Chapter 2 – Chapter Questions

3. What broad learning theories are most applicable to mathematics learning?

Behaviorist theories claim that behavior is a response to external stimuli in certain situations.
Behaviors are learned, not innate, and can easily be replaced as new situations arise. In application in a
math classroom, this theory dictates that repetition is crucial to ingraining math knowledge such as
proper problem solving procedures in students. Desirable behavior can be increased by constant
reinforcement in either a positive or negative forms. This school does not focus on neurology as it
cannot be directly observed.

Cognitive theories focus on the thinking processes that occur during learning. Learning is defined as
the process that occurs inside the brain when interacting with their environment. These processes
manifest as new schema and structures for understanding and processing input. In practical terms,
these theories recommend a diverse classroom environment that can accommodate all students' most
optimal forms of learning.

Socio-cultural theories feature the importance of personal interactions between all members of the
classroom. In an inherently social setting, good teaching comes down to the effectiveness of the
dialogue between all learners as well as the educator. Discussion of complicated concepts and constant
rephrasing of questions encourage intellectual curiosity and creative problem solving inside what
Vygotsky refers to as the zone of proximal development.

Several other theories fall under the broad category of interrelated theories. These hybrids pull aspects
from more rigidly defined schools in an attempt to form well-rounded theories to describe how best to
engage students in a classroom. Cognitive-behavior modification theory draws deeply from behavioral
and social theories of learning. It strives to unite cognitive processes, dialogue in the classroom, and
behavior monitoring to provide a method for providing interventions in attempts to assist struggling
learners. Metacognitive theories attempt to expand on the role cognition has in math activities like
problem solving and schema development.

4. What is constructivism and how does it relate to mathematics teaching and learning?

In the constructivist philosophy, learning is the active building of knowledge as influenced by the
cognitive processes of the learner, social interactions, and the surrounding environment. This means
that the exact way knowledge is constructed varies from person to person. This constructions is an
active process, and can be affected and regulated by the learner. Prior knowledge forms the foundation
for new knowledge, and this is often the best predictor of learning. Good teaching with a constructivist
mindset involves a high understanding of the levels of students, posing problems that will challenge
them and that build on their prior knowledge, and a promotion of exploring problems fully and
creatively. As math teachers, a constructivist view on learning could be called a “top-down”
philosophy where all learning exists in a greater framework of connected ideas and schema. This form
of teaching realizes concepts in math are intrinsically linked together, and that deficiencies or strengths
in certain areas can positively or adversely affect learning in other fields. As mathematics educators,
we must remember that no knowledge exists in a vacuum.
Chapter 3 – Chapter Questions

2. What do the NCTM standards recommend regarding mathematics assessment?

The NCTM standards recommend assessments that reflect the math knowledge that all students
need to know, enhance mathematics learning, promote equity, are an open process, promote valid
inferences about mathematics, and are a coherent process.

3. Which of the standardized assessment tools in mathematics are most useful?

Norm-referenced tests analyze a student's score versus that of his or her peers and ranks them
accordingly, comparing the scores to age- and grade-equivalents. These assessment tools allow an
instructor to compare a student to a wide variety of peers nationally. Criterion-based tests compare
student performance to an ideal set of learning objectives that have ideally been met. Performance on
these tests can be translated into further instructional goals. Each type of exam can be useful
depending on the instructor's goal in administering them.

5. How are higher-order processes in mathematics best assessed?

Higher-level processes are difficult to observe objectively in students. Bloom's Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives ranks cognitive processes in order of increasing complexity in order to assess
how well a student could tackle a difficult problem. Rather than merely filling in a multiple choice
question, the student must complete a task such as creating a word problem that requires higher-level
functioning. An alternate framework that may be used to understand higher-order processes is the
Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome that attempts to describe how well a student responds
during a problem solving session. This framework allows educators to basically do a cognitive task
analysis and determine which steps require intervention.