1145/ 1232425. 1232448
[19] http:/ / chronicle. com/ wiredcampus/ article/ 3041/ six-degrees-of-wikipedia
[20] http:/ / explorer. csse. uwa. edu. au/ research/ algorithm_now. pl
[21] http:/ / www. cogsci. rpi. edu/ vekslv/ pubs/ pp718-veksler. pdf
[22] http:/ / www. cogsci. rpi. edu/ cogworks/ publications/ 270_BLOSSOM_final. pdf

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• Cilibrasi, R. & Vitanyi, P.M.B. (2006). Similarity of objects and the meaning of words. Proc. 3rd Conf. Theory
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• Dumais, S. (2003). Data-driven approaches to information access. Cognitive Science, 27(3), 491-524.
• Gabrilovich, E. and Markovitch, S. (2007). Computing Semantic Relatedness using Wikipedia-based Explicit
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• Juvina, I., van Oostendorp, H., Karbor, P., & Pauw, B. (2005). Towards modeling contextual information in web
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• Kaur, I. & Hornof, A.J. (2005). A Comparison of LSA, WordNet and PMI for Predicting User Click Behavior.
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• Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of
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• Landauer, T. K., Foltz, P. W., & Laham, D. (1998). Introduction to Latent Semantic Analysis. Discourse
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• Veksler, V.D. & Gray, W.D. (2006). Test Case Selection for Evaluating Measures of Semantic Distance.
Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, CogSci2006.
• Wong, W., Liu, W. & Bennamoun, M. (2008) Featureless Data Clustering. In: M. Song and Y. Wu; Handbook of
Research on Text and Web Mining Technologies; IGI Global. [isbn: 978-1-59904-990-8] (the use of NGD and
noW for term and URI clustering)
• Couto, F., Silva, M., & Coutinho, P. (2003). Implementation of a functional semantic similarity measure between
gene-products (http://hdl.handle.net/10455/2935). DI/FCUL TR 03–29, University of Lisbon
• Couto, F., Silva, M., & Coutinho, P. (2005). Semantic similarity over the gene ontology: Family correlation and
selecting disjunctive ancestors (http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1099554.1099658). In Proc. Of the ACM
Conference in Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM)
• Couto, F., Silva, M., & Coutinho, P. (2007). Measuring semantic similarity between Gene Ontology terms (http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.datak.2006.05.003). Data and Knowledge Engineering, 61:137–152
• Pesquita, C., Faria, D., Falcão, A., Lord, P., & Couto, F. (2009). Semantic similarity in biomedical ontologies
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000443). PLoS Computational Biology, 5:e1000443
• Ferreira, J. & Couto, F. (2010). Semantic similarity for automatic classification of chemical compounds (http://
dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000937). PLoS Computational Biolology 6(9): e1000937, 2010
Semantic similarity 87

External links
• Measures of Semantic Relatedness (MRS) (http://cwl-projects.cogsci.rpi.edu/msr/)
• WordNet-Similarity (http://wn-similarity.sourceforge.net), an open source package for computing the similarity
and relatedness of concepts found in WordNet
• List of related literature (http://www.similarity-blog.de/?page_id=3)
• WordNet::Similarity (http://www.d.umn.edu/~tpederse/similarity.html) (using WordNet as an ontology)
• WordNet Explorer (http://wordventure.eti.pg.gda.pl/WordnetTG.html) (interactive graphic WordNet
database editor)
• Similarity-based Learning Methods for the Semantic Web (http://www.di.uniba.it/~cdamato/
PhDThesis_dAmato.pdf) (C. d'Amato, PhD Thesis)
• Survey on Semantic Similarity Measures (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1434078) (C. d'Amato, S.
Staab, N. Fanizzi, EKAW 2008, Springer-Verlag)
• Algorithm, Implementation and Application of the SIM-DL Similarity Server (http://www.personal.psu.edu/
kuj13/janowicz_etal_simdl_geos2007.pdf) (Introduction to the SIM-DL Similarity Server)

Serendipity
Serendipity is when you find something that you were not expecting to find. The word has been voted as one of the
ten English words that were hardest to translate in June 2004 by a British translation company.[1] However, due to its
sociological use, the word has been exported into many other languages.[2]

Etymology
The first noted use of "serendipity" in the English language was by
Horace Walpole (1717–1792). In a letter to Horace Mann (dated
January 28th 1754) he said he formed it from the Persian fairy tale The
Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes "were always making
discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things they were not in quest
of". The name stems either from Serendip, an old name for Ceylon
(modern Sri Lanka), or from Arabic Sarandib, or from Sanskrit
The intended subject of the photograph was a
Simhaladvipa which literally translates to "Dwelling-Place-of-Lions perched Black-crowned Night Heron; the
Island"[3] photographer discovered later that the image
serendipitously included a Pileated Woodpecker.

Role in science and technology

One aspect of Walpole's original definition of serendipity that is often missed in modern discussions of the word is
the "sagacity" of being able to link together apparently innocuous facts to come to a valuable conclusion. Thus, while
some scientists and inventors are reluctant about reporting accidental discoveries, others openly admit its role; in fact
serendipity is a major component of scientific discoveries and inventions. According to M. K. Stoskopf[4] "it should
be recognized that serendipitous discoveries are of significant value in the advancement of science and often present
the foundation for important intellectual leaps of understanding".

The amount of benefit contributed by serendipitous discoveries varies extensively among the several scientific
disciplines. Pharmacology and chemistry are probably the fields where serendipity is more common.
Most authors who have studied scientific serendipity both in a historical, as well as in an epistemological point of
view, agree that a prepared and open mind is required on the part of the scientist or inventor to detect the importance
of information revealed accidentally. This is the reason why most of the related accidental discoveries occur in the
Serendipity 88

field of specialization of the scientist. About this, Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist who discovered LSD
properties by unintentionally ingesting it at his lab, wrote
It is true that my discovery of LSD was a chance discovery, but it was the outcome of planned
experiments and these experiments took place in the framework of systematic pharmaceutical, chemical
research. It could better be described as serendipity.
Another example of serendipity in science is associated with Alexander Fleming and his discovery of penicillin
against the serious diseases at the time. He accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open and a mold
had got inside which had appeared to have killed around the bacteria. It turned out that it was the fungus Penicillium
and he turned the fungus into a groundbreaking anti-biotic.
The French scientist Louis Pasteur also famously said: "In the fields of observation chance favors only the prepared
mind."[5] This is often rendered as "Chance favors the prepared mind." William Shakespeare expressed the same
sentiment 250 years earlier in act 4 of his play Henry V: "All things are ready if our minds be so."
History, of course, does not record accidental exposures of information which could have resulted - but did not - in a
new discovery, and we are justified in suspecting that they are many. There are several examples of this, however,
and prejudice of preformed concepts is probably the largest obstacle. See for example[6] for a case where this
happened (the rejection of an accidental discovery in the field of self-stimulation of the limbic system in humans).

Role in business and strategy

M. E. Graebner describes serendipitous value in the context of the acquisition of a business as "windfalls that were
not anticipated by the buyer prior to the deal": i.e., unexpected advantages or benefits incurred due to positive
synergy effects of the merger. Ikujiro Nonaka (1991,p. 94 November–December issue of HBR) points out that the
serendipitous quality of innovation is highly recognized by managers and links the success of Japanese enterprises to
their ability to create knowledge not by processing information but rather by "tapping the tacit and often highly
subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches of individual employees and making those insights available for testing
and use by the company as a whole".
Serendipity is a key concept in Competitive Intelligence because it is one of the tools for avoiding Blind Spots (see
Blindspots analysis)[7]

Examples in science and technology

Chemistry
• The German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz having a reverie of Ourobouros, a snake forming a
circle, leading to his solution of the closed chemical structure of cyclic compounds, such as benzene.
• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (or LSD) by Albert Hofmann, who found this potent hallucinogen while trying to
find medically useful derivatives in ergot, a fungus growing on wheat.
• Gelignite by Alfred Nobel, when he accidentally mixed collodium (gun cotton) with nitroglycerin
• Polymethylene by Hans von Pechmann, who prepared it by accident in 1898 while heating diazomethane
• Low density polyethylene by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at the ICI works in Northwich, England. It was
the first industrially practical polyethylene synthesis and was discovered (again by accident) in 1933
• Silly Putty by James Wright, on the way to solving another problem: finding a rubber substitute for the United
States during World War II.
• Chemical synthesis of urea, by Friedrich Woehler. He was attempting to produce ammonium cyanate by mixing
potassium cyanate and ammonium chloride and got urea, the first organic chemical to be synthesised, often called
the 'Last Nail' of the coffin of the Élan vital Theory
Serendipity 89

• Pittacal, the first synthetic dyestuff, by Carl Ludwig Reichenbach. The dark blue dye appeared on wooden posts
painted with creosote to drive away dogs who urinated on them.
• Mauve, the first aniline dye, by William Henry Perkin. At the age of 18, he was attempting to create artificial
quinine. An unexpected residue caught his eye, which turned out to be the first aniline dye—specifically,
mauveine, sometimes called aniline purple.
• Racemization, by Louis Pasteur. While investigating the properties of sodium ammonium tartrate he was able to
separate for the first time the two optical isomers of the salt. His luck was twofold: it is the only racemate salt to
have this property, and the room temperature that day was slightly below the point of separation.
• Teflon, by Roy J. Plunkett, who was trying to develop a new gas for refrigeration and got a slick substance
instead, which was used first for lubrication of machine parts
• Cyanoacrylate-based Superglue (a.k.a. Krazy Glue) was accidentally twice discovered by Dr. Harry Coover, first
when he was developing a clear plastic for gunsights and later, when he was trying to develop a heat-resistant
polymer for jet canopies.
• Scotchgard, is a 3M brand of products used to protect fabric, furniture, and carpets from stains, was discovered
accidentally in 1953 by Patsy Sherman. One of the compounds she was investigating as a rubber material that
wouldn't deteriorate when in contact with aircraft fuel spilled onto a tennis shoe and would not wash out; she then
considered the spill as a protectant against spills.
• Cellophane, a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose, was developed in 1908 by Swiss chemist
Jacques Brandenberger, as a material for covering stain-proof tablecloth.
• The chemical element helium. British chemist William Ramsay isolated helium while looking for argon but, after
separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, noticed a bright-yellow spectral line that
matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun.
• The chemical element Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811, when he was trying to remove
residues with strong acid from the bottom of his saltpeter production plant which used seaweed ashes as a prime
material.
• Polycarbonates, a kind of clear hard plastic
• The synthetic polymer celluloid was discovered by British chemist and metallurgist Alexander Parkes in 1856,
after observing that a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion.
Celluloid can be described as the first plastic used for making solid objects (the first ones being billiard balls,
substituting for expensive ivory).
• Rayon, the first synthetic silk, was discovered by French chemist Hilaire de Chardonnet, an assistant to Louis
Pasteur. He spilled a bottle of collodion and found later that he could draw thin strands from the evaporated
viscous liquid.
• The possibility of synthesizing indigo, a natural dye extracted from a plant with the same name, was discovered
by a chemist named Sapper who was heating coal tar when he accidentally broke a thermometer whose mercury
content acted as a catalyst to produce phthalic anhydride, which could readily be converted into indigo.
• The dye monastral blue was discovered in 1928 in Scotland, when chemist A. G. Dandridge heated a mixture of
chemicals at high temperature in a sealed iron container. The iron of the container reacted with the mixture,
producing some pigments called phthalocyanines. By substituting copper for iron he produced an even better
pigment called 'monastral blue', which became the basis for many new coloring materials for paints, lacquers and
printing inks.
• Acesulfame, an artificial sweetener, was discovered accidentally in 1967 by Karl Claus at Hoechst AG.
• Another sweetener, cyclamate, was discovered by graduate student Michael Sveda, when he smoked a cigarette
accidentally contaminated with a compound he had recently synthesized.
• Aspartame (NutraSweet) was accidentally discovered by G.D. Searle & Company chemist James M. Schlatter,
who was trying to develop a test for an anti-ulcer drug.
• Saccharin was accidentally discovered during research on coal tar derivatives.
Serendipity 90

• Saran (plastic) was discovered when Ralph Wiley had trouble washing beakers used in development of a dry
cleaning product. It was soon used to make plastic wrap.
• A new blue pigment with almost perfect properties was discovered accidentally by scientists at Oregon State
University after heating manganese oxide.[8]

Pharmacology
• Penicillin by Alexander Fleming. He failed to disinfect cultures of bacteria when leaving for his vacations, only to
find them contaminated with Penicillium molds, which killed the bacteria. However, he had previously done
extensive research into antibacterial substances.
• The psychedelic effects of LSD by Albert Hofmann. A chemist, he unintentionally absorbed a small amount of it
upon investigating its properties, and had the first acid trip in history, while cycling to his home in Switzerland;
this is commemorated among LSD users annually as Bicycle Day.
• 5-fluorouracil's therapeutic action on actinic keratosis, was initially investigated for its anti-cancer actions
• Minoxidil's action on baldness; originally it was an oral agent for treating hypertension. It was observed that bald
patients treated with it grew hair too.
• Viagra (sildenafil citrate), an anti-impotence drug. It was initially studied for use in hypertension and angina
pectoris. Phase I clinical trials under the direction of Ian Osterloh suggested that the drug had little effect on
angina, but that it could induce marked penile erections.
• Retin-A anti-wrinkle action. It was a vitamin A derivative first used for treating acne. The accidental result in
some older people was a reduction of wrinkles on the face
• The libido-enhancing effect of l-dopa, a drug used for treating Parkinson's disease. Older patients in a sanatorium
had their long-lost interest in sex suddenly revived.
• The first anti-psychotic drug, chlorpromazine, was discovered by French pharmacologist Henri Laborit. He
wanted to add an anti-histaminic to a pharmacological combination to prevent surgical shock and noticed that
patients treated with it were unusually calm before the operation.
• The first antidepressants (not including agents used prior to the 1950s), imipramine and iproniazid were the result
of researching the actions of these drugs in schizophrenics (imipramine), as well as in the treatment of patients
afflicted with tuberculosis (iproniazid).
• The anti-cancer drug cisplatin was discovered by Barnett Rosenberg. He wanted to explore what he thought was
an inhibitory effect of an electric field on the growth of bacteria. It was rather due to an electrolysis product of the
platinum electrode he was using.
• The anesthetic nitrous oxide (laughing gas). Initially well known for inducing altered behavior (hilarity), its
properties were discovered when British chemist Humphry Davy tested the gas on himself and some of his
friends, and soon realised that nitrous oxide considerably dulled the sensation of pain, even if the inhaler was still
semi-conscious.
• Mustine – a derivative of mustard gas (a chemical weapon), used for the treatment of some forms of cancer. In
1943, physicians noted that the white cell counts of US soldiers, accidentally exposed when a cache of mustard
gas shells were bombed in Bari, Italy, decreased, and mustard gas was investigated as a therapy for Hodgkin's
lymphoma.
• Prontosil, an antibiotic of the sulfa group was an azo dye. German chemists at Bayer had the wrong idea that
selective chemical stains of bacteria would show specific antibacterial activity. Prontosil had it, but in fact it was
due to another substance metabolised from it in the body, sulfanilimide.
Serendipity 91

Medicine and biology

• Bioelectricity, by Luigi Galvani. He was dissecting a frog at a table where he had been conducting experiments
with static electricity. His assistant touched an exposed sciatic nerve of the frog with a metal scalpel which had
picked up a charge, provoking a muscle contraction.
• Neural control of blood vessels, by Claude Bernard
• Anaphylaxis, by Charles Richet. When he tried to reuse dogs that had previously shown allergic reactions to sea
anemone toxin, the reactions developed much faster and were more severe the second time.
• The role of the pancreas in glucose metabolism, by Oskar Minkowski. Dogs that had their pancreas removed for
an unrelated physiological investigation urinated profusely; the urine also attracted flies, signaling its high
glucose content.
• Coronary catheterization was discovered as a method when a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic accidentally
injected radiocontrast into the coronary artery instead of the left ventricle.
• The mydriatic effects of belladonna extracts, by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge
• Interferon, an antiviral factor, was discovered accidentally by two Japanese virologists, Yasu-ichi Nagano and
Yasuhiko Kojima while trying to develop an improved vaccine for smallpox.
• The hormone melatonin was discovered in 1917 when it was shown that extract of bovine pineal glands lightened
frog skin. In 1958 its chemical structure was defined by Aaron B. Lerner and in the mid-70s it was demonstrated
that also in humans the production of melatonin exhibits and influences a circadian rhythm.

Physics and astronomy

• The quite possibly apocryphal story of Archimedes' prototypical cry of Eureka when he realised in the bathtub
that a body's displacement water allowed him to measure the weight-to-volume ratio of any irregularly shaped
body, such as a gold crown.
• Isaac Newton's famed apple falling from a tree, supposedly leading to his musings about the nature of gravitation.
• Discovery of the planet Uranus by William Herschel. Herschel was looking for comets, and initially identified
Uranus as a comet until he noticed the circularity of its orbit and its distance and suggested that it was a planet,
the first one discovered since antiquity.
• Infrared radiation, again by William Herschel, while investigating the temperature differences between different
colors of visible light by dispersing sunlight into a spectrum using a glass prism. He put thermometers into the
different visible colors where he expected a temperature increase, and one as a control to measure the ambient
temperature in the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum. The thermometer beyond the red unexpectedly
showed a higher temperature than the others, showing that there was non-visible radiation beyond the red end of
the visible spectrum.
• The thermoelectric effect was discovered accidentally by Estonian physicist Thomas Seebeck in 1821, who found
that a voltage developed between the two ends of a metal bar when it was submitted to a difference of
temperature.
• Electromagnetism, by Hans Christian Ørsted. While he was setting up his materials for a lecture, he noticed a
compass needle deflecting from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was
switched on and off.
• Radioactivity, by Henri Becquerel. While trying to investigate phosphorescent materials using photographic
plates, he stumbled upon uranium.
• X rays, by Wilhelm Roentgen. Interested in investigating cathodic ray tubes, he noted that some fluorescent
papers in his lab were illuminated at a distance although his apparatus had an opaque cover
• S. N. Bose discovered Bose-Einstein statistics when a mathematical error surprisingly explained anomalous data.
• The first demonstration of wave–particle duality during the Davisson–Germer experiment at Bell Labs after a
leak in the vacuum system and attempts to recover from it unknowingly altered the crystal structure of the nickel
target and led to the accidental experimental confirmation of the de Broglie hypothesis. Davisson went on to share
Serendipity 92

the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery.

• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, by Arno A. Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson. What they thought
was excess thermal noise in their antenna at Bell Labs was due to the CMBR.
• Cosmic gamma-ray bursts were discovered in the late 1960s by the US Vela satellites, which were built to detect
nuclear tests in the Soviet Union
• The rings of Uranus were discovered by astronomers James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Douglas J. Mink
on March 10, 1977. They planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 by Uranus to study the planet's
atmosphere, but found that the star disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it was eclipsed
by the planet. They deduced that a system of narrow rings was present.[9]
• Pluto's moon Charon was discovered by US astronomer James Christy in 1978. He was going to discard what he
thought was a defective photographic plate of Pluto, when his Star Scan machine broke down. While it was being
repaired he had time to study the plate again and discovered others in the archives with the same "defect" (a bulge
in the planet's image which was actually a large moon).
• High-temperature superconductivity was discovered serendipitously by physicists Johannes Georg Bednorz and
Karl Alexander Müller, ironically when they were searching for a material that would be a perfect electrical
insulator (nonconducting). They won the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics.
• Metallic hydrogen was found accidentally in March 1996 by a group of scientists at Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, after a 60-year search.
• A new method to create black silicon was developed in the lab of Eric Mazur.

Inventions
• Discovery of the principle behind inkjet printers by a Canon
engineer. After putting his hot soldering iron by accident on his pen,
ink was ejected from the pen's point a few moments later.
• Vulcanization of rubber, by Charles Goodyear. He accidentally left
a piece of rubber mixture with sulfur on a hot plate, and produced
vulcanized rubber
• Safety glass, by French scientist Edouard Benedictus. In 1903 he
accidentally knocked a glass flask to the floor and observed that the The chocolate chip cookie was invented through
broken pieces were held together by a liquid plastic that had serendipity.
evaporated and formed a thin film inside the flask.
• Corn flakes and wheat flakes (Wheaties) were accidentally discovered by the Kelloggs brothers in 1898, when
they left cooked wheat unattended for a day and tried to roll the mass, obtaining a flaky material instead of a
sheet.
• The microwave oven was invented by Percy Spencer while testing a magnetron for radar sets at Raytheon, he
noticed that a peanut candy bar in his pocket had melted when exposed to radar waves.
• Pyroceram (used to make Corningware, among other things) was invented by S. Donald Stookey, a chemist
working for the Corning company, who noticed crystallization in an improperly cooled batch of tinted glass.
• The Slinky was invented by US Navy engineer Richard T. James after he accidentally knocked a torsion spring
off his work table and observed its unique motion.
• Arthur Fry happened to attend a 3M college's seminar on a new "low-tack" adhesive and, wanting to anchor his
bookmarks in his hymnal at church, went on to invent Post-It Notes.
• Chocolate chip cookies were invented by Ruth Wakefield when she attempted to make chocolate drop cookies.
She did not have the required chocolate so she broke up a candy bar and placed the chunks into the cookie mix.
These chunks later morphed into what is now known as chocolate chip cookies.
Serendipity 93

Examples in exploration
Stories of accidental discovery in exploration abound, of course, because the aim of exploration is to find new things
and places. The principle of serendipity applies here, however, when the explorer had one aim in mind and found
another unexpectedly. In addition, discoveries have been made by people simply attempting to reach a known
destination but who departed from the customary or intended route for a variety of reasons. Some classical cases
were discoveries of the Americas by explorers with other aims.
• The first European to see the coast of North America was reputedly Bjarni Herjólfsson, who was blown off course
by a storm in 985 or 986 while trying to reach Greenland.
• Christopher Columbus was looking for a new way to India in 1492 and wound up landing in the Americas. Native
Americans were therefore called Indians.
• Although the first European to see and step on South America was Christopher Columbus in Northeast Venezuela
in 1498, Brazil was also discovered by accident, first by Spaniard Vicente Pinzon in 1499, who was only trying to
explore the West Indies previously discovered by him and Columbus, and stumbled upon the Northeast of Brazil,
in the region now known as Cabo de Santo Agostinho, in the state of Pernambuco. He also discovered the
Amazon and Oiapoque rivers.
• Pedro Álvares Cabral, a Portuguese admiral, who was sailing with his fleet to India via the South African route
discovered by Vasco da Gama, headed southwest to avoid the calms off the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, and so
encountered the coast of Brazil in 1500.

Uses of serendipity
Serendipity is used as a sociological method in Anselm L. Strauss' and Barney G. Glaser's Grounded Theory,
building on ideas by sociologist Robert K. Merton, who in Social Theory and Social Structure (1949) referred to the
"serendipity pattern" as the fairly common experience of observing an unanticipated, anomalous and strategic datum
which becomes the occasion for developing a new theory or for extending an existing theory. Robert K. Merton also
coauthored (with Elinor Barber) The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity[10] which traces the origins and uses of
the word "serendipity" since it was coined. The book is "a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of
science", as the subtitle of the book declares. It further develops the idea of serendipity as scientific "method" (as
juxtaposed with purposeful discovery by experiment or retrospective prophecy).

Related terms
William Boyd coined the term zemblanity to mean somewhat the opposite of serendipity: "making unhappy,
unlucky and expected discoveries occurring by design".[11] It derives from Novaya Zemlya (or Nova Zembla), a
cold, barren land with many features opposite to the lush Sri Lanka (Serendip). On this island Willem Barents and
his crew were stranded while searching for a new route to the east.
Bahramdipity is derived directly from Bahram Gur as characterized in the "The Three Princes of Serendip". It
describes the suppression of serendipitous discoveries or research results by powerful individuals.[12]
Serendipity 94

Notes
[2] For example: Portuguese serendipicidade or serendipidade; French sérendipicité or sérendipité but also heureux hasard, "fortunate chance";
Italian serendipità ( Italian Dictionary Hoepli, cfr. (http:/ / dizionari. hoepli. it/ Dizionario_Italiano/ parola/ serendipita. aspx?idD=1&
Query=serendipità& lettera=S); Dutch serendipiteit; German Serendipität; Japanese serendipiti (セレンディピティ); Swedish, Danish and
Norwegian serendipitet; Romanian serendipitate; Spanish serendipia, Polish: Serendypność; Finnish serendipiteetti
[3] "Serendipity" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=serendipity& searchmode=none). Etymonline.com. . Retrieved 1 November
2010. or from Swarna Dvipa which literally means Island of Gold. Also in Hungarian, one of the oldest written language in the World, the
word "szerncse" (sèrènchè) menas luck.
[4] Stosskopf, M. K. "Observation and cogitation: how serendipity provides the building blocks of scientific discovery" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm.
nih. gov/ entrez/ query. fcgi?db=pubmed& cmd=Retrieve& dopt=AbstractPlus& list_uids=16179740& query_hl=2&
itool=pubmed_DocSum). American College of Zoological Medicine, Wildlife and Aquatic Medicine and Environmental and Molecular
Toxicology. . Retrieved 1 November 2010.
[5] Original French, as at Louis Pasteur: Dans les champs de l'observation le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés.
[6] Baumeister, A.A. "Serendipity and the cerebral localization of pleasure" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ entrez/ query. fcgi?db=pubmed&
cmd=Retrieve& dopt=AbstractPlus& list_uids=16608738& query_hl=4& itool=pubmed_docsum). Department of Psychology, Louisiana
State University. . Retrieved 1 November 2010.
[7] Serendipity in Competitive Intelligence by [[Yves-Michel Marti (http:/ / www. egideria. com/ serendip. html)], Egideria]
[8] "Accidental Discovery Produces Durable New Blue Pigment for Multiple Applications" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 11/
091116143621. htm). Sciencedaily.com. 2009-11-19. . Retrieved 2010-05-31.
[9] Elliot, J.L.; Dunham, E. and Mink, D. (1977). "The rings of Uranus" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v267/ n5609/ abs/ 267328a0.
html). Nature 267: 328–330. doi:10.1038/267328a0. .
[10] Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003
[11] Boyd, William. Armadillo, Chapter 12, Knopf, New York, 1998. ISBN 0-375-40223-3
[12] (a) Sommer, Toby J. "'Bahramdipity' and Scientific Research", The Scientist, 1999, 13(3), 13. (http:/ / www. the-scientist. com/ yr1999/ feb/
opin_990201. html)
(b) Sommer, Toby J. "Bahramdipity and Nulltiple Scientific Discoveries," Science and Engineering Ethicss, 2001, 7(1), 77–104. (http:/ /
www. bmartin. cc/ dissent/ documents/ Sommer. pdf)

References
• "The view from Serendip", by Arthur C. Clarke, Random House, 1977.
• "Momentum and Serendipity: how acquired leaders create value in the integration of technology firms", by
Melissa E. Graebner, McCombs School of Business, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 2004.

Further reading
• Remer, Theodore G., ed (1965). Serendipity and the Three Princes, from the Peregrinaggio of 1557. Edited, with
an Introduction and Notes, by Theodore G. Remer. Preface by W. S. Lewis. University of Oklahoma Press. LCC
65-10112
• Merton, Robert K.; Barber, Elinor (2004). The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological
Semantics and the Sociology of Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691117543. (Manuscript written
1958).
• Hannan, Patrick J. (2006). Serendipity, Luck and Wisdom in Research. iUniverse. ISBN 0595365515.
• Roberts, Royston M. (1989). Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. Wiley. ISBN 0471602035.
• Andel, Pek Van (1994). "Anatomy of the unsought finding : serendipity: origin, history, domains, traditions,
appearances, patterns and programmability". British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 45 (2): 631–648.
doi:10.1093/bjps/45.2.631.
Serendipity 95

External links
• Polymers & Serendipity: Case Studies (http://www.thebakken.org/education/SciMathMN/
polymers-serendipity/polymer1.htm) – rayon, nylon, and more examples in chemistry
• Serendipity and the Internet (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/5018998.stm) from Bill Thompson at
the BBC
• Accidental discoveries (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/cancer/discoveries.html). PBS
• Serendipity of Science (http://www.simonsingh.net/Serendipity.html) – a BBC Radio 4 series by Simon Singh
• Top Ten: Accidental discoveries. Discovery Channel (http://web.archive.org/web/20071011073747/http://
exn.ca/stories/2004/04/19/51.asp) at the Wayback Machine (archived October 11, 2007).
• Accidental Genius Book (http://search.barnesandnoble.com/books/product.aspx?ean=9781435125575) -
anecdotes of serendipitous scientific discoveries.
• ACM Paper on Creating serendipitous encounters in a geographically distributed community (http://portal.acm.
org/citation.cfm?id=1178745.1178756).
• Serendipitous Information Retrieval : An Academic Research Publication by Elaine G. Toms (http://www.
ercim.org/publication/ws-proceedings/DelNoe01/3_Toms.pdf)
• Programming for Serendipity - AAAI Technical Report FS-02-01 (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract_id=1385402)
• The Serendipity Equations (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1380082)
• Psychology today's main article about serendipity (http://www.psychologytoday.com/magazine/archive/2010/
05)

Similarity (geometry)
Two geometrical objects are called similar
if they both have the same shape. More
precisely, one is congruent to the result of a
uniform scaling (enlarging or shrinking) of
the other. Corresponding sides of similar
polygons are in proportion, and
corresponding angles of similar polygons
have the same measure. One can be obtained
from the other by uniformly "stretching" the
same amount on all directions, possibly with
additional rotation and reflection, i.e., both
have the same shape, or one has the same
shape as the mirror image of the other. For
example, all circles are similar to each other, Shapes shown in the same color are similar
all squares are similar to each other, and all
equilateral triangles are similar to each other. On the other hand, ellipses are not all similar to each other, nor are
hyperbolas all similar to each other. If two angles of a triangle have measures equal to the measures of two angles of
another triangle, then the triangles are similar.

This article assumes that a scaling, enlargement or stretch can have a scale factor of 1, so that all congruent shapes
are also similar, but some school text books specifically exclude congruent triangles from their definition of similar
triangles by insisting that the sizes must be different to qualify as similar.
Similarity (geometry) 96

Similar triangles
To understand the concept of similarity of triangles, one must think of two different concepts. On the one hand there
is the concept of shape and on the other hand there is the concept of scale.
When you make a scale drawing you endeavour to preserve the shape of what you are drawing while at the same
time ensuring it is drawn accurately to scale.
In particular, similar triangles are triangles that have the same shape and are up to scale of one another. For a
triangle, the shape is determined by its angles, so the statement that two triangles have the same shape simply means
that there is a correspondence between angles that preserve their measures.
Formally speaking, we say that two triangles and are similar if either of the following
conditions holds:
1. Corresponding sides have lengths in the same ratio:

i.e. . This is equivalent to saying that one triangle is an enlargement of the other.

2. is equal in measure to , and is equal in measure to . This also implies that

is equal in measure to .
When two triangles and are similar, we write

The 'is similar to' symbol can also be expressed as three vertical lines: lll
This idea extends to similar polygons with more sides. Given any two similar polygons, corresponding sides are
proportional. However, proportionality of corresponding sides is not sufficient to prove similarity for polygons
beyond triangles (otherwise, for example, all rhombi would be similar). Corresponding angles must also be equal in
measure.

Angle/side similarities
The following three criteria are sufficient to prove that a pair of triangles are similar. In summary, they state that if
triangles have the same shape then they are to scale (AA criterion), and that if they are to scale then they have the
same shape (SSS). Another extra criterion, SAS, will also be explained below.
• AA: if two triangles have two corresponding pairs of angles with the same measure then they are similar.
Sometimes this criterion is also referred to as AAA because two angles of equal measure implies equality of the
third. This criterion means that if a triangle is copied to preserve the shape, then the copy is to scale.
• SSS / SSS~ / Three sides proportional : If the ratio of corresponding sides of two triangles does not depend on the
sides chosen, then the triangles are similar. This means that if any triangle copied to scale is also copied in shape.
• SAS / SAS~ / Ratio of two sides, included angle: if two sides are taken in a triangle, that are proportional to two
corresponding sides in another triangle, and the angles included between these sides have the same measure, then
the triangles are similar. This means that to enlarge a triangle, it is sufficient to copy one angle, and scale just the
two sides that form the angle.
Similarity (geometry) 97

Similar curves
Several other types curves are similar, with all examples of that type being similar to each other. These include:
• Parabola
• Catenary
• Graphs of the logarithm function for different bases
• Logarithmic spiral

Similarity in Euclidean space

One of the meanings of the terms similarity and similarity transformation (also called dilation) of a Euclidean
space is a function f from the space into itself that multiplies all distances by the same positive scalar r, so that for
any two points x and y we have

where "d(x,y)" is the Euclidean distance from x to y. Two sets are called similar if one is the image of the other
under such a similarity.
A special case is a homothetic transformation or central similarity: it neither involves rotation nor taking the mirror
image. A similarity is a composition of a homothety and an isometry. Therefore, in general Euclidean spaces every
similarity is an affine transformation, because the Euclidean group E(n) is a subgroup of the affine group.
Viewing the complex plane as a 2-dimensional space over the reals, the 2D similarity transformations expressed in
terms of the complex plane are and , and all affine transformations are of the
form (a, b, and c complex).

Similarity in general metric spaces

In a general metric space (X, d), an exact
similitude is a function f from the metric
space X into itself that multiplies all
distances by the same positive scalar r,
called f's contraction factor, so that for any
two points x and y we have

Sierpinski triangle. A space having self-similarity dimension ln 3 / ln 2 = log23,

which is approximately 1.58. (from Hausdorff dimension.)

Weaker versions of similarity would for instance have f be a bi-Lipschitz function and the scalar r a limit
Similarity (geometry) 98

This weaker version applies when the metric is an effective resistance on a topologically self-similar set.
A self-similar subset of a metric space (X, d) is a set K for which there exists a finite set of similitudes
with contraction factors such that K is the unique compact subset of X for which

These self-similar sets have a self-similar measure with dimension D given by the formula

which is often (but not always) equal to the set's Hausdorff dimension and packing dimension. If the overlaps
between the are "small", we have the following simple formula for the measure:

Topology
In topology, a metric space can be constructed by defining a similarity instead of a distance. The similarity is a
function such that its value is greater when two points are closer (contrary to the distance, which is a measure of
dissimilarity: the closer the points, the lesser the distance).
The definition of the similarity can vary among authors, depending on which properties are desired. The basic
common properties are
1. Positive defined:
2. Majored by the similarity of one element on itself (auto-similarity): and

More properties can be invoked, such as reflectivity ( ) or finiteness (

). The upper value is often set at 1 (creating a possibility for a probabilistic interpretation of
the similitude).

Self-similarity
Self-similarity means that a pattern is non-trivially similar to itself, e.g., the set {.., 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12,
..}. When this set is plotted on a logarithmic scale it has translational symmetry.

External links
• Animated demonstration of similar triangles [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. mathopenref. com/ similartriangles. html
Skill 99

Skill
A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or
both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. For example, in the domain of
work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, self motivation and others,
whereas domain-specific skills would be useful only for a certain job. Skill usually requires certain environmental
stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used.
People need a broad range of skills in order to contribute to a modern economy and take their place in the
technological society of the 21st century. A joint ASTD and U.S. Department of Labor study showed that through
technology, the workplace is changing, and identified 16 basic skills that employees must have to be able to change
with it."Retraining 50 Million Americans: The Electronically Mediated Solution" [1]. Retrieved 2011-02-08. .

General skills

Learning to learn
Learning is an integral part of everyday life. The skill of knowing how to learn is a must for everybody and is the
key to acquiring new skills and sharpening the ability to think through problems. It opens the door to other learning.
Study smarter - not harder. A secondary benefit of learning how to learn is that it empowers the learner's ability to
develop a measurable task repeatedly.

Foundation skills
From the employer's perspective, the skill of knowing how to learn is cost-effective because it can mitigate the cost
of retraining efforts. When workers use efficient learning strategies, they absorb and apply training more quickly,
saving their employers money and time. When properly prepared, employees can use learning-to-learn techniques to
distinguish between essential and nonessential information, discern patterns in information, and pinpoint the actions
necessary to improve job performance. Many employers - particularly those dealing with rapid technological change
see the learning-to-learn skill as an urgent necessity. Productivity, innovation, and competitiveness all depend on
developing the workers' learning capability. Machinery and processes are transferable between companies and
countries, but it is the application of human knowledge to technology and systems that provides the competitive
edge.

Basic skills competence

The inability of large numbers of new workers to meet reading, writing, or computational (simple mathematics)
standards is an economic and competitive issue. This forces employers to spend more on these critical competence
skills. The majority of workers are literate and numerate but frequently, cannot use these skills effectively because
they are rusty when called upon to use mathematical principles they have not used for 20 years, because they must
use the skills in a context different from the one in which they originally learned them, or because they do not
understand how to expand or apply the skill.
Skill 100

Reading
Reading has historically been considered the fundamental vocational skill for a person to get, keep, get ahead, or to
change jobs. One educational assessment by Kirsch and Jungeblut in 1986, indicates that there is a large nationwide
population of intermediate literates who only have fourth to eighth grade literacy equivalency (but are high school
graduates) and who have not obtained a functional or employable literacy level.

Writing
Writing is consistently ranked among the highest priorities for job applicants and employees. One study states that
more than 50 percent of the business respondents identified writing skill deficiencies in secretarial, skilled,
managerial, supervisory, and bookkeeping personnel.

Computation
Because of technology, simple mathematical computation is important as employers focus on an employee's ability
to compute at higher levels of sophistication. The introduction of sophisticated management and quality control
approaches demand higher mathematical skills. Ironically, as occupational skill-level requirements climb, higher
educational dropout rates and worsening worker deficiencies in computational skills are appearing (Brock, 1987;
Kirsch and Jungeblut, 1986; Semerad, 1987). Employers complain particularly about miscalculations of decimals
and fractions, resulting in expensive production errors. Employees must calculate correctly to conduct inventories,
complete accurate reports of production levels, measure machine parts or specifications so that medium-to-high
levels of mathematics skills are required across job categories. The business effect of math skill deficiencies is
bottom line losses.

Communication skills
Formal education in communication has been directed at reading and writing skills that are used least in the
workplace. Most have only one or two years in speech related courses and no formal training in listening. Workers
who can express their ideas orally and who understands verbal instructions make fewer mistakes, adjust more easily
to change, and more readily absorb new ideas than those who do not. Thus career development is enhanced by
training in oral communication and listening because these skills contribute to an employee's success in all of the
following areas: interviewing, making presentations at or conducting meetings; negotiating and resolving conflict;
selling; leading; being assertive; teaching or coaching others; working in a team; giving supervisors feedback about
conversations with customers; and retraining. Employees spend most of the day communicating, and the time they
spend will increase as robots, computers, and other machines take over mundane, repetitive jobs....

Oral
Skill in oral communication is a key element of good customer service. More than 76 million workers (in the USA)
are in the service sector and companies that provide excellent service tend to stay far ahead of their competitors. To
provide good service, all employees (not just designated sales and marketing employees) must learn how to talk and
listen to customers, handle complaints and solve their problems.

Listening
As workers go up the corporate ladder, the listening time increases so that top managers spend as much as 65 percent
of their day listening (Keefe, 1971). Because most people have had no training in this critical skill, poor listening
habits cost hundreds of millions of dollars each year in productivity lost through misunderstandings and mistakes. At
the rate of one $15 mistake per U.S. employee per year, the annual cost of poor listening would be more than a
billion dollars.
Skill 101

Problem-solving
Problem-solving skills include the ability to recognize and define problems, invent and implement solutions, and
track and evaluate results. Creative thinking not only requires the ability to understand problem-solving techniques,
but also to transcend logical and sequential thinking, making the leap to innovation. Unresolved problems create
dysfunctional relationships in the workplace. Ultimately, they become impediments to flexibility and in dealing with
strategic change in an open-ended and creative way.

Creative thinking
New approaches to problem-solving, organizational design, and product development all spring from the individual
capacity for creative thinking. At work, creative thinking is generally expressed through the process of creative
problem solving. Increasingly, companies are identifying creative problem solving as critical to their success and are
instituting structured approaches to problem identification, analysis, and resolution. Creative solutions help the
organization to move forward toward strategic goals. Organizational strategy is an example of creative thinking.

Self-esteem
Another key to effectiveness is good personal management. Self-esteem, motivation/goal setting, and
employability/career development skills are critical because they impact individual morale which in turn plays a
significant role in an institutions ability to achieve bottom line results. Employers have felt the pressure to make
provisions to address perceived deficiencies in these skill areas because they realize that a work force without such
skills is less productive. Conversely, solid personal management skills are often manifested by efficient integration
of new technology or processes, creative thinking, high productivity, and a pursuit of skill enhancement.
Unfortunately, problems related to these skill areas have increased primarily because entry-level applicants are
arriving with deficiencies in personal management skills. On the job, the lack of personal management skills affects
hiring and training costs, productivity, quality control, creativity, and ability to develop skills to meet changing
needs. This presents a series of roadblocks that slow or halt an organizations progress. An organization with such
difficulties cannot plan accurately for its future to integrate new technology, establish new work structures, or
implement new work processes.

Motivation/goal setting
Motivation is the combination of desire, values, and beliefs that drives you to take action. These three motivating
factors, and/or lack of them, are at the root of why people behave the way they do. Because you ultimately control
your values, beliefs, and desires, you can influence your motivations. This means, if you consider something
important and assign value to it, you are more likely to do the work it takes to attain the goal. When motivation
originates from an internal source and is combined with a realistic goal and circumstance, the odds of a good
outcome are greatly increased.
Skill 102

Employability/career development
One of the keys to success in today’s world of work is career self-reliance — the ability to actively manage worklife
in a rapidly changing environment and the attitude of being self-employed whether inside or outside an organization.
Acquiring the skills and knowledge to become career self-reliant will enable employees to survive and even thrive in
times of great change.

Group effectiveness
The move toward participative decision making and problem solving inevitably increases the potential for
disagreement, particularly when the primary work unit is a peer team with no supervisor. This puts a premium on
developing employees group effectiveness skills.

Interpersonal
Interpersonal skills training can help employees recognize and improve their ability to determine appropriate
self-behaviour, cope with undesirable behaviour in others, absorb stress, deal with ambiguity, structure social
interaction, share responsibility, and interact more easily with others. Teamwork skills are critical for improving
individual task accomplishment because practical innovations and solutions are reached sooner through cooperative
behaviour.

Negotiation and teamwork

Negotiation skills are critical for the effective functioning of teams as well as for individual acceptance in an
organization. Change strategies are usually dependent upon the ability of employees to pull together and refocus on
the new common goal. Carnevale wrote in a previous book that there are two ways to increase productivity. "The
first is by increasing the intensity with which we utilize (human) resources (working harder), and the second is by
increasing the efficiency with which we mix and use available resources (working smarter)."

Influence
The new competitive standards affect organizational structures, requiring a move away from top- down systems and
toward more flexible networks and work teams. Technical changes result in new work processes and procedures.
These require constant updating of employer-specific technical knowledge. In a world of rapid change, obsolescence
is an interminable danger. As technology replaces more of the hands-on work, more employees will be dedicated to
service functions where they will spend more time face-to-face with co-workers and clients. Organizational formats
in the New Economy require more general skills. Interpersonal skills, communications skills and effective leadership
skills are required by more and more non-supervisory employees. Managers in the New Economy relinquish control
of work processes to work teams and will need to provide integration through leadership and monitoring.

Organizational
To be effective, employees need a sense of how the organization works and how the actions of each individual affect
organizational and strategic objectives. Skill in determining the forces and factors that interfere with the
organizations ability to accomplish its tasks can help the worker become a master problem solver, an innovator, and
a team builder. Organizational effectiveness skills are the building blocks for leadership. A proactive approach
toward increasing organizational effectiveness skills through training reflects the commitment to shared leadership
concepts operating in the organization. Implementing shared leadership values has a positive impact on productivity.
When leadership functions are dispersed, those who perform in leadership roles willingly take on the responsibility
for creating and communicating the vision of the organization and what its work groups should accomplish. By their
proximity, they are also better able to create and communicate the quality of the work environment necessary to
realize that vision. One approach is the superteam which is defined as a high performing team which produces
Skill 103

outstanding achievements. Leaders of superteams spend as much time anticipating the future as they do managing
the present by thinking forward to, and talking to others about their goal, for it is this that provides the team with its
purpose and direction (Hastings, Bixby, and Chaudhry-Lawton, 1986). Deploying visionary leaders improves
institutional response time to changing and increasingly complex external environment factors that affect the
organization's ability to operate effectively.

Leadership
At its most elementary level, leadership means that one person influences another. An organization that supports the
concepts of shared leadership encourages employees at all levels to assume this role where it is appropriate. The
function of leadership include stating basic values, announcing goals, organizing resources, reducing tensions
between individuals, creating coalitions, coalescing workers, and encouraging better performance. There is a direct
correlation between the implementation of shared leadership practice and product improvement, higher morale, and
innovative problem solving, which leads to a more hospitable environment for instituting change. Top management
cannot make the system work without employees taking on shared leadership roles. A great many people must be in
a state of psychological readiness to take leaderlike action to improve the functioning at their levels. Historically, the
roots of business failure can often be traced to inadequate training in and attention to the importance of leadership as
a basic workplace skill. Too frequently, companies designate leaders without providing proper evaluation and
training to ensure that they are qualified to assume leadership roles.

Examples
• Academic skills
• Reading
• Logic
• Critical thinking
• Interpersonal communication
• Speech: listening, talking
• Nonverbal communication
• Literacy: writing, reading
• Motor skills
• Walking, arts and crafts, craft, sport
• Skilled labor
• Innovation skill
Miscellaneous
• Charisma
• Perception
• Persuasion
• Procedural memory, knowledge, expertise, fluency
• Profession
• Theory of multiple intelligences
• Thinking and intelligence, IQ
Skill 104

References
[1] http:/ / wdr. doleta. gov/ research/ rlib_doc. cfm?docn=941

External links
• Transferable skills (http://www.sabre.mod.uk/Employers/What-Reservists-offer/Transferable-Skills.aspx)
• American Society for Training & Development (http://www.astd.org)
• Online Courses with Skill Orientation (http://www.schoox.com/skills/skills.php)
• Australian National Training Authority (http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/training_skills)
• NCVER's Review of generic skills for the new economy (http://www.ncver.edu.au/research/proj/nr0024.
pdf)
• SKILLS EU Research Integrated Project (http://www.skills-ip.eu/)

Strange loop
A strange loop arises when, by moving up
or down through a hierarchical system, one
finds oneself back where one started.
Strange loops may involve self-reference
and paradox. The concept of a strange loop
was proposed and extensively discussed by
Douglas Hofstadter in Gödel, Escher, Bach,
and is further elaborated in Hofstadter's
book I Am a Strange Loop, published in
2007.

A tangled hierarchy is a hierarchical

system in which a strange loop appears.

Definitions
A strange loop is a hierarchy of levels, each
of which is linked to at least one other by M. C. Escher − Drawing Hands, 1948.

some type of relationship. A strange loop

hierarchy, however, is "tangled" (Hofstadter refers to this as a "heterarchy"), in that there is no well defined highest
or lowest level; moving through the levels one eventually returns to the starting point, i.e., the original level.
Examples of strange loops that Hofstadter offers include: many of the works of M. C. Escher, the information flow
network between DNA and enzymes through protein synthesis and DNA replication, and self-referential Gödelian
statements in formal systems.

In I Am a Strange Loop, Hofstadter defines strange loops as follows:

“
And yet when I say "strange loop", I have something else in mind — a less concrete, more elusive notion. What I mean by "strange loop" is —
here goes a first stab, anyway — not a physical circuit but an abstract loop in which, in the series of stages that constitute the cycling-around,
there is a shift from one level of abstraction (or structure) to another, which feels like an upwards movement in a hierarchy, and yet somehow
the successive "upward" shifts turn out to give rise to a closed cycle. That is, despite one's sense of departing ever further from one's origin,
one winds up, to one's shock, exactly where one had started out. In short, a strange loop is a paradoxical level-crossing feedback loop.
(pp. 101-102) ”
Strange loop 105

Strangeness
The "strangeness" of a strange loop comes from our way of perception; because we categorize our input in a small
amount of 'symbols' (by which he means groups of neurons standing for one thing in the outside world). So the
difference between the video-feedback loop and our strange loops, our "I"'s, is that while the former one converts
light to the same pattern on a screen, the latter one categorizes a pattern and outputs its essence, so that you get
closer and closer to your essence the further you get down your strange loop (according to his book 'I am a Strange
Loop').

Downward causality
Hofstadter thinks our minds can determine the world by way of "downward causality", which refers to a situation
where a cause-and-effect relationship in a system gets flipped upside-down. Hofstadter claims this happens in the
proof of Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem:

“
Merely from knowing the formula's meaning, one can infer its truth or falsity without any effort to derive it in the old-fashioned way, which
requires one to trudge methodically "upwards" from the axioms. This is not just peculiar; it is astonishing. Normally, one cannot merely look

”
at what a mathematical conjecture says and simply appeal to the content of that statement on its own to deduce whether the statement is true or
false. (pp. 169-170)

Hofstadter claims a similar "flipping around of causality" happens in minds possessing self-consciousness. The mind
perceives itself as the cause of certain feelings, ("I" am the source of my desires), while scientifically, feelings and
desires are strictly caused by the interactions of neurons, and ultimately, the probabilistic laws of quantum
mechanics.

Examples
Hofstadter points to Bach's Canon per Tonos, M. C. Escher's drawings Waterfall, Drawing Hands, Ascending and
Descending, and the liar paradox as examples that illustrate the idea of strange loops, which is expressed fully in the
proof of Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem.
A Shepard tone is another illustrative example of a strange loop. Named after Roger Shepard, it is a sound consisting
of a superposition of sine waves separated by octaves. When played with the base pitch of the tone moving upwards
or downwards, it is referred to as the Shepard scale. This creates the auditory illusion of a tone that continually
ascends or descends in pitch, yet which ultimately seems to get no higher or lower. See Barber's pole.
Quines in software programming- wherein a program produces a new version of itself without any input from the
outside. Metamorphic code.
Efron's Dice are four dice, each of which has a high probability of beating one of the others.
The liar paradox and Russell's paradox also involve strange loops as does René Magritte's painting The Treachery of
Images.
The mathematical phenomenon of polysemy has been observed to be a strange loop. At the denotational level, the
term refers to situations where a single entity can be seen to mean more than one mathematical object. See
Tanenbaum (1999).
Strange loop 106

References
• Tanenbaum, P. J. (October 1999). 1097-0118 "Simultaneous intersection representation of pairs of graphs" (http:/
/www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/65500662/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0).
Journal of Graph Theory 32 (2): 171–190.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0118(199910)32:2<171::AID-JGT7>3.0.CO;2-N. Retrieved 2010-09-29.

Syncretism
Syncretism (English pronunciation: /ˈsɪŋkrətɪzəm/) is the attempt to reconcile contrary beliefs, often while melding
practices of various schools of thought. The term means "combining," but see below for the origin of the word.
Syncretism may involve attempts to merge and analogise several originally discrete traditions, especially in the
theology and mythology of religion, and thus assert an underlying unity allowing for an inclusive approach to other
faiths.
Syncretism also occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture (see eclecticism) as well as politics (see
syncretic politics).

Nomenclature, orthography and etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary first attests the word syncretism in English in 1618. It derives from modern Latin
syncretismus, drawing on Greek συγκρητισμός (synkretismos), meaning "Cretan federation."
The Greek word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on "Fraternal Love" in his Moralia (2.490b). He cites
the example of the Cretans, who reconciled their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external
dangers. "And that is their so-called Syncretism."
Erasmus probably coined the modern usage of the Latin word in his Adagia ("Adages"), published in the winter of
1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters in spite of their differences in theological opinions. In a letter to
Melanchthon of April 22, 1519, Erasmus specifically adduced the Cretans of Plutarch as an example of his adage
"Concord is a mighty rampart".

Social and political roles

Overt syncretism in folk belief may show cultural acceptance of an alien or previous tradition, but the "other" cult
may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis nevertheless. For example, some Conversos developed a sort
of cult for martyr-victims of the Spanish Inquisition, thus incorporating elements of Catholicism while resisting it.
Some religious movements have embraced overt syncretism, such as the case of the adoption of Shintō elements into
Buddhism as well as the adoption of Germanic and Celtic pagan elements into Catholicism during Christianity's
spread into Gaul, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Indian influences are seen in the practice of Shi'i
Islam in Trinidad. Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing precious and genuine distinctions; examples of this
include post-Exile Judaism, Islam, and most of Protestant Christianity.
Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and constructive interaction between different cultures (intercultural
competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi-ethnic realms. Conversely the rejection of
syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" and "orthodoxy", may help to generate, bolster or authorize a sense of
cultural unity in a well-defined minority or majority.
Syncretism 107

Religious syncretism
Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the
incorporation into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated traditions. This can occur for many reasons, and the
latter scenario happens quite commonly in areas where multiple religious traditions exist in proximity and function
actively in the culture, or when a culture is conquered, and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but
do not succeed in entirely eradicating the old beliefs or, especially, practices.
Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but adherents of so-labeled systems often frown on
applying the label, especially adherents who belong to "revealed" religious systems, such as the Abrahamic religions,
or any system that exhibits an exclusivist approach. Such adherents sometimes see syncretism as a betrayal of their
pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatible belief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no longer true.
Indeed, critics of a specific syncretistic trend may sometimes use the word "syncretism" as a disparaging epithet, as a
charge implying that those who seek to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system actually
distort the original faith. Non-exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporate other
traditions into their own.
In modern secular society, religious innovators sometimes create new religions syncretically as a mechanism to
reduce inter-religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the original religions in question. Such
religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience. Discussions of some of these blended
religions appear in the individual sections below.

Ancient Greece
Syncretism functioned as a feature of Ancient Greek religion. Overall, Hellenistic culture in the age that followed
Alexander the Great itself showed syncretist features, essentially blending of Mesopotamian, Persian, Anatolian,
Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within an Hellenic formula. The Egyptian god Amun
developed as the Hellenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into the desert to seek out Amun's oracle at
Siwa.
Such identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, the Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparate mythologies
with their own. When the proto-Greeks (peoples whose language would evolve into Greek proper) first arrived in the
Aegean and on the mainland of modern-day Greece early in the 2nd millennium BCE, they found localized nymphs
and divinities already connected with every important feature of the landscape: mountain, cave, grove and spring all
had their own locally venerated deity. The countless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect their syncretic
identification with these various figures. One defines "Zeus Molossos" (worshipped only at Dodona) as "the god
identical to Zeus as worshipped by the Molossians at Dodona". Much of the apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic
fabling results from later mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.

Judaism
In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud made a case for Judaism arising out of the pre-existing monotheism that
was briefly imposed upon Egypt during the rule of Akhenaten. Aten, the disk of the sun in ancient Egyptian
mythology, and originally an aspect of Ra, was chosen as the sole deity for Akhenaten's new religion. The "Code of
Hammurabi" is also cited as a likely starting point for the Jewish Ten Commandments. Hammurabi was from the
Mesopotamian culture that revered Marduk, among others. Judaism fought lengthy battles against syncretist
tendencies: note the case of the golden calf and the railing of prophets against temple prostitution, witchcraft and
local fertility cults, as told in the Tanakh. On the other hand, some scholars hold that Judaism refined its concept of
monotheism and adopted features such as its eschatology, angelology and demonology through contacts with
Zoroastrianism.[1] [2] [3]
Syncretism 108

In spite of the Jewish halakhic prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (avodah zarah), several
combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism, Judeo-Paganism,
Messianic Judaism, Jewish Mormonism, Crypto-Judaism (in which Jews publicly profess another faith and privately
celebrate Judaism), and others such as Judeo-Christianity. Until relatively recently, China had a Jewish community
which had adopted some Confucian practices. Several of the Jewish Messiah claimants (such as Jacob Frank) and the
Sabbateans came to mix Cabalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam.

Roman world
The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with
similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though without usually copying cult practices. (For details, see
Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and
Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean
goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus into Rome, where he merged with the Latin mead god
Liber, and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into the Roman Sabazius.
The degree of correspondence varied: Jupiter makes perhaps a better match for Zeus than the rural huntress Diana
does for the feared Artemis. Ares does not quite match Mars. The Romans physically imported the Anatolian
goddess Cybele into Rome from her Anatolian cult-center Pessinos in the form of her original aniconic archaic stone
idol; they identified her as Magna Mater and gave her a matronly, iconic image developed in Hellenistic Pergamum.
Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Germanic peoples, they mingled these peoples' gods with their
own, creating Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the
war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers
of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules as Thor and Mercury as Odin.

Christianity
Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the Great Schism. It
became involved, however, with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with Desiderius Erasmus's readings of
Plutarch. In 1615 David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a "pious syncretism" in opposing the Antichrist,
but few 17th-century Protestants discussed the compromises that might effect a reconciliation with the Catholic
Church: Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612–1685) opposed the Lutheran
Georg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his "syncretism".[4] (See: Syncretistic
Controversy.)
The modern celebrations of Christmas (the northern European tradition that replaced older pagan Yule holidays),
Easter (combinations of various European and Middle Eastern traditions with incorporated spring fertility rites), and
Halloween are all examples of Christian/pagan syncretism, as some symbols and traditions are re-incorporated into a
Christian context.
Catholicism in Central and South America has integrated a number of elements derived from indigenous and slave
cultures in those areas (see the Caribbean and modern sections); while many African Initiated Churches demonstrate
an integration of Protestant and traditional African beliefs. In Asia the revolutionary movements of Taiping
(19th-century China) and God's Army (Karen in the 1990s) have blended Christianity and traditional beliefs. The
Catholic Church allows some symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief systems, so long as they are
remade to fit into a Christian worldview; syncretism of other religions with Catholicism, such as Voudun or Santeria,
is condemned by the Church.
One can contrast Christian syncretism with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of making Christianity
relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a change in the styles or expression
of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building styles into churches in other parts of
the world, in a contextualization approach, they would build churches, sing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style.
Syncretism 109

Some Jesuit missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach Christianity, as did the Portuguese in China.
In this view, syncretism implies compromising the message of Christianity by merging it with not just a culture, but
another religion, common examples being animism or ancestor worship.
The Latter Day Saint movement can be framed as a syncretic outgrowth of main-line Christianity.[5]

Syncretistic Controversy
The "Syncretistic Controversy" was the theological debate provoked by the efforts of Georg Calixt and his
supporters to secure a basis on which the Lutherans could make overtures to the Roman Catholic and the Reformed
Churches. It lasted from 1640 to 1686. Calixt, a professor at Helmstedt, had through travels in England, the
Netherlands, Italy, and France, acquaintance with the different churches and their representatives, and extensive
study, developed a more open attitude toward the different religious bodies than had the majority of his
contemporary Lutheran theologians. While the latter firmly adhered to the "pure doctrine," Calixt tended not to
regard doctrine as the one thing necessary for a Christian, nor did he regard all doctrine as equally certain and
important. Consequently, he advocated unity between those who agreed on the fundamental minimum, with liberty
as to all less fundamental points. In regard to Catholicism, he would have (as Melanchthon once would have)
conceded to the pope a primacy human in origin, and he also admitted that one might call the Mass a sacrifice.
The theological faculties of Helmstedt, Rinteln, and Königsberg supported Calixt; opposed were those of Leipzig,
Jena, Strasburg, Giessen, Marburg, and Greifswald. Abraham Calov opposed Calixt. The Elector of Saxony, for
political reasons, opposed the Reformed Church, because the other two secular electors (Palatine and Brandenburg)
were "reformed", and were competing with him. In 1649 he wrote to the three dukes of Brunswick, who maintained
Helmstedt as their common university, and expressed the objections of his Lutheran professors, complaining that
Calixt wished to extract the elements of truth from all religions, fuse all into a new religion, and provoke a schism.
In 1650 Calov became a professor at Wittenberg, and quickly attacked the Syncretists in Helmstedt. An outburst of
polemical writings followed. In 1650 the dukes of Brunswick responded with the desire to limit the discord, and
proposed a meeting of the political councillors. Saxony, however, did not favour this suggestion. An attempt to
convene theologians was unsuccessful. The theologians of Wittenberg and Leipzig condemned 98 heresies of the
Helmstedt theologians. They urged that this "Formula of Concord" be signed by everyone who wished to remain in
the Lutheran Church. Outside Wittenberg and Leipzig, however, it was not accepted, and Calixt's death in 1656
ushered in five years of almost undisturbed peace.
The controversy broke out afresh in Hesse-Kassel, where Landgrave William VI sought to effect a union between his
Lutheran and Reformed subjects, or at least to lessen their mutual hatred. In 1661 he had a colloquy held in Kassel
between the Lutheran theologians of the University of Rinteln and the Reformed theologians of the University of
Marburg. Enraged at this revival of the syncretism of Calixt, the Wittenberg theologians called on the Rinteln
professors to make their submission, whereupon the latter answered with a detailed defence. Another long series of
polemical treatises followed.
In Brandenburg-Prussia in 1663, the Great Elector (Frederick William I) forbade preachers from speaking of the
Evangelical disputes. A long colloquy in Berlin (September 1662 to May 1663) led only to fresh discord. Growing
impatient, the Elector ended his conferences in 1664 and published another "syncretistic" edict. Since the edict
disallowed the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran Confessions as contained in the Book of Concord, many
Lutheran clergy did not comply with the edict. Whoever refused to sign the form declaring his intention to observe
this regulation was deprived of his position, including Paul Gerhardt, a pastor and noted hymnwriter. The citizens of
Berlin petitioned to have him restored, and owing to their repeated requests, the Elector made an exception for
Gerhardt. His conscience did not allow him to retain the post and Gernardt lived in Berlin for more than a year
without fixed employment. During this time his wife also died, leaving him with one surviving child. The Elector
withdrew the edict a few months later, but Gerhardt's patroness, Electress Louisa Henrietta, had died, so he was still
without a position.
Syncretism 110

Calixt's son, Friedrich Ulrich Calixt, defended his father's views against the Wittenberg theologians's calling his
school "un-Lutheran" and heretical. The younger Calixt tried to show that his father's doctrine did not differ much
from that of his opponents. Wittenberg had a new champion in Ægidius Strauch, who attacked Calixt with all his
resources of learning, polemics, and wit. The Helmstedt side was defended by the celebrated scholar and statesman,
Hermann Conring. The Saxon princes recognized that trying to carry through the "Consensus" might lead to a fresh
schism in the Lutheran Church, and endanger its position related to Catholic power. They forbade the Saxon
theologians from continuing the controversy in writing. Negotiations for peace then resulted, with Duke Ernst the
Pious of Saxe-Gotha especially active. They considered creating a permanent college of theologians to decide
theological disputes. However, the negotiations with the courts of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and Sweden
remained as fruitless as those with the theological faculties, except that peace was maintained until 1675.
Calov renewed hostilities. He attacked not only Calixt, but also and particularly the moderate John Musæus of Jena.
Calov succeeded in having the University of Jena and Musæus compelled to renounce syncretism. But this was his
last victory. The Elector renewed his prohibition against polemical writings. Calov seemed to give way for a time.
Although he returned to his attack on the syncretists, he died in 1686, and the controversy ended.
The Syncretist Controversy had the result of lessening religious hatred and of promoting mutual forbearance.
Catholicism benefited, as some Protestants came to better understand and appreciate it. In Protestant theology, it
prepared the way for the sentimental theology of Pietism to become more popular than Lutheran orthodoxy.
 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed (1913).
"Syncretism". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.

Islam
Some scholars regard Islam as incorporating syncretically from other religions, particularly Judaism, Christianity,
and Zoroastrianism. Muslims do not regard this as syncretism, as they see Islam as a completion of divine
revelations from previous prophets. Other aspects of Islam such as the lunar calendar are derived from earlier
pre-Abrahamic tradition.

Druze religion
The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism.

Barghawata
The Barghawata kingdom followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with
elements of Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had
their own Qur'an in the Berber language comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty
Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be
the final Mahdi, and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.

Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha,
Zoroaster, and Abraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouraged some to regard the Bahá'í
religion as a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writings explicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider
Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related, revelation from God. Its relationship to previous
dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. They regard beliefs held in common
as evidence of truth, progressively revealed by God throughout human history, and culminating in (at present) the
Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís have their own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís,
supersede those of other faiths.[6] [7]
Syncretism 111

Caribbean religions and cultures

The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term
"Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of race or ethnicity.) The shared histories of
the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and the United
Kingdom) and the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each
of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the
Caribbean.
The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from the Bible, Marcus
Garvey's Pan Africanism movement, Hinduism, and Caribbean culture.
Another highly syncretic religion of the area, vodou, combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and
Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs.
See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.

Indian traditions
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating
elements of various diverse religious traditions. One example of this is the Yoga Vasistha.[8]
The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propounded
Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire
Meivazhi (Tamil: மெய்வழி) is a syncretic monotheistic minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its focus is
spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, through the teachings. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness of
essence message of all the previous major scriptures - particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and
Christianity - allowing membership regardless of creed. Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people belonging once
to 69 different castes of different religions being united as one family of Meivazhi Religion.

Other modern syncretic religions

Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the New World religions Candomblé,
Vodou and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African deities to the Roman Catholic saints. Some
sects of Candomblé have also incorporated Native American deities, and Umbanda combined African deities with
Kardecist spiritualism.
Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some African American communities in the Southern
United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America include Louisiana Voodoo as well as
Pennsylvania Dutch Pow-wow, in which practitioners profess to invoke power through the Christian God.
Many historical Native American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence, like the
Native American Church, the Ghost Dance, and the religion of Handsome Lake.
Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots to Universalist
and Unitarian Christian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from
other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as "Christian."
Theosophy and the Theosophy-based Ascended Master Teachings are syncretic religions that combine deities
primarily from Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism into an elaborate Spiritual Hierarchy.
Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to "realize and spread the
knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of
themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be
rooted out."[9]
In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Kardecism.
Syncretism 112

Several new Japanese religions, (such as Konkokyo and Seicho-No-Ie), are syncretistic.
The Nigerian religion Chrislam combines Christian and Islamic doctrines.
Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including Hermeticism, Eastern Mysticism,
Yoga, 19th century libertarian philosophies (e.g. Nietzsche), occultism, and the Kabbalah, as well as ancient
Egyptian and Greek religion.
Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements with some religious elements include mysticism,
occultism, theosophy, modern astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Age movement.
In China, most of the population follows syncretist religions combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and elements
of Confucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85.7% adhere to Chinese traditional religion, as many
profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to
both Buddhist and Taoist deities.
In Réunion, the Malbars combine elements of Hinduism and Christianity.

Cultures and societies

Enlightenment
The modern, rational non-pejorative connotations of syncretism date from Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie articles:
Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou Conciliateurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism as the concordance of
eclectic sources.

Fiction
• Orange Catholic Bible, Zensunni, and Zensufi, all from the 20th-century science fiction Dune series by Frank
Herbert.
• Life of Pi (2001) by Yann Martel
• Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley
• The First Amalgamated Church in Futurama

New media art

• Roy Ascott
• Syncretic Reality: art, process, and potentiality [10]

Notes
[1] Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London: William's Trust.
[2] Black, Matthew and Rowley, H. H. (eds.) (1982). Peake's Commentary on the Bible. New York: Nelson. ISBN 0-415-05147-9.
[3] Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988). "Zoroastrianism". Encyclopedia Americana. 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813–815.
[4] http:/ / www. lcms. org/ ca/ www/ cyclopedia/ 02/ display. asp?t1=s& word=SYNCRETISM
[5] Dan Vogel. "Religious Seekers and the Advent of Mormonism" (http:/ / www. signaturebookslibrary. org/ seekers/ conclusion.
htm#Mormons9). . Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[6] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 276–277 & p.291.
ISBN 1851681841.
[7] Stockman, Robert (1997). The Baha'i Faith and Syncretism (http:/ / bahai-library. com/ articles/ rg. syncretism. html).
[8] Christopher Chapple, The concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha By Venkatesananda (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fe_5bUKSaUEC& pg=PR12),
1985, pp. xii
[9] Hazrat Pir-o-Murshid Inayat Khan, The 3 Objects of the Sufi Movement (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071227021948/ http:/ / www.
ruhaniat. org/ readings/ 3Objects. php), Sufi Ruhaniat International (1956–2006).
[10] http:/ / www. drainmag. com/ index_nov. htm
Techne 113

Techne
Techne, or techné, as distinguished from episteme, is etymologically derived from the Greek word τέχνη (Ancient
Greek: [tékʰnɛː], Modern Greek: [ˈtexni]  ( listen)) which is often translated as craftsmanship, craft, or art. It is the
rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective. Techne resembles epistēmē in
the implication of knowledge of principles, although techne differs in that its intent is making or doing, as opposed to
"disinterested understanding."
As one observer has argued, techne "was not concerned with the necessity and eternal a priori truths of the cosmos,
nor with the a posteriori contingencies and exigencies of ethics and politics. [...] Moreover, this was a kind of
knowledge associated with people who were bound to necessity. That is, techne was chiefly operative in the
domestic sphere, in farming and slavery, and not in the free realm of the Greek polis."[1]
Aristotle saw it as representative of the imperfection of human imitation of nature. For the ancient Greeks, it
signified all the Mechanical Arts including medicine and music. The English aphorism, ‘gentlemen don’t work with
their hands,’ is said to have originated in ancient Greece in relation to their cynical view on the arts. Due to this view,
it was only fitted for the lower class while the upper class practiced the Liberal Arts of ‘free’ men (Dorter 1973).
Socrates also compliments techne only when it was used in the context of epistēmē. Epistēmē sometimes means
knowing how to do something in a craft-like way. The craft-like knowledge is called a ‘technê.' It is most useful
when the knowledge is practically applied, rather than theoretically or aesthetically applied. For the ancient Greeks,
when techne appears as art, it is most often viewed negatively, whereas when used as a craft it is viewed positively:
because a craft is the practical application of an art, rather than art as an end in itself. In The Republic, written by
Plato, the knowledge of forms "is the indispensable basis for the philosophers' craft of ruling in the city" (Stanford
2003).
Techne is often used in philosophical discourse to distinguish from art (or poiesis). This use of the word also occurs
in The Digital Humanities to differentiate between linear narrative presentation of knowledge and dynamic
presentation of knowledge, wherein techne represents the former and poiesis represents the latter.

References
[1] Young, Damon A. (Apr 2009). "BOWING TO YOUR ENEMIES: COURTESY, BUDŌ, AND JAPAN.". Philosophy East & West 59 (2):
188–215. doi:10.1353/pew.0.0045.

External links
• Epistēmē and Techne from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
episteme-techne)
• Dictionary of Philosophy (http://www.ditext.com/runes/t.html)
• Kenneth Dorter "The Ion: Plato’s Characterization of Art" (http://www.compilerpress.atfreeweb.com/Anno
Dorter Platos Characterization of Art JAAC 1973.htm)

Additional References
Dunne, Joseph. Back to the Rough Ground: 'Phronesis' and 'Techne' in Modern Philosophy and in Aristotle. Notre
Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997. (ISBN 978-0-2680-0689-1)
Tessellation 114

Tessellation
A tessellation or tiling of the plane is a
pattern of plane figures that fills the plane
with no overlaps and no gaps. One may also
speak of tessellations of parts of the plane or
of other surfaces. Generalizations to higher
dimensions are also possible. Tessellations
frequently appeared in the art of M. C.
Escher. Tessellations are seen throughout art
history, from ancient architecture to modern
art.

In Latin, tessella is a small cubical piece of

clay, stone or glass used to make mosaics.[1]
The word "tessella" means "small square"
(from "tessera", square, which in its turn is
from the Greek word for "four"). It
corresponds with the everyday term tiling
which refers to applications of tessellations,
often made of glazed clay. A tessellation of pavement

Wallpaper groups
Tilings with translational symmetry can be
categorized by wallpaper group, of which 17
exist. All seventeen of these groups are
represented in the Alhambra palace in
Granada, Spain. Of the three regular tilings
two are in the category p6m and one is in
p4m.

A honeycomb is an example of a tessellated natural structure

Tessellation 115

Tessellations and color

When discussing a tiling that is displayed in colors, to avoid ambiguity
one needs to specify whether the colors are part of the tiling or just part
of its illustration. See also symmetry.
The four color theorem states that for every tessellation of a normal
Euclidean plane, with a set of four available colors, each tile can be
colored in one color such that no tiles of equal color meet at a curve of If this parallelogram pattern is colored before
positive length. Note that the coloring guaranteed by the four-color tiling it over a plane, seven colors are required to
theorem will not in general respect the symmetries of the tessellation. ensure each complete parallelogram has a
consistent color that is distinct from that of
To produce a coloring which does, as many as seven colors may be
adjacent areas. (This tiling can be compared to
needed, as in the picture at right. the surface of a torus.) Coloring after tiling, only
four colors are needed.

Tessellations with quadrilaterals

Copies of an arbitrary quadrilateral can form a tessellation with 2-fold rotational centers at the midpoints of all sides,
and translational symmetry whose basis vectors are the diagonal of the quadrilateral or, equivalently, one of these
and the sum or difference of the two. For an asymmetric quadrilateral this tiling belongs to wallpaper group p2. As
fundamental domain we have the quadrilateral. Equivalently, we can construct a parallelogram subtended by a
minimal set of translation vectors, starting from a rotational center. We can divide this by one diagonal, and take one
half (a triangle) as fundamental domain. Such a triangle has the same area as the quadrilateral and can be constructed
from it by cutting and pasting.

Regular and semi-regular tessellations

A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric tessellation made up
of congruent regular polygons. Only three regular tessellations
exist: those made up of equilateral triangles, squares, or hexagons.
A semiregular tessellation uses a variety of regular polygons; there
are eight of these. The arrangement of polygons at every vertex
point is identical. An edge-to-edge tessellation is even less
regular: the only requirement is that adjacent tiles only share full
sides, i.e. no tile shares a partial side with any other tile. Other
types of tessellations exist, depending on types of figures and
types of pattern. There are regular versus irregular, periodic versus
Hexagonal tessellation of a floor
aperiodic, symmetric versus asymmetric, and fractal tessellations,
as well as other classifications.

Penrose tilings using two different polygons are the most famous example of tessellations that create aperiodic
patterns. They belong to a general class of aperiodic tilings that can be constructed out of self-replicating sets of
polygons by using recursion.
A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent. Spiral monohedral tilings include the
Voderberg tiling discovered by Hans Voderberg in 1936, whose unit tile is a nonconvex enneagon; and the
Hirschhorn tiling discovered by Michael Hirschhorn in the 1970s, whose unit tile is an irregular pentagon.
Tessellation 116

Self-dual tessellations
Tilings and honeycombs can also be self-dual. All n-dimensional hypercubic honeycombs with Schlafli symbols
{4,3n−2,4}, are self-dual.

Tessellations and computer models

In the subject of computer graphics, tessellation techniques are often
used to manage datasets of polygons and divide them into suitable
structures for rendering. Normally, at least for real-time rendering, the
data is tessellated into triangles, which is sometimes referred to as
triangulation. Tessellation is a staple feature of DirectX 11 and
OpenGL.[2] [3]

In computer-aided design the constructed design is represented by a

boundary representation topological model, where analytical 3D
surfaces and curves, limited to faces and edges constitute a continuous
boundary of a 3D body. Arbitrary 3D bodies are often too complicated
to analyze directly. So they are approximated (tessellated) with a mesh
of small, easy-to-analyze pieces of 3D volume — usually either A tessellation of a disk used to solve a finite
irregular tetrahedrons, or irregular hexahedrons. The mesh is used for element problem.

finite element analysis.

Mesh of a surface is usually generated per individual faces and edges

(approximated to polylines) so that original limit vertices are included
into mesh. To ensure approximation of the original surface suits needs
of the further processing 3 basic parameters are usually defined for the
surface mesh generator:
• Maximum allowed distance between planar approximation polygon
and the surface (aka "sag"). This parameter ensures that mesh is
similar enough to the original analytical surface (or the polyline is
similar to the original curve).
• Maximum allowed size of the approximation polygon (for
triangulations it can be maximum allowed length of triangle sides).
This parameter ensures enough detail for further analysis. These rectangular bricks are connected in a
tessellation which, considered as an edge-to-edge
• Maximum allowed angle between two adjacent approximation
tiling, is topologically identical to a hexagonal
polygons (on the same face). This parameter ensures that even very tiling; each hexagon is flattened into a rectangle
small humps or hollows that can have significant effect to analysis whose long edges are divided in two by the
will not disappear in mesh. neighboring bricks.
Tessellation 117

Algorithm generating mesh is driven by the parameters (example:

CATIA V5 tessellation library). Some computer analyses require
adaptive mesh, which is made finer (using stronger parameters) in
regions where the analysis needs more detail.
Some geodesic domes are designed by tessellating the sphere with
triangles that are as close to equilateral triangles as possible.

Tessellations in nature
Basaltic lava flows often display columnar jointing as a result of
contraction forces causing cracks as the lava cools. The extensive crack
networks that develop often produce hexagonal columns of lava. One This basketweave tiling is topologically identical
example of such an array of columns is the Giant's Causeway in to the Cairo pentagonal tiling, with one side of
Northern Ireland. each rectangle counted as two edges, divided by a
vertex on the two neighboring rectangles.
The Tessellated pavement in Tasmania is a rare sedimentary rock
formation where the rock has fractured into rectangular blocks.

Number of sides of a polygon versus number of sides at a vertex

For an infinite tiling, let be the average number of sides of a polygon, and the average number of sides meeting
at a vertex. Then . For example, we have the combinations (3, 6), (313, 5), (334, 427), (4, 4),
(6, 3), for the tilings in the article Tilings of regular polygons.
A continuation of a side in a straight line beyond a vertex is counted as a separate side. For example, the bricks in the
picture are considered hexagons, and we have combination (6, 3). Similarly, for the basketweave tiling often found
on bathroom floors, we have (5, 313).
For a tiling which repeats itself, one can take the averages over the repeating part. In the general case the averages
are taken as the limits for a region expanding to the whole plane. In cases like an infinite row of tiles, or tiles getting
smaller and smaller outwardly, the outside is not negligible and should also be counted as a tile while taking the
limit. In extreme cases the limits may not exist, or depend on how the region is expanded to infinity.
For finite tessellations and polyhedra we have

where is the number of faces and the number of vertices, and is the Euler characteristic (for the plane and
for a polyhedron without holes: 2), and, again, in the plane the outside counts as a face.
The formula follows observing that the number of sides of a face, summed over all faces, gives twice the total
number of sides in the entire tessellation, which can be expressed in terms of the number of faces and the number of
vertices. Similarly the number of sides at a vertex, summed over all vertices, also gives twice the total number of
sides. From the two results the formula readily follows.
In most cases the number of sides of a face is the same as the number of vertices of a face, and the number of sides
meeting at a vertex is the same as the number of faces meeting at a vertex. However, in a case like two square faces
touching at a corner, the number of sides of the outer face is 8, so if the number of vertices is counted the common
corner has to be counted twice. Similarly the number of sides meeting at that corner is 4, so if the number of faces at
that corner is counted the face meeting the corner twice has to be counted twice.
A tile with a hole, filled with one or more other tiles, is not permissible, because the network of all sides inside and
outside is disconnected. However it is allowed with a cut so that the tile with the hole touches itself. For counting the
number of sides of this tile, the cut should be counted twice.
Tessellation 118

For the Platonic solids we get round numbers, because we take the average over equal numbers: for
we get 1, 2, and 3.
From the formula for a finite polyhedron we see that in the case that while expanding to an infinite polyhedron the
number of holes (each contributing −2 to the Euler characteristic) grows proportionally with the number of faces and
the number of vertices, the limit of is larger than 4. For example, consider one layer of cubes,
extending in two directions, with one of every 2 × 2 cubes removed. This has combination (4, 5), with
, corresponding to having 10 faces and 8 vertices per hole.
Note that the result does not depend on the edges being line segments and the faces being parts of planes:
mathematical rigor to deal with pathological cases aside, they can also be curves and curved surfaces.

Tessellations of other spaces

M.C.Escher, Circle Limit III

A torus can be tiled by a repeating matrix of
An example tessellation of the surface of a sphere by a (1959)
isogonal quadrilaterals.
truncated icosidodecahedron.

As well as tessellating the 2-dimensional Euclidean plane, it is also possible to tessellate other n-dimensional spaces
by filling them with n-dimensional polytopes. Tessellations of other spaces are often referred to as honeycombs.
Examples of tessellations of other spaces include:
• Tessellations of n-dimensional Euclidean space. For example, 3-dimensional Euclidean space can be filled with
cubes to create the cubic honeycomb.
• Tessellations of n-dimensional elliptic space, either the n-sphere (spherical tiling, spherical polyhedron) or
n-dimensional real projective space (elliptic tiling, projective polyhedron).
For example, projecting the edges of a regular dodecahedron onto its circumsphere creates a tessellation of the
2-dimensional sphere with regular spherical pentagons, while taking the quotient by the antipodal map yields
the hemi-dodecahedron, a tiling of the projective plane.
• Tessellations of n-dimensional hyperbolic space. For example, M. C. Escher's Circle Limit III depicts a
tessellation of the hyperbolic plane (using the Poincaré disk model) with congruent fish-like shapes. The
hyperbolic plane admits a tessellation with regular p-gons meeting in q's whenever ; Circle Limit III
may be understood as a tiling of octagons meeting in threes, with all sides replaced with jagged lines and each
octagon then cut into four fish.
See (Magnus 1974) for further non-Euclidean examples.
There are also abstract polyhedra which do not correspond to a tessellation of a manifold because they are not locally
spherical (locally Euclidean, like a manifold), such as the 11-cell and the 57-cell. These can be seen as tilings of
more general spaces.
Tessellation 119

Notes
[1] tessellate (http:/ / m-w. com/ dictionary/ tessellate), Merriam-Webster Online
[2] http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ ff476340%28v=VS. 85%29. aspx
[3] http:/ / www. opengl. org/ registry/ doc/ glspec40. core. 20100311. pdf

References
• Grunbaum, Branko and G. C. Shephard. Tilings and Patterns. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1987. ISBN
0-7167-1193-1.
• Coxeter, H.S.M.. Regular Polytopes, Section IV : Tessellations and Honeycombs. Dover, 1973. ISBN
0-486-61480-8.
• Magnus, Wilhelm (1974), Noneuclidean tesselations and their groups, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12465450-1

Trial and error

Trial and error, or trial by error, is a general method of
problem solving, fixing things, or for obtaining knowledge.
"Learning doesn't happen from failure itself but rather from
analyzing the failure, making a change, and then trying
again."[1]
In the field of computer science, the method is called
generate and test. In elementary algebra, when solving
equations, it is "guess and check".
This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches
to problem solving and is contrasted with an approach using
insight and theory.

Methodology
Trial with PC
This approach is more successful with simple problems and in
games, and is often resorted to when no apparent rule applies.
This does not mean that the approach need be careless, for an individual can be methodical in manipulating the
variables in an attempt to sort through possibilities that may result in success. Nevertheless, this method is often used
by people who have little knowledge in the problem area.

Simplest applications
Ashby (1960, section 11/5) offers three simple strategies for dealing with the same basic exercise-problem; and they
have very different efficiencies: Suppose there are 1000 on/off switches which have to be set to a particular
combination by random-based testing, each test to take one second. [This is also discussed in Traill (1978/2006,
section C1.2]. The strategies are:
• the perfectionist all-or-nothing method, with no attempt at holding partial successes. This would be expected to
take more than 10^301 seconds, [i.e. 2^1000 seconds, or 3·5×(10^291) centuries!];
• a serial-test of switches, holding on to the partial successes (assuming that these are manifest) would take 500
seconds; while
• a parallel-but-individual testing of all switches simultaneously would take only one second.
Trial and error 120

Note the tacit assumption here that no intelligence or insight is brought to bear on the problem. However, the
existence of different available strategies allows us to consider a separate ("superior") domain of processing — a
"meta-level" above the mechanics of switch handling — where the various available strategies can be randomly
chosen. Once again this is "trial and error", but of a different type. This leads us to:

Trial-and-error Hierarchies
Ashby's book develops this "meta-level" idea, and extends it into a whole recursive sequence of levels, successively
above each other in a systematic hierarchy. On this basis he argues that human intelligence emerges from such
organization: relying heavily on trial-and-error (at least initially at each new stage), but emerging with what we
would call "intelligence" at the end of it all. Thus presumably the topmost level of the hierarchy (at any stage) will
still depend on simple trial-and-error.
Traill (1978/2006) suggests that this Ashby-hierarchy probably coincides with Piaget's well-known theory of
developmental stages. [This work also discusses Ashby's 1000-switch example; see §C1.2]. After all, it is part of
Piagetian doctrine that children learn by first actively doing in a more-or-less random way, and then hopefully learn
from the consequences — which all has a certain to Ashby's random "trial-and-error".

The basic strategy in many fields?

Traill (2008, espec. Table "S" on p.31) follows Jerne and Popper in seeing this strategy as probably underlying all
knowledge-gathering systems — at least in their initial phase.
Four such systems are identified:
• Darwinian evolution which "educates" the DNA of the species,
• The brain of the individual (just discussed);
• The "brain" of society-as-such (including the publicly-held body of science); and
• The immune system.

An ambiguity: Can we have "intention" during a "trial"

In the Ashby-and-Cybernetics tradition, the word "trial" usually implies random-or-arbitrary, without any deliberate
choice. However amongst non-cyberneticians, "trial" will often imply a deliberate subjective act by some adult
human agent; (e.g. in a court-room, or laboratory). So that has sometimes led to confusion.
Of course the situation becomes even more confusing if one accepts Ashby's hierarchical explanation of intelligence,
and its implied ability to be deliberate and to creatively design — all based ultimately on non-deliberate actions. The
lesson here seems to be that one must simply be careful to clarify the meaning of one's own words, and indeed the
words of others. [Incidentally it seems that consciousness is not an essential ingredient for intelligence as discussed
above.]

Features
Trial and error has a number of features:
• solution-oriented: trial and error makes no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution.
• problem-specific: trial and error makes no attempt to generalise a solution to other problems.
• non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution.
• needs little knowledge: trials and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject.
It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution, when a testably finite number of possible
solutions exist. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process, when a
solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method
just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of
Trial and error 121

which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in
assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best.)

Examples
Trial and error has traditionally been the main method of finding new drugs, such as antibiotics. Chemists simply try
chemicals at random until they find one with the desired effect. In a more sophisticated version, chemists select a
narrow range of chemicals it is thought may have some effect. (The latter case can be alternatively considered as a
changing of the problem rather than of the solution strategy: instead of "What chemical will work well as an
antibiotic?" the problem in the sophisticated approach is "Which, if any, of the chemicals in this narrow range will
work well as an antibiotic?") The method is used widely in many disciplines, such as polymer technology to find
new polymer types or families.
The scientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of
hypotheses. Also compare genetic algorithms, simulated annealing and reinforcement learning - all varieties for
search which apply the basic idea of trial and error.
Biological evolution is also a form of trial and error. Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed
as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of
well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce.
Bogosort, a conceptual sorting algorithm (that is extremely inefficient and impractical), can be viewed as a trial and
error approach to sorting a list. However, typical simple examples of bogosort do not track which orders of the list
have been tried and may try the same order any number of times, which violates one of the basic principles of trial
and error. Trial and error is actually more efficient and practical than bogosort; unlike bogosort, it is guaranteed to
halt in finite time on a finite list, and might even be a reasonable way to sort extremely short lists under some
conditions.

Issues with trial and error

Trial and error is usually a last resort for a particular problem, as there are a number of problems with it. For one,
trial and error is tedious and monotonous. Also, it is very time-consuming; chemical engineers must sift through
millions of various potential chemicals before they find one that works. There is also an element of risk, in that if a
certain attempt at a solution is extremely erroneous, it can produce disastrous results that may or may not be
repairable. Fortunately, computers are best suited for trial and error; they do not succumb to the boredom that
humans do, can test physical challenges in a virtual environment where they will not do harm, and can potentially do
thousands of trial-and-error segments in the blink of an eye.

References
• Ashby, W. R. (1960: Second Edition). Design for a Brain. Chapman & Hall: London.
• Traill, R.R. (1978/2006). Molecular explanation for intelligence…, Brunel University Thesis, HDL.handle.net [2]
• Traill, R.R. (2008). Thinking by Molecule, Synapse, or both? — From Piaget’s Schema, to the Selecting/Editing
of ncRNA. Ondwelle: Melbourne. Ondwelle.com [3] — or French version Ondwelle.com. [4]

Notes
[1] Coding Horror: Fail Early, Fail Often (http:/ / www. codinghorror. com/ blog/ archives/ 000576. html)
[2] http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 2438/ 729
[3] http:/ / www. ondwelle. com/ OSM02. pdf
[4] http:/ / www. ondwelle. com/ FrSM02. pdf
Unknotting problem 122

Unknotting problem
In mathematics, the unknotting problem is the problem of algorithmically recognizing the unknot, given some
representation of a knot, e.g., a knot diagram. There are several types of unknotting algorithms. A major unresolved
challenge is to determine if the problem admits a polynomial time algorithm, that is, whether the problem lies in the
complexity class P.

Computational complexity
First steps toward determining the computational complexity were undertaken in proving that the problem is in
larger complexity classes, which contain the class P. By using normal surfaces to describe the Seifert surfaces of a
given knot, Hass, Lagarias and Pippenger showed that the unknotting problem is in the complexity class NP,[1] and it
is also known to belong to the intersection AM coAM. Ian Agol has claimed a proof that unknotting is in NP
co-NP[2] . Since AM is a generalization of NP, the above mentioned complexity classes are related by the following
sequence of set inclusions: .
The unknotting problem has the same computational complexity as testing whether an embedding of an undirected
graph in Euclidean space is linkless.[3]

Unknotting algorithms
Some known algorithms solving the unknotting problem include:
• Haken's algorithm - uses the theory of normal surfaces to check for a normal disc bound by the knot
• An upper bound (exponential in crossing number) exists on the number of Reidemeister moves needed to change
an unknot diagram to the standard unknot diagram, from the work of Hass and Lagarias on Reidemeister moves.
This lends itself for a (very slow) brute-force search algorithm.
• Birman-Hirsch algorithm - uses braid foliations
• Residual finiteness of the knot group (which follows from geometrization of Haken manifolds) gives a rather
inefficient algorithm: check if the group has a representation into a symmetric group with non-cyclic image while
simultaneously attempting to produce a subdivision of the triangulated complement that is equivalent to a
subdivision of the triangulated solid torus.
• Knot Floer homology of the knot detects the genus of the knot, which is 0 if and only if the knot is an unknot. A
combinatorial version of knot Floer homology allows a straightforward computation.
• Khovanov homology detects the unknot according to a result of Kronheimer and Mrowka[4] . Khovanov
homology can be computed reasonably efficiently, for instance using a program by Dror Bar-Natan.
Understanding the complexity of these algorithms is an active field of study.

Notes
[1] Hass, Lagarias & Pippinger (1999).
[2] Agol (2002)
[3] Kawarabayashi, Kreutzer & Mohar (2010).
[4] Kronheimer & Mrowka (2010)

References
• Masao Hara, Seiichi Tani and Makoto Yamamoto. Unknotting is in . Proceedings of the
ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA), 2005
• Ian Agol. Knot genus is NP. Web page with scanned talk slides (http://www.math.uic.edu/~agol/coNP/
coNP1.html)
Unknotting problem 123

• Wolfgang Haken, Theorie der Normalflächen. Acta Math. 105 (1961) 245–375 (Haken's algorithm)
• Joan S. Birman; Michael Hirsch, A new algorithm for recognizing the unknot. (http://dx.doi.org/10.2140/gt.
1998.2.175) Geometry and Topology 2 (1998), 178–220.
• Hass, Joel; Lagarias, Jeffrey C.; Pippenger, Nicholas (1999), "The computational complexity of knot and link
problems", Journal of the ACM 46 (2): 185–211, doi:10.1145/301970.301971, arXiv:math/9807016.
• Joel Hass; Jeffrey Lagarias, The number of Reidemeister moves needed for unknotting. J. Amer. Math. Soc. 14
(2001), no. 2, 399–428
• Kawarabayashi, Ken-ichi; Kreutzer, Stephan; Mohar, Bojan (2010), "Linkless and flat embeddings in 3-space and
the unknot problem", Proc. ACM Symposium on Computational Geometry (SoCG '10), pp. 97–106,
doi:10.1145/1810959.1810975.
• Kronheimer, Tomasz; Mrowka (2010), "Khovanov homology is an unknot-detector", arXiv:1005.4346

External links
• Complexity Zoo (http://qwiki.stanford.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo) provides information about complexity
classes and their inclusion relations.
Article Sources and Contributors 124

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Dualism (philosophy of mind)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425037918  Contributors: A.K.A.47, A.Ou, ADM, Aaron McDaid, Academic Challenger, AdjustShift,
Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alexkon, Anarchia, Andres, Antonielly, Apierrot, Aydee, BMF81, Baron Vonn Apricot, Batmanand, Beao, Belovedfreak, BigFatBuddha, Bináris, Blainster, Boing! said
Zebedee, Bradtcordeiro, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadianism, Capibara, Carlo.Ierna, Cassowary, Cholma3, Chris the speller, Chrisscrewball, Christofurio, Cmdrjameson, Colin
MacLaurin, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Connelly, Corbmobile, Cultdoctor, DabMachine, Dan Smedra, Danielba894, Dave T Hobbit, David Ludwig, David R. Ingham, Davidegg,
DividedByNegativeZero, Doprendek, Drichardson, Dvakili, EEng, EPadmirateur, EatAlbertaBeef, EconoPhysicist, Edhubbard, Ekotkie, El C, Emptymountains, Epbr123, Erianna, Evercat, Exa,
Foobar, FoolsWar, Gaius Cornelius, Gardener of Geda, Getmegetnet, Goethean, Goplat, Grant M, Gregbard, GuelphGryphon98, Hairhorn, Hce1132, Helgig1, IMneme, Intelati, Iviney, J04n, John
of Reading, JonatasM, JosiahHenderson, K-UNIT, KYPark, Karol Langner, Katiker, Kevinwiseman, Kozuch, Kripkenstein, Kungfuadam, Kusyadi, Lacatosias, Leninist, Lettergram, LilHelpa,
Littlealien182, Looie496, LostAccount, Lucidish, Mackinaw, Magioladitis, Mangoe, Marshall banana, Maskinonge, MatthewDBA, Mauro Bieg, Mdd, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Michael
Keats, Mikechinme, Mikespenard, MonkeeSage, MrJones, Nixdorf, Nonick, Notheruser, Nwh5305, ObfuscatePenguin, Onodevo, Osairuit, Outriggr, Owl, Owlmonkey, Paul Hope, Pearle, Per
Olofsson, PeterMenard, PinkPantherZG, Piotrus, RDF, RHaworth, Ragesoss, Random user 39849958, RashmiPatel, RedHillian, Reedy, ReggieStrason, Reinis, Remi0o, Renamed user 4,
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Snowded, Snoyes, Superbeatles, Surferhere, T-borg, Tecnotut, Tennenrishin, Tesseract2, Thecheesykid, Tim Starling, Timwi, Tregoweth, Uncle G, User A1, VanguardMetal, Velella, Wavy G,
Wayne.sagon, WhiteC, Wikiklrsc, Wikiwikifast, Yaar420420, YellowMonkey, Yorick8080, Zenohockey, 287 anonymous edits

Empirical  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425231540  Contributors: Al Azif, Ale And Quail, Apterygial, Bala990, Bjankuloski06en, Carolyn 3300, Chowbok,
ChrisfromHouston, Danneckar, Dark Lord of the Sith, DianaGaleM, Eurleif, Falcon8765, Filll, Freder1ck, Geboy, Glenn, Gorillasapiens, Hammer1980, Ingolfson, Ioeth, J.delanoy, Jagged 85,
Jmath666, Joepzander, JordanSeymore, Jrtayloriv, Just Another Dan, K, Kaihsu, Kathryn Whitney, Kenyon, Khanssen, Legoland12342, Levineps, LogoX, Madbull, Martinphi, Mcgee123, Mdd,
Melcombe, Memming, Michael Hardy, Mikael Häggström, Mikejens, Mvuijlst, Ncosmob, Newbyguesses, Nihil novi, Normxxx, PeregrineAY, Phoenix2, Piotrus, Poopsmith21, RL0919, Raven
in Orbit, Removepam, Ronhjones, Runch, Rurik3, Scolaire, ShaunMacPherson, Srich32977, Stevertigo, Taak, TheM62Manchester, Theo10011, ThomasPusch, Thumperward, Tktktk,
Trabucogold, Travelbird, Twinsday, VolatileChemical, Wayne Slam, Wortafad, 100 anonymous edits

Gestalt psychology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422956377  Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, APH, Alan De Smet, Alansohn, Anomalocaris, Arthena, Ashmoo, Axeman89,
BLueFiSH.as, Barrylb, Bcorr, BenC7, Benski, Beve, Blah28948, Blauhaus, Bovineone, Brennanyoung, C.judeaquino, CDN99, Carlo.Ierna, Chaos, Charles Matthews, Chasie, Chris the speller,
Christopher, Christopher Parham, Christopherdgreen, Cindreta, Cullinane, DXBari, DaemonDice, Dalg91, Damiantgordon, David Ludwig, DoctorW, Doczilla, Donald Albury,
DragonflySixtyseven, Dwarf Kirlston, Eagletm, Eden Fairbanks, Edhubbard, Ehheh, ExplicitImplicity, Famousdog, Forlornturtle, Former user, Frédérick Lacasse, Furyo Mori, Gcbwiki,
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JM.Beaubourg, Jason Vanderhill, Jeffmcneill, Jleedev, Joelr31, John Cho, Julia Rossi, Juliancolton, Jun Kyung Kim, KES47, KMQ0729, KRS, Kate, Kgeza7, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knutux, Koavf,
Kristamaranatha, Kzollman, Lambiam, Lestrade, Lexi Marie, Liface, Lightdarkness, Linkspamremover, Lova Falk, Luizalves, Mak Thorpe, Mamawrites, Marudubshinki, Matt Yeager, Mattisse,
Matveims, Mav, McGeddon, Melchoir, Menchi, Metaprimer, Morimom, Morton Shumway, Mr.troughton, MrOllie, Mydrian, NawlinWiki, Neilc, NeuronExMachina, NiklasBr, Nono64,
Oicumayberight, Oneiros, Pataki Márta, Petr Kopač, Philip Trueman, Piotrus, Pnm, Raven in Orbit, Reedy, Resqui, RheingoldRiver, RichardF, Rjwilmsi, Romanofski, Ronabop, Ronz, Rtwerk,
Sahowell, Sandman2007, Sardanaphalus, Schwnj, Seventysevens, Shanes, Shumdw, Sigbhu, SimonP, Slehar, Soulfulscience, Spinality, Stemonitis, Stimpy, Taak, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Tierlieb, Tifego, Tillwe, Timwarneka, Turhaya, Ucm09, Unfree, Vaughan, Vianello, Vladimir Volokhonsky, Voomoo, Vrenator, Walidhawana, Wgtwhitfield, WikipedianMarlith, Woohookitty,
X-factor, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yekrats, Zhaladshar, Zzuuzz, 261 anonymous edits

Heuristic  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424719378  Contributors: 2D, Aapo Laitinen, Aaronoakley, Ahoerstemeier, AlanUS, Alexbrewer, Alice, Altenmann, Alusayman,
Ancheta Wis, AndriuZ, Andy120290, Andycjp, Anomalocaris, Anthony, Anthonzi, Arlo Barnes, Bcasterline, Belasted, BenKovitz, Bennó, Beve, Bladestorm, Bobblewik, Bookuser, Charles
Matthews, CharlesGillingham, Chendols, Clossius, Cogpsych, Colfer2, Conejorojo, Cyan, Cyneve, Cyrius, DCDuring, DainLoves, Danno uk, Debeo Morium, Deepstratagem, Deflective,
DeutscherStahl, Dicklyon, Dreadstar, ELApro, El C, Elizabeth84, Email4mobile, Epashou, Felicecumpeta, Fixmacs, Fordmadoxfraud, Fplay, Francob, Fred Bauder, Fuzzform, George100,
Article Sources and Contributors 125

Giftlite, Gilgamesh, Gogo Dodo, Grantsky, Grivantian, Ham Pastrami, Hamard Evitiatini, HappyDog, IncognitoErgoSum, Irontightarguments, It Is Me Here, J. Finkelstein, J.delanoy,
JamesBWatson, Jclemens, JimmyShelter, Joconnor, Johannes Simon, Johnkarp, Jonathan.s.kt, Jose Ramos, Joshhoyt97, Joychowdhury2009, K.C. Tang, K.anvesh87, Kimberleyporter,
KnightRider, Kwamikagami, LX, Leafpeeper, Lee Daniel Crocker, LilHelpa, Logan, Loren.wilton, Lothar76, LoveMonkey, Lucidish, Luna Santin, Lunaverse, MKil, Marcieri, Marco Krohn,
Martarius, MartinPoulter, Matthew Stannard, Maximus Rex, Mellum, Michael Hardy, MrOllie, MrYdobon, Mssetiadi, Muspilli, Nanshu, Nbarth, Nectarflowed, Neutrality, Newbyguesses, Nikai,
Ninly, Noetica, Nomad, Oaktreedave, Orcrist, Paul Niquette, Penni17, Peterlewis, Philip Trueman, Philosotox, Phlegat, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Pointblankstare, Qazmun, Quest for Truth,
RadicalBender, Rankiri, Rdummarf, RedHouse18, Reginalafferty, RexNL, Robert K S, Rocko1124, Romanm, Ronz, RoyalTS, Rrius, S Roper, Salgueiro, Samwaltz, Samwb123, Schmeitgeist,
Serranopoint, Shantavira, Simon Kilpin, SlackerMom, Snoyes, Spiral5800, Spitfire, Sslevine, Stephen378, Stereotek, Stevertigo, Sundar, TRMc, Taak, Tcncv, TeamZissou, Teapotgeorge,
Tenmei, Tesseract2, The Anome, The wub, TheSoundAndTheFury, Theonemacduff, Thesilverbail, Thorwald, Thumperward, Tide rolls, Timneu22, Tnolley, Tompsci, Troped, Typofier, UkPaolo,
Uncle Dick, Updatehelper, Varlaam, Victor Chmara, VinceyB, Waveguy, Weerasad, Wereon, Whoosit, Wik, Wolfdog, XJamRastafire, Xaxafrad, Xosé, Xp54321, Yakovsh, 297 anonymous edits

Hidden curriculum  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=415366795  Contributors: Aboluay, Ahoerstemeier, Andycjp, AntelopeInSearchOfTruth, Antonielly, Anville,
BridgeBuilderKiwi, Carsonc, Cgingold, Cherlin, D-Rock, David Schaich, Deville, Dynesepp, E Wing, Ewlyahoocom, Fasten, Frau Holle, Freechild, Grebonute, Ijon, James A Whitson,
Johnleemk, Jtneill, Kukini, Lauren1805, Lph, Matt1314, Mercy, Moskvax, Mr Stephen, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Ot, Psflasch, RLG72, ReSearcher, RichardF, Rixs, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
TarynNicole, The Rationalist, TimNelson, Tlevine, 45 anonymous edits

Lateral thinking  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417105847  Contributors: 1234R6789, 7, Aaron Kauppi, AbsolutDan, Ad.shannon, Adi4094, Ahoerstemeier, Aleksandrit,
Ales.78, Alvestrand, Ancheta Wis, Andrew Bronx, AndriuZ, Aumaan, Badly, Balster neb, Barbara Shack, Barek, Bart133, Bcjordan, Beast from the Bush, Bobblewik, Bssc, Bushytails,
Chancehoney, Charles Matthews, Cirt, ClementSeveillac, Clippership, Conundrumer, Crooked, Cyraan, Czolgolz, DaGizza, Dabomb87, Damian Yerrick, Danelo, DannyStevens, Daveydweeb,
David Gerard, Ddon, Dr. Lucifer, Dtobias, Faradayplank, Festinalente, Franis, Fred Bauder, Furrykef, Fxbx, Gerbrant, Gondwanabanana, Grstain, Heroeswithmetaphors, Hunterhogan,
IdLoveOne, Ignitis, Inquisitus, Isaacdealey, Itsani07, J.delanoy, JackofOz, Jaschofield, Jedibob5, Jeff3000, Jjzanath, JohannesMarat, John254, Kaihsu, Kbdank71, Kerfuffle53, Kingnosis,
KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Kpjas, KramerNL, Kreb Dragonrider, Kwantada, Letranova, Light current, LuoShengli, Mac Davis, Marskell, Matt Crypto, MattieTK, Mattisse, Maurice Carbonaro,
McGeddon, Michael Hardy, Michael hewitt-gleeson, Mridul.26, Mukkakukaku, Mumblingmynah, Mwanner, Nabeth, NeonMerlin, Nerf, Nihiltres, Notheruser, Odikuas, Olathe, Oppthinker,
Pakaran, Pcap, Pentasyllabic, Pi, RedAlgorithm, Reinyday, Rememberway, Rich Farmbrough, Rkitko, Ronz, Root4(one), Rumpelstiltskin223, Ryankit, Samsara, Savio sebastian, Shah.bhumir,
Shantavira, Signalhead, Siroxo, SpaceFlight89, Spalding, Stelv, Sunils2cool, Suntag, TAPContributor, Tcurwick, The Haunted Angel, UK-Logician-2006, UnitedStatesian, Useight, Vijay.simha7,
Visium, Vithos, Vuo, Wayne Miller, Werdna, Which dan, Wikicheng, Wikisculptor, Woohookitty, Xaa, Zagrebo, Zweifel, 274 anonymous edits

Mathematical morphology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422768084  Contributors: 16@r, Adelpine, Alpha Quadrant, Amakuru, AxelBoldt, CXCV, Charles Matthews,
D6, DVdm, Dai mingjie, Damian Yerrick, DePiep, Erik Garrison, Folajimi, HenningThielemann, Isnow, JaGa, Jncraton, John of Reading, Jorge Stolfi, Kingpin13, Lamoidfl, LeaveSleaves, Linas,
LindsayH, Martious, Mbell, Pakaraki, Pdcook, R'n'B, Radagast83, Renatokeshet, Robintw147, Salix alba, Schmloof, Skittleys, Steadysteveo, The Firewall, Will Beback Auto, Wprlh, 64
anonymous edits

Montessori sensorial materials  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=421219346  Contributors: BigDunc, CliffC, Fiona lynch, GoingBatty, MattThePuppetGuy, Micru,
Naveen-sa, Ninly, Plustgarten, Rjwilmsi, Seberle, T.woelk, 17 anonymous edits

Object (philosophy)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=421278872  Contributors: 20040302, AlexNichols, Altenmann, Angr, Antoni Barau, AxelBoldt, Barkeep, Barticus88,
Bolzanist, Centralnick805, Cuaxdon, Dfsjhk1234, Dl2000, Drunken Pirate, Ed Poor, Fallenangel5592, Fredddddy, Galoubet, Giangian15, Gmelli, Godofbiscuits, Gossip, Gregbard, Hans Adler,
Hockeyguy4482, J04n, Jeff3000, Jon Awbrey, Jose Ramos, Justinjmac13, K, Kanjy, Karol Langner, KnightRider, Koakhtzvigad, Kzollman, Lankiveil, Levineps, Linnell, Maxim, Mdd,
MiNombreDeGuerra, MrOllie, Nick Number, Niculaegeorgepion, Nosbig, Ontoraul, Owen, Peak, Petersa14, Qwyrxian, Radagast83, Razorflame, Rodasmith, Santa Sangre,
Spamisbadforugoodforme, T g7, T of Locri, TakuyaMurata, The Anome, The Cunctator, The Tetrast, The Thing That Should Not Be, The world deserves the truth, Tomisti, Tzler, Wik,
Wingspeed, With goodness in mind, Yidisheryid, Yoninah, Zophar1, 67 anonymous edits

Object of the mind  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423829206  Contributors: Aaron Kauppi, Adi4094, Banno, Barticus88, Bradtcordeiro, ChrisCork, DGG, Doczilla, Dpv,
Fang Aili, FiachraByrne, Gondwanabanana, Gregbard, LilHelpa, Mattisse, Mdd, Melchoir, Oleg Alexandrov, Oneismany, Pegship, Peterdjones, Planetneutral, SDC, Shay Guy, Tomisti,
Wawawemn, William M. Connolley, Woohookitty, Wtshymanski, ZuluPapa5, 2 anonymous edits

Packing problem  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423480373  Contributors: -Ril-, 99of9, Akriasas, Arthur Rubin, Atlantima, BD2412, Bando26, Berberisb, BigrTex,
Blotwell, Blueyoshi321, Bryan Derksen, CRGreathouse, Calcyman, Captainj, Charles Matthews, Chuunen Baka, Cngoulimis, DanMS, Danny Rathjens, Dcoetzee, Dmcq, Do262, Dominus,
Dysprosia, Etaoin, Falcor84, Gadykozma, Gamma, Giftlite, Gimutsh, Grendelkhan, Jessemerriman, JocK, Karlscherer3, Karol Langner, Koko90, Kwertii, Leon math, Leonard G., LokiClock,
Maksim-e, Michael Hardy, Mikeblas, Mikiemike, PMajer, PV=nRT, Paul August, Pleasantville, R'n'B, RMcGuigan, Rettetast, Rolling Man, Samohyl Jan, SharkD, Shreevatsa, Sigma 7, SimonP,
Sjakkalle, Slike2, Tamfang, Tea with toast, Timwi, Toon81, Tosha, UdovdM, WAREL, WhiteCrane, Wiki5d, Woohookitty, Ylloh, 62 anonymous edits

Poiesis  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340177103  Contributors: ApolloCreed, BD2412, Carillonista, Danielgrad, Dbachmann, Deucalionite, Elijahmeeks, Filos96, Gwinna,
Iancarter, MPerel, NatusRoma, Netizen, Ngies, Optigan13, Pearle, Pollinosisss, Rayana fazli, TheProject, Xyzzyplugh, 11 anonymous edits

Praxis (process)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422619252  Contributors: Adhib, Adoniscik, Akadave, Alan Liefting, Andycjp, B9 hummingbird hovering, Beland, Bjorn
Martiz, Blanchette, Bruxism, Bryan Derksen, Btatliness, Ceyockey, Charles Matthews, Chrisjwmartin, Chtirrell, Coordinatezero, Damian Yerrick, DemonOWA, Development now, Dracunculus,
ENeville, EPM, El C, Epastore, Freechild, Frymaster, Globalstudent83, Habituspraxis, Hanshans23, Ispivak22, JMD, Jaime abc, Joshua Issac, Kas-nik, Kctucker, La goutte de pluie, Levineps,
M3taphysical, Markalanfoster, Metacosm, MichaelMaggs, Miranche, MrOllie, Nasa-verve, Nopetro, Omnipaedista, Orangemike, Phronetic, Rakkar, Reinderien, RodC, Schi, Smallman12q,
Smithfarm, Spoonriver, Tbutler, Thumperward, Versageek, Vincej, WikiSkeptic, Xavexgoem, 56 anonymous edits

Semantic similarity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414744033  Contributors: AKA MBG, Babbage, Chaabat2, Chris Capoccia, Cldamat, Dreftymac, Dsbatista, Fortdj33,
Gabr, Iridescent, Jotomicron, Jvhertum, K. Annoyomous, Kku, Kuru, Lysy, Michael Hardy, Rama, TerriersFan, Unkx80, Vdannyv, Xicouto, YK Times, 34 anonymous edits

Serendipity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425003408  Contributors: 6birc, Ac rainer, Acdx, Adam78, AdderUser, Aewold, AlainV, Alansohn, Alberrosidus, Amatulic,
Anarchia, AndrewHowse, Anonymous Dissident, ArglebargleIV, ArkinAardvark, Art Carlson, Arthena, Aschwole, Atlan, Auntof6, AxelBoldt, B9 hummingbird hovering, B9findings, Bastin,
Beland, Bender235, Bigmac31, Bishonen, Black Falcon, Blackknight12, Blacklemon67, Blahm, Blanchardb, BlueBeach, Bob9111, Bobber0001, Bonus Onus, Borgx, Bradley0110, Brendan
Moody, Brendan19, Briantw, BrunoAssis, Bxmuchacho, CAN, Canuckguy, CapitalR, Carcharoth, Ceefour, Chairman S., ChicXulub, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Clarityfiend, Coemgenus,
Connecto, Conversion script, Cootiequits, CroydThoth, Cupidvogel, Cyclopia, DS1953, Daibhid C, Dandelions, Darkonc, David Latapie, Deadstar, Diamonddavej, Diberri, Doco, Download,
DragonflySixtyseven, Dsp13, Dwelden, El C, Elmer Clark, Em Mitchell, Enfieldfalls, Entropy1963, Enviroboy, Eric-Wester, Evan-Amos, Falcon8765, Fama Clamosa, Faradayplank, Fazdabest,
Femmina, Flewis, FructoseFred, Fyyer, Gaius Cornelius, Gasheadsteve, Gaurav, Gegalao, Geniac, Gioto, GirasoleDE, GoDawgs, Graham87, Gregbard, GuidoJJ, Gurch, Harpmj, Hoffmeier,
Hordaland, Icairns, Ingolfson, JALockhart, JRinPDX, Ja 62, Janet Davis, Jcampos, Jeff3000, Jelite, Jeltz, Jerzy, Jfdwolff, Joedeshon, John M Baker, Johnrpenner, Jonasserendipity, JosefBar, Julia
Rossi, Juliancolton, K.C. Tang, KF, KFP, Kadoo, Kauwika, Kgf0, Khalid hassani, Knulclunk, KoenBinwa, Lambiam, Landak, Largoplazo, Ld100, Leafclover, LedgendGamer, Legare,
Lindsay658, Little hamster, Lotje, Louis, Lova Falk, Luk, Luna Santin, Lupin, Lyrl, MackSalmon, Mahanga, Malcolm Farmer, Malcolmxl5, Marcos, Markeilz, MarkkityMark, Marnie57, Mattbr,
McLahan, Meetadd, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minesweeper, Mintguy, Mishav, Mormegil, Mousy, Mullising, Murray.booth, Mwanner, Nabeth, Nbarth, Nehwyn, Neksys, Nepaheshgar, Nirvana2013,
Njaard, Nonpareility, Nrcprm2026, Numpty999, Oatmeal batman, Olivier, Omphaloscope, Open2universe, OrangeDog, Oxymoron83, PamD, Parsigoo, Peak, Pejman47, Peter Delmonte,
Peterlewis, Peyre, Pfaoro, Piano non troppo, Pinkadelica, Pixel ;-), Pol098, Printer222, Probios, Quibik, R'n'B, Ragesoss, Rallette, Randywombat, Remco47, Riana, Rich Farmbrough,
Ricky81682, Robert Daoust, RockMFR, Rotring, Rsabbatini, Rsubramanian, Russoc4, SLi, Samosa Poderosa, Samtheboy, Saxifrage, Sbfw, Sburke, SchmuckyTheCat, Scott Wilson,
Seanwal111111, Serendeva, Shai-kun, Shrisharang, SidneyIam, Sietse Snel, Simone, Sindhbadh, Skunkboy74, Sonyack, Sorenriise, Spfanstiel, SpuriousQ, SqueakBox, SteinbDJ, Stw,
Supertouch, Supreme Deliciousness, T-borg, Take this curve, Tdoublenineone, Tedmund, Tendim, Terrek, Thannan, That Guy, From That Show!, The Ogre, The editor1, TheSensei,
Thumperward, Tide rolls, Tillwe, Tim bates, Tlroche, Toby Bartels, Tom harrison, Tomv, Tony Myers, Tony Sidaway, Tonypne, Tonyrex, Toytoy, Tremilux, Twsx, UltraMagnus, Unschool,
Vald, VascoAmaral, Vekoler, Vickyteke, Vishnava, Vladimir.frolov, VolatileChemical, WLU, Wakablogger2, Waldir, Walkerma, Wayne Miller, West.andrew.g, Widefox, Wknight94,
WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Yarn Sandwich, Yintan, ‫طبلا يلع نسح‬, ‫یکیو یلع‬, 百家姓之四, 416 anonymous edits

Similarity (geometry)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424439851  Contributors: 6birc, Agutie, Aleph4, AugPi, AxelBoldt, BenFrantzDale, Bernhard Bauer, Bleakcomb,
Bobo192, Bubuka, Calltech, Charles Matthews, ConCompS, Dbenbenn, Dbfirs, Dcljr, Dmcq, Download, Dynaflow, Dysprosia, Erud, Erzbischof, Expedition brilliancy, Foobaz, Fram,
Freshacconci, Gandalf61, Gauge, Geekygator, Gene.arboit, Ghazer, Giftlite, Halcyonhazard, HannsEwald, Happenstantially, Henning Makholm, Herbee, IronGargoyle, Isall, Isnow, J.delanoy,
John Reid, Johnkarp, Justinhwang1996, Karlscherer3, Katalaveno, Kayau, Kku, Krauss, Lambiam, Marino-slo, Mhaitham.shammaa, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mpatel, Mr.Prithz,
Mr.gondolier, MrOllie, Nassr, NellieBly, NerdyScienceDude, Noetica, Patrick, PierreAbbat, PigFlu Oink, Pizza1512, PrestonH, Rama, Rgdboer, RoyBoy, Running, Salgueiro, Salix alba, Se0808,
Seberle, Shinli256, Silly rabbit, Slysplace, Snbritishfreak, Spiritia, Splintax, Susfele, Svein Olav Nyberg, Tarquin, Tom harrison, Tom.schramm, Tosha, UsüF, Vegetator, Vrkunkel,
WhiteHatLurker, Woohookitty, Wshun, Youmils03, 96 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 126

Skill  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423541386  Contributors: 3d1tb0y, Acidburn24m, Aitias, Al Lemos, Alansohn, Alexius08, Ancheta Wis, Angr, Arno Matthias, Arthena,
BD2412, Beland, Betterusername, Blue wave, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bvavasseur, CHJL, CWenger, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, ChemGardener, Chris the speller, Chris53516,
Courcelles, DCDuring, Dan Polansky, Daxmaryrussel, Dessimoz, Dianeheudier, Diannaa, Diderot, Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003, Dway22, E. Ripley, Earlbasset, Edison, Edward, Edward130603,
Elef123, Eliz81, EnDaLeCoMpLeX, Epbr123, Erkan Yilmaz, F-451, Faradayplank, FiP, Fish and karate, Foobarnix, Galoubet, Gandyolf1, Glenn, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Gtrmp, HairyPerry,
Heimstern, HelgeStenstrom, Hertz1888, Hmains, Housewp, Hsz, Icairns, JForget, Jchavka2, John9blue, Jopope, Jpbowen, Julian Mendez, Jwray1, KNHaw, Kbh3rd, Kenny Michaels, Kenny sh,
Kjkolb, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kubigula, Kvdveer, KyraVixen, Largoplazo, Libcub, Lights, Lox, MC10, Madcoverboy, Madjohnflint, Mailer diablo, Malafaya, Marek69, Maurreen, Maxim, Mdwh,
Mixer, Mohamed Magdy, MrOllie, Nabeth, NawlinWiki, Neelix, NellieBly, NickW557, Nilesh101, NurseryRhyme, Ohnoitsjamie, Olivier C (fr), Omicronpersei8, Orphan Wiki, Otolemur
crassicaudatus, OverlordQ, Petr Kopač, Petrkral, Phoenixthebird, PoptartKing, Proficient, Qxz, R'n'B, RedWolf, Reevasso, Rhys2k7, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, Rode idias, Roni you, Ronz,
S.Örvarr.S, S199715237, Sammahr, Shadowjams, Skill123, Snow74675, Solice kirsk, Specs112, Standoor, Stephenb, Stillwaterising, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub,
Tnxman307, Tubby, Ufim, Uuu87, WOSlinker, Wayland, WhatamIdoing, Wikepedia99, Wikieditor06, Wikipelli, Wochesfat, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yidisheryid, Δρακόλακκος, 233 anonymous
edits

Strange loop  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=415699037  Contributors: 7&6=thirteen, Arvash, Bryan Derksen, C8755, CBM, Charmquark0, Conti, CyberSkull, Damian
Yerrick, DancingMan, DanielAmelang, DanielCristofani, DeXXus, Diza, Doctormatt, Dogman15, Don Warren, DrFirefox, Drhoehl, Dudecon, Emurphy42, Errorx666, Fibonacci, Fredrik,
Furrykef, Gpvos, Gustavocarra, Hgilbert, JForget, JM.Beaubourg, JTGILLICK, Jahiegel, Jarhed, Jason Quinn, Jcorgan, Karada, Katyism, Kevinkor2, Kzollman, Letranova, Liberatus, Light
current, Luna Whistler, Mac Davis, Michael Hardy, Mrwojo, Ophion, PaulTanenbaum, Phansen, Pizza pizza pie, Plazman, Pollinosisss, Prari, Reedy, Remy B, Robharper, Rootbeer, Shadowlapis,
Sjeng, Smith609, SmokeyTheCat, Soap, Socrates123b, Tasty monster, TechnoFaye, The wub, Thumperward, Twas Now, Uberhill, Verne Equinox, Vininim, 84 anonymous edits

Syncretism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425235871  Contributors: 0, 119, 200.255.83.xxx, 213.253.40.xxx, 4pq1injbok, 7, ADM, Aaron Solomon Adelman,
Adrianhaight, Ajevic, Albert Non, Altenmann, Alvis, Anakolouthon, Andres, AndrewTReynolds, Andy Marchbanks, Angr, Aoi, Artifice242, Ascánder, Ashley Y, Avazina, Azate, B9
hummingbird hovering, BD2412, Bart133, Barticus88, Bastin, Beland, Ben Babcock, Benne, Beoran, Beyond My Ken, Bforte, Big Adamsky, BlackAndy, Bob Burkhardt, Borgx, Bradtcordeiro,
Bym007, CRGreathouse, Carlaude, CheeseDreams, Cherylyoung, Chris Bainbridge, ChristianEdwardGruber, Cladeal832, Cpq29gpl, Cstreet, CuteHappyBrute, DCGeist, DO'Neil, Da Stressor,
Dam59, Davidbanuelos, Dbachmann, Deadlygio, Delirium, Dfitzgerald, Diderot, Dirdum, DonDaMon, Donatus, DrGuled, Dreadstar, E. Ripley, Earendill, Editor2020, El C, El aprendelenguas,
Ellywa, Epiphyllumlover, Error, Espoo, Estudiarme, Euthydemos, Evb-wiki, F. Lee Horn, Fayenatic london, Frater5, Freelance Intellectual, FreplySpang, Garion96, Gary D, GeoGreg,
GoldenMeadows, Graham87, Gregbard, Gschadow, Gscshoyru, Hajor, Harvester, Hasta Nakshatra, Hede2000, Herostratus, Hintha, Hotblaster, Hukkinen, Humansdorpie, IZAK, Ihcoyc, Indon,
Iranway, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jakes18, Jarhed, Jbenhill, Jdemarcos, Jds, Jeff3000, Jerzy, Jghuman2, Jmcc150, JohnSawyer, JonMoore, Jonabbey, Jorge Stolfi, Joriki, JoyUnspeakable, Keraunos,
Kintetsubuffalo, Kjkolb, Kkrystian, Koavf, Kostantino888Z, Kwamikagami, Kwork, KyraVixen, Languagehat, Laryaghat, Leutha, Libertyernie2, Liftarn, Lihaas, Llamabr, Logologist,
Loremaster, LoveMonkey, Lubap, MARussellPESE, Magnus Manske, Mann jess, Mattis, Maximus Rex, Mbaudier, Michael Hardy, MichaelTinkler, Middayexpress, Mike2000, Mirv, Mjk2357,
Mr. Christian, Mrcolj, Mrendo, Munci, Nareek, Nathans, Navidazizi, Neelix, NicM, Nixdorf, No Account, Notmyrealname, Ntropie, Nuudlpop, OlEnglish, Onodevo, P M Yonge, PBS-AWB,
PRMerkley, Parkwells, Patrick Faas, PaulHammond, Pedant17, Phalanxpursos, Phil Bordelon, PhilipMW, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Pigottsm, Piledhigheranddeeper, PleaseStand, Psiphiorg,
Ramayan, Rasmus Faber, Redhughs, Rekleov, Rich Farmbrough, Rickyrab, Robertcurrey, Romarin, Rotem Dan, RoyBoy, Rrburke, Rursus, RustDragon, STGM, Sakkura, SamuelTheGhost,
Scipius, Scix, Sfdan, Silence, Simon D M, Skapur, Skier Dude, Someone65, SqueakBox, Squideshi, Star Mississippi, Strike Freedom Gundam, Sunray, Sysy, Talcos, Tawker, Terot, The
Rationalist, The Wrong Man, The sock that should not be, TheMcManusBro, Themoodyblue, Thue, Timo Laine, Tobias Hoevekamp, TomMc, Topbanana, Toussaint, Ts252, Tydaj, Ungtss,
Vegetator, Versus22, Vice regent, WRK, Wavelength, Wesley, Wetman, Whiner01, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, 296 anonymous edits

Techne  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418536170  Contributors: Adlerscout, Anarchia, CuteHappyBrute, Cybercobra, DBaba, Deucalionite, Doremítzwr, Elijahmeeks,
EmilJ, Goldenrowley, Gwythoff, Ironie, Jlg4104, Karada, Knotwork, Kwamikagami, Magarmach, Mauls, Michael Hardy, Miller52, Oddible, Omnipedian, Pablosecca, Pollinosisss, Ragesoss,
Rayana fazli, Remuel, Sardanaphalus, Tomisti, Wareh, Xyzzyplugh, 17 anonymous edits

Tessellation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425093479  Contributors: -Ril-, 100110100, 345Kai, ABF, Aaronbrick, Acather96, Adambro, AgentCDE, Aitias, Alansohn,
Albedo, Alemily, Alexandroid, Alindsey, Alro, Altenmann, Ambarsande, Amcfreely, Andromedabluesphere440, Andycjp, Andypandy.UK, ArmadilloFromHell, Asav, Ascidian, Atif.t2, Attilios,
BeccaNixon09, Ben Ben, Ben Standeven, Bhadani, Bjørn som tegner, Blanchardb, Blobglob, Bobby122, Bobianite, Bobo192, BrokenSegue, Bushytails, CALR, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Canderson7, Capricorn42, Cbuckley, Century0, Cfradut, Chamal N, Charles Matthews, Check mii out channel, Clive42105, Constructive editor, Coolmath, Corpx, Courcelles, Covington,
Cullinane, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DV8 2XL, DVD R W, DaL33T, Daf, Damaavand, Dark Mage, David Eppstein, David Haslam, David Shay, DavidCary, Delldot, Dfrg.msc, Djinn112, Dk pdx,
Dmharvey, Dmitry Brant, Dogears, Dominus, Dreadstar, DreamGuy, Dullums, Dysprosia, EagleFan, Elcbubs115, Eltwarg, Emijrp, Entirety, Epbr123, Evil saltine, Falcor84, Foobarnix, Frank
Shearar, FruitMonkey, Furrykef, Gandalf61, Geometricarts, Giftlite, Gilliam, Goldenrowley, Grafen, Gregorydavid, Gump Stump, Gurch, Hanzthebest, Hargrimm, Hbent, Hebrides, Heftig,
Henning Makholm, Henrygb, Herbee, HexaChord, Hiphopgurl4427, Homestarmy, Hridaylall, Hv, Hydrogen Iodide, Igoldste, Inka 888, Iridescent, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JSpung, Jaydd, Jeff G.,
Jinjyaa, Jitse Niesen, Jncraton, Joan1234, JocK, Joeylawn, JohnBlackburne, Jojhutton, Joseph Myers, Joshua.mccall, Juanscott, Juko, Justicelovespeace, KHenriksson, Karlscherer3, Katalaveno,
Katieh5584, Kierand62, Killersakura, Kleopatra, Kmspencer, Koven.rm, Kurt Shaped Box, La goutte de pluie, Lambiam, Lilaac, Locos epraix, Lunagron, Maddie!, Madmarigold, Majorly,
Mandarax, MarSch, MarcoTolo, Marek69, Martin451, Martybugs, MathsIsFun, Maxamegalon2000, Mccathern, Mdebets, Meekohi, Melsaran, Mhym, Michael Hardy, MikeLynch, Mmeeooow,
Modernist, Moneymoneymulla, Monty845, Mschel, Murtasa, Myanw, Mygerardromance, NYKevin, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Nicholashopkinz, Nlu, Nolamatic, Nonenmac, Obradovic Goran, Oleg
Alexandrov, Oxymoron83, Paiev, Patrick, PeR, Petri Krohn, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, PigFlu Oink, Pingveno, PocketDocket, Possum, Prussianblue, Qst, Quadell, RDBury,
RJASE1, Radagast83, Raven in Orbit, Raven1977, Rawling, RedCoat10, Redmarkviolinist, Richard L. Peterson, Rklawton, Root4(one), Rrburke, Rylee118, Ryohki98, SJP, Salix alba, Sam
Hocevar, Sandman30s, Sceptre, Seb az86556, Seraphim, Sethnessatwikipedia, Shadowjams, Shirik, Shui9, Sigma 7, SkyLined, SluggoOne, Sluzzelin, Snowolf, Spartan-James, Specter01010,
Steelpillow, Stickee, Sławomir Biały, Tamfang, Terrillja, The Assassin047, TheOtherJesse, Thumperward, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tomruen, Totalbomb, TravisTX, Trekie8472, Trevorgoodchild,
Twastvedt, Ucanlookitup, Uncle Dick, Uthbrian, Votd, Vsmith, Waltpohl, Wetman, WikiLaurent, Willsmith, Windchaser, World, Ws227, Xanzzibar, Xinit, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yeoldbuddyboy,
Yoenit, Zamphuor, 618 anonymous edits

Trial and error  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=419207653  Contributors: 2help, Alansohn, AndriuZ, AvicAWB, Bhoola Pakistani, Blorg, Burschik, CRGreathouse, Chill
Factor Five, CommonsDelinker, Correogsk, Darkrevenger, Dontaskme, Ed Poor, Ejjazaccountant, ElfWarrior, Email4mobile, Everyking, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gregbard, Improv, JamesBWatson,
Jimworm, Johny Bob 111, Jojit fb, Jredmond, Karada, Kbdank71, Lacker, Lotje, Lugnuts, MartinHarper, Miss Madeline, MrOllie, Peterlewis, ProjectPlatinum, Sbealing, Someguy1221,
Staxringold, Tegiap, Thalesdotnet, That Guy, From That Show!, The Nut, Thundershock, Versus22, Waninoco, Wikieditor1988, Willking1979, Zhenqinli, 73 anonymous edits

Unknotting problem  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384526659  Contributors: C S, David Eppstein, Dylan Thurston, Hermel, Jupiterberry, Michael Hardy, PigFlu Oink,
RobinK, Sam nead, Vanish2, 5 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 127

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:JerryFelix.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JerryFelix.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Abujoy, Helix84, Jeanot, Salix, Xadai
File:Cat-on-mat.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cat-on-mat.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:Ademoor
Image:The Fox and the Grapes - Project Gutenberg etext 19994.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Fox_and_the_Grapes_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_19994.jpg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aavindraa, Amandajm, Annielogue, Archimatth, Shakko, Tagishsimon, TwoMightyGods
File:CognitiveDissonanceDiagram.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CognitiveDissonanceDiagram.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Tesseract2
File:Elliot_Aronson_1972.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elliot_Aronson_1972.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Vera
Aronson
File:Bobo doll-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bobo_doll-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:DMY, User:Sémhur
File:Symptoms of leukemia.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Symptoms_of_leukemia.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mikael Häggström
Image:Descartes mind and body.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Descartes_mind_and_body.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Davidl
at de.wikipedia
Image:DualismCausationViews3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DualismCausationViews3.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Beao
Image:Descartes-reflex.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Descartes-reflex.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: René Descartes
Image:Reification.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reification.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Slehar at en.wikipedia
Image:Multistability.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Multistability.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Alan De Smet at en.wikipedia
Image:Invariance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Invariance.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Lehar S. at en.wikipedia
Image:Gestalt closure.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gestalt_closure.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eumedemito
Image:Gestalt similarity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gestalt_similarity.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eumedemito
Image:Gestalt proximity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gestalt_proximity.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eumedemito
File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,
Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits
Image:DilationErosion.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DilationErosion.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Renato Keshet
Image:Erosion.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Erosion.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Renatokeshet at
en.wikipedia
Image:Dilation.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dilation.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Renatokeshet at en.wikipedia
Image:Opening.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opening.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Renatokeshet at en.wikipedia
Image:Closing.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Closing.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Renatokeshet at en.wikipedia
Image:Heart MRI image.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heart_MRI_image.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Coupriec
Image:Watershed of gradient of MRI heart image .png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Watershed_of_gradient_of_MRI_heart_image_.png  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Coupriec
Image:PinkTowerandBroadStairs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PinkTowerandBroadStairs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:BrownStairsAndPinkTower2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrownStairsAndPinkTower2.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:ColoredCylinders2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColoredCylinders2.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:ColoredCylinders1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColoredCylinders1.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
MattThePuppetGuy at en.wikipedia
Image:ColoredCylinders3.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColoredCylinders3.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
File:Binomokubo.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Binomokubo.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:ColorTablets3.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColorTablets3.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:GeometricSolids.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeometricSolids.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
Image:MontessoriBells.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MontessoriBells.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MattThePuppetGuy
File:Circle packing (hexagonal).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Circle_packing_(hexagonal).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Inductiveload
Image:Disk pack2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack3.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack4.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack4.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack5.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack5.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack6.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack6.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack7.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack7.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack8.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack8.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack9.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack9.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack10.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack10.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Disk pack11.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Disk_pack11.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Koko90
Image:Circles packed in square 15.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Circles_packed_in_square_15.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:99of9
Image:6 cirkloj en 45 45 90 triangulo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:6_cirkloj_en_45_45_90_triangulo.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Maksim
Image:4 cirkloj en 60 60 60 triangulo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:4_cirkloj_en_60_60_60_triangulo.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Maksim
Image:5 cirkloj en 60 60 60 triangulo v1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:5_cirkloj_en_60_60_60_triangulo_v1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Maksim
Image:5 cirkloj en 60 60 60 triangulo v2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:5_cirkloj_en_60_60_60_triangulo_v2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Maksim
Image:5 kvadratoj en kvadrato.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:5_kvadratoj_en_kvadrato.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Maksim
Image:7 kvadratoj en kvadrato.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7_kvadratoj_en_kvadrato.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Maksim
Image:10 kvadratoj en kvadrato.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:10_kvadratoj_en_kvadrato.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Maksim
File:Black Crowned Night Heron - Pileated Woodpecker.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Black_Crowned_Night_Heron_-_Pileated_Woodpecker.jpg  License:
GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Mwanner
File:Pepperidge-Farm-Nantucket-Cookie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pepperidge-Farm-Nantucket-Cookie.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors:
User:Evan-Amos
Image:Similar-geometric-shapes.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Similar-geometric-shapes.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Amada44
Image:Sierpinski triangle (blue).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sierpinski_triangle_(blue).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: D-Kuru, It Is Me Here, Sega sai,
Solkoll
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 128

Image:DrawingHands.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DrawingHands.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Justin Foote

File:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas Moreau
File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Wallpaper group-p3-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:en:User:DmharveyDmharvey
File:Buckfast bee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buckfast_bee.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Bestiasonica, Herbythyme,
MikePhobos, Quadell
Image:Torus with seven colours.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torus_with_seven_colours.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Cbuckley at en.wikipedia
Image:Hexagonal tessellation.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hexagonal_tessellation.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:David
Shay
Image:Self-dual square tiling.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Self-dual_square_tiling.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tom Ruen
Image:Finite element triangulation.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Finite_element_triangulation.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Oleg Alexandrov
Image:Wallpaper group-cmm-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallpaper_group-cmm-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChongDae, Zscout370
Image:Wallpaper group-p4g-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallpaper_group-p4g-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChongDae, Zscout370
Image:Uniform tiling 532-t012.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uniform_tiling_532-t012.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: InfoCan
Image:Torus cycles.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torus_cycles.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Fropuff
Image:Escher Circle Limit III.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Escher_Circle_Limit_III.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: CBM, Eubulide, The News Hound,
Uffish, 1 anonymous edits
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 Contributors: Marius Steininger
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