Chemical Foundations: CHEMISTRY 113.4 General Chemistry I Spring 2011

CHEMISTRY 113.
4
General Chemistry I
Spring 2011
Chapter 1.
Chemical Foundations
1
Important Examples of Chemistry
• Energy and the Environment
– Fuels for transportation
• Combustion of hydrocarbons
• Finite supply , alternatives
– Environmental pollutants
• Air, water. Global warming
• ‘Good’ and ‘bad’ chemicals
• Materials
– Polymers (plastics)
• Improved performance (light)
• Disposal and or recycling
• Bio-based materials
• and other safety issues (PVC in fires)
- Electronics
• Cell phones, computers, MP3, batteries
• Manufacturing processes for ‘chips’ are basic chemistry
• LCD display
2
Everybody is a chemist
• But the most important example is: __________ (everybody has one)
– Very large number of important chemicals
– Very large number of important chemical reactions
– Failure of chemical process is a big deal
3
Everybody is a chemist
• But the most important example is: human body

– Very large number of important chemicals
– Very large number of important chemical reactions
• Important chemicals :
– Water
– DNA = molecule that makes up your genes
– Proteins = molecules that make up muscles, carry oxygen, control
everything
– Salts and ions: NaCl, Ca2+, K+
– Vitamins
– Components of food: protein, fat, carbohydrate (all are types of molecules)
– poisons
• Important processes
– When should they occur, how fast should they occur
– When they don’t occur properly = disease (or death!)
– Modern medicine = molecules that “control” other molecules
4
Goal of Chemistry is :
• We are surrounded by a world/universe of things
• Uncountable different things, with obvious similarities and

differences
• Many kind of change are possible
• Some parts of world/universe are obviously predictable
• Chemistry tries to provide an explanation of why things

behave in the way they do.
• Goal is to simplify, not complicate

5
‘Learning’ Basic Chemistry – 3 components
• Vocabulary
– Every subject will require you to learn new words
– Chemistry is no different
– Definitions are often similar to ways in which others use the word
– But, more precise
• Concepts
– We want to avoid memorizing things
– Simple concepts, often common sense
– Focus on the big picture, not fine details
– Pictures and symbols help make concepts simpler
– Ability to predict behavior based on known facts
• Exercises
– Simple problems that use the vocabulary and concepts
– Simple math, not complicated equations
– Concepts are more obvious after you do something with them
6
Vocabulary: Some Definitions
• Chemistry: The study of the properties and transformations

of matter.
• Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space – things you can
see, touch, taste, or smell… any 3-D object
• Property: A characteristic that can be used to describe a substance.
Substances have both physical and chemical properties.
• Transformations: A change in the properties of matter with time. There
are physical changes and chemical changes.
• Matter = atoms. Sometimes individual, independent atoms but mostly

atoms are found combined with other atoms as compounds.
7
Matter is Everything “Real”
• Matter is everything that is ‘real’

– Occupies space = has volume
– Has mass
– Can be measured: senses (touch, vision, smell) or with an instrument
– Very little is excluded: concepts, thoughts, etc. light
• We are going to try to explain everything!
• Start to simplify the universe by organizing the different kinds of things.
• Start with a very broad classification, then divide it up into different
groups that behave alike:
– Metals and nonmetals
– Ionic compounds and molecular compounds
– Periodic table
– Avoid memorizing the properties of each material separately
8
Properties of Substances
• Two kinds of properties : physical and chemical
• Physical Properties are properties that don’t involve chemical change
– Density = how heavy is the substance (comparing 2 substances of same size)
• Measure mass = m (grams), measure volume =V (cm3)
• Density (g/cm3) = m/V
– Color
• Qualitative = describe
• Quantitative = what wavelengths of light are absorbed and how much
– Changes of state
• Examples: fusion=solid to liquid. Boiling = vaporization = liquid to gas
• At what temperature does it happen? Tm (ºC), Tb (ºC)
• How much heat is absorbed or released?
• Chemical Properties are properties related to processes where substances
change composition
– Chemical composition = what elements are present and in what proportion
– Chemical reactivity
• Why are properties important?
– Identify unknown substances
– Provide data to build understanding of how materials behave
– Provide data to test theories of why materials behave as they do
– Provide data that suggests uses for substance
9
Matter is “Everything”
• Chemistry attempts to explain the properties and transformations of

everything.
• Some transformations will initially be ignored (nuclear chemistry) but
that still leaves a very large number of substances, properties, and
transformations.
• We try to explain many observations at once – it would be impossible to
“memorize” all materials and properties.
• Measurements are a critical component of chemistry
– Discovery (testing of theories or hypothesis)
– Use (characterization and applications of materials)
10
Measurement in ‘Discovery’
• The scientific method produces new knowledge in a disciplined way.

• Observations are usually measured numbers.
• They can confirm or refute a theory
General Chemistry texts often start with

the scientific method. But most of the
material is past the ‘theory’ stage. It is very
well tested and close to ‘fact’ rather than
theory.
11
Importance of Measurements
• Most important properties are measured quantities.

• Measurement provide a set of observations that we attempt to explain
in order in the process of developing models or theories for why
materials behave as they do.
• Measurements are an important way in which we characterize and
distinguish materials.
• New measurements provide a challenge to existing theories.
• Measurements often characterize properties useful for applications.
12
Important Characteristics of Measured Quantities
• Two important characteristics of measured quantities vs.

‘numbers’:
1. Measured quantities report a number and the units. The
number is not useful without the units.
2. Measured quantities are not exact – there is uncertainty
associated with the measured quantity. Uncertainty is the
result of both the limits of the measuring device and the
way in which it is used.
13
Choice of Units
• Two competing factors decide what units are commonly used in
chemistry.
1. Standardization. Properties can be reported in many different units
systems. It would often be easier if everyone always used the same
units. Sets of standard units have been agreed upon for use by
scientists. The most widely accepted system of units is SI.
2. Convenient numbers. Sometimes the use of standard units leads to
values of the measured quantities that are either very small numbers or
very large numbers. Instead of using the standard units, the measured
quantity is expressed in a different set of units where the measured
quantity is an easier number to remember or communicate. Numbers
near one are ‘easier’ than very large or very small numbers.
• We end up using a mixture of the standard units and more convenient
units.
• Chemists avoid using some units, like feet, lbs, ºF. In some industrial
applications these are still used.
14
SI Units
• Other units are derived from these units.

– Volume = m3
– Energy = F x d = kg x (m2/s2) = (1 joule)
15
More Convenient Units
• Usually the more convenient units that we use are formed from
standard units by using decimal multipliers:
1 kilogram = 103 g
1 milligram = 1mg = 10-3 g
1 microgram = 1μg = 10-6g
1 centimeter = 1cm =10-2 m
1 millimeter = 1mm = 10-3m
1 nanometer = 1nm = 10-9m

Memorize? Yes!!
Should become simple –

quickly do it ‘in your head’
16
Examples – More Convenient Units
• The SI unit for volume is very large for laboratory measurements. 1 m3

of water has a mass of 1 x 106 g or 2200 lb.
• One more convenient unit for laboratory measurements of volume is
cm3 (= ml). 1 cm3 of water has a mass of about 1.o g .
• A larger unit that is also commonly used is a liter, L.
1 L = 1oo0 ml
1L = 10-3 m3
• We need to be able to convert between these units and many others.
• More, later in this chapter. Called, the FACTOR LABEL METHOD or
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS.
• READ ABOUT THIS BEFORE NEXT TIME. ADDITIONAL MATERIAL WILL
BE AVAILABLE ON BLACKBOARD.
17
Significant Figures
• Measurements are never exact.

• Measurement always involves uncertainty.
• Measured values are reported in a way that makes the uncertainty
apparent.
• Quantities calculated from measured values have an uncertainty
determined by the uncertainties of the measured values used to
calculate it. The uncertainty is determined by the number of
significant figures.
• Working with measured values and significant figures:
1. Determine the number of significant figures in a measured value
2. Two simple rules for calculations
a) Multiplication/division
b) Addition/subtraction
18
Estimate the Last Digit Reported
• Devices without electronic displays.

• Measuring device will have exact markings but we can often obtain an additional
digit.
• Example, measure the length of this object:
1 2 3 4 cm
• The ruler has markings every 0.1 cm.

• The length is between 1.6 cm and 1.7 cm
• We obtain the final digit by carefully “estimating” where it is between the two.
19
Estimate the Last Digit Reported

digit.
1 2 3 4 cm
0.1 cm spacing
• The ruler has markings every 0.1 cm. estimate to 0.01 cm
• The length is between 1.6 cm and 1.7 cm
• The red line is slightly more the half-way between 1.6 and 1.7, about 60% of the way.
• This gives us the final digit (0.06 is 60% of spacing between lines): 1.66 cm
• You might measure it and get a slightly different answer, 1.67 cm or 1.65 cm. That’s
because it’s estimated
20
A Different Device Gives a Different Answer

digit.
1 2 3 4 cm
• The ruler has markings every 1 cm. 1 cm spacing

estimate to 0.1 cm
• The length is between 1 cm and 2 cm
• The red line is more the half-way between 1 and 2, about 70% of the way
• This gives us the final digit (0.7 is 70% of spacing between lines): 1.7 cm
• You might measure it and get a slightly different answer, 1.6 cm or 1.8cm. That’s
because it’s estimated
21
Different Containers For Volume
What volume does this

graduated cylinder contain???
bigger What volume does this buret

indicate???
22
Different Containers For Volume
What volume does this

graduated cylinder contain???
36.4 ml
(not 36 ml, not 36.40 ml)
bigger What volume does this buret

contain???
20.39 ml
(not 20.4 ml, not 20.388 ml)
23
Significant Figures
• How do we describe a number that is more precise?
1 2 3 4 cm
1 2 3 4 cm
• Using the top ruler, we measure 1.7 cm. Using the bottom ruler we measured
1.67 cm.
• The second answer is more precisely measured. The answer is reported to 3 digits.
• The number of digits present is called the number of significant figures.
• 1.7 cm has 2 significant figures. 1.67 cm has 3 significant
figures.
24
Significant Figures
• We should be careful to report the answer to the right number of

significant figures so another person will know what was actually
measured.
• When we read a number we should be able to tell how precisely it was
measured.
• To determine the number of significant figures we carefully count the
number of digits shown. Zero’s sometimes are and sometimes aren’t
significant.
25
Number of Significant Figures in a Measured Number
• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count

the significant digits. A significant digit is one that is the result of a
measurement. (The last digit of a measurement is estimated. This is
part of the measured number.)
1. Any nonzero digit is significant: 738.1 has 4 significant figures.
491 has 3 significant figures.
15674.23 has 7 significant figures.
26

meaurement.
7.381 x 102 has 4 significant figures.
What about zeros?
2. “Embedded” zeros are significant. These zero’s are just like any other
number- they are a part of the number.
1.506 has 4 significant figures
301 has 3 significant figures
27

meaurement.
What about zeros?
2. “Embedded” zeros are significant: 7008.56 has 6 significant figures.
What about zeros before a decimal point?
3. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant: 0.7075 has 4
significant figures (not 5).
Why?? This zero does not provide any new information about the
measured number. We could leave it off. It is only there to make
reading the number easier. It helps us see the decimal point.
0.891 is the same as .891, they both have 3 significant figures
28
• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count the

significant digits. A significant digit is one that is the result of a meaurement.
What about zeros?
3. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant: 0.7075 has 4 significant
figures (not 5).
What about other zeros? At the ‘end’ of a decimal # – yes. At the ‘beginning’- no.
4. Zeros before the first non-zero digit of a decimal number are not significant:
These zero’s are used to locate the decimal place. They do not provide
numerical information about the measured value.
We can write the number in scientific notation:
0.00409 = 4.09 x 10-3
3 significant figures
29
• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count the

significant digits. A significant digit is one that is the result of a meaurement.
What about zeros?
3. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant: 0.7075 has 4 significant
figures (not 5).
What about other zeros? At the ‘end’ – yes. At the ‘beginning’- no.
4. Zeros before the first non-zero digit of a decimal number are not significant:
0.00409 has 3 significant figures (not 5 or 6).
5. Zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant: 0.095060 has 5 significant
figures.
The zeros at the end of a decimal number like this do not have to be written. The
fact that the 0 is written means that it is a significant digit. If it is not
significant, it should not be written.
12.0 ml is different than 12 ml or 12. ml
30

meaurement.
What about zeros?
3. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant: 0.7075 has 4
significant figures (not 5).
What about other zeros? At the ‘end’ – yes. At the ‘beginning’- no.
4. Zeros before the first non-zero digit of a decimal number are not
significant: 0.00409 has 3 significant figures.
5. Zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant: 0.095060 has 5
significant figures.
What about the end of a whole number? 490 (2 or 3?), 45100 (3 or 4 or 5?),
31
Zero’s in Whole Numbers – At the End
• Zeros at the end of a number are ambiguous.

• For example, 13o0 cm is given as measured length of an object. 3
possibilities:
– The object measured with a ‘ruler’ with markings every 1000 cm. The
length is greater than 1000 cm but much less than 2000 cm – it is about 30%
of the way between 1000 and 2000. The final digit is estimated to be 3 and
the measured value is 1300 cm. There are 2 significant figures : 1 measured
exactly (the 1) and 1 estimated (the 3).
– The object measured with a ‘ruler’ with markings every 100 cm. The length
is greater than 1200 cm but very slightly less than 1300 cm – it is about 30%
of the way between 1000 and 2000. The final digit is estimated to be 3 and
the measured value is 1300 cm. There are 3 significant figures : 2 measured
exactly (the 1 and the 3) and 1 estimated (the first 0).
– The object measured with a ‘ruler’ with markings every 10 cm. The length
is greater than 1290 cm but very slightly less than 1300 cm; 1299 wouldn’t be
right and 1301 would be right. The final digit is estimated to be 0 and the
measured value is 1300 cm. There are 4 significant figures : 3 measured
exactly (the 1, the 3, and the first 0) and 1 estimated (the last 0).
32
Ambiguous Zero’s at End of Integer
Between 1000 and 2000.

1 digit measured and 1 estimated
0 1000 2000 3000 Correct is 1300 with 2 sig fig’s.
1 exact, 1 estimated

More than 95% of way.
1100 1200 1300 1400 2 digits measured and 1 estimated
Correct is 1300 with 3 sig fig’s.

3 digits measured and 1 estimated
1290 1300 1310 1320 Correct is 1300 with 4 sig fig’s.
33
Zero’s at the End of a Integer
• When no additional information is given we will assume that the

trailing zero’s in an integer are not significant digits.
• No other information given, assume 1300 has 2 significant figures.
• Text book method: period at end indicates that the digits are
significant:
1300 has 2 significant figures
1300. has 4 significant figures
• Unfortunately, each textbook is different. Even the lab manual might
be different.
• So to be absolutely sure and to avoid confusion, don’t rely on this. To
avoid confusion, write the number in scientific notation. This
completely eliminates the problem:
1.3 x 103 has 2 significant figures
34
Quick ‘Quiz’
• How many significant figures do the following numbers have?

89.105
6.54 x 10-6
0.0529
1.3 x 10-2
0.56
1510
1000.
1.50 x 10-4
0.50 x 103
1300
1.30 x 103
1.300 x 103
35
Quick ‘Quiz’
• How many significant figures do the following numbers have?

89.105 (5 sig figs.)
6.54 x 10-6 (3 sig figs.)
0.0529 (3 sig figs.)
1.3 x 10-2 (2 sig figs.)
0.56 (2 sig figs.)
1510 (3 sig figs.)
1000. (4 sig figs.)
1.50 x 10-4 (3 sig figs.)
0.50 x 103 (2 sig figs.)
1300 (2 sig figs.)
1.30 x 103 (3 sig figs.)
1.300 x 103 (4 sig figs.)
36
Exact Numbers Have An Infinite Number of Significant
Figures.
• Formulas often contain numbers like constants or integer that are

exact. They are know exactly or to many significant figures. They
have more significant figures than any quantity that is measured.
• Example:
4 3
V  r
3
• 4 and 3 are integers that have an infinite number of significant
figures 4=4.0000000000000… , etc.
• π is a mathematical constant known to many significant digits,
π=3.14159….
• If you use an approximation for π, like 3.14 then it does have
significant digits. For this approximation, there are 3 significant
figures.
37
Significant Figures : M/D Rule
• The rule for multiplication and division (M/D) tells us the number of
significant figures present in the result.
• If we multiply or divide a series of numbers, the result of the
calculation will have a number of significant figures equal to the
smallest number of significant figures in the numbers being multiplied
(or divided).
• Rule for rounding off:
previous digit is 5 or greater, round up. 1.5 rounds to 2
previous digit is 5 or less, truncate. 1.3 rounds to 1
• Examples:
(18.79) (2.0) = 37.58 = 38. 37.6
(3.72 x 10-4)/(1.86 x 10-1) = 2.00 x 10-3
(1.050 x 102)(2.3317 x 10-1) =
38
Significant Figures : M/D Rule
• The rule for multiplication and division (M/D) tells us the number of
significant figures present in the result.
• If we multiply or divide a series of numbers, the result of the
calculation will have a number of significant figures equal to the
smallest number of significant figures in the numbers being multiplied
(or divided).
• Rule for rounding off:
previous digit is 5 or greater, round up. 1.5 rounds to 2
previous digit is 5 or less, truncate. 1.3 rounds to 1
• Examples:
(18.79) (2.0) = 37.58 = 38. (also written as 37.6)
(3.72 x 10-4)/(1.86 x 10-1) = 2.00 x 10-3
(1.050 x 102)(2.3317 x 10-1) =24.48285 = 24.48 (also 24.483 )
39
A/S Rule Makes Sense
• Weigh elephant = 8002 kg.

• Add salt crystal, precisely weighed, to the elephant. Salt crystal weighs
10. mg.
10−3 𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 −5 𝑘𝑔
10. 𝑚𝑔 × × = 10
1 𝑚𝑔 103 𝑔
How much does the elephant weigh now?
8002. kg
0.000010 kg
40
A/S Rule Makes Sense
• Weigh elephant = 8002 kg.

• Add salt crystal, precisely weighed, to the elephant. Salt crystal weighs
10. mg.
• Does the Elephant now weigh 8002.000010 kg? NOOOOOO! Why?
8002. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? kg
0.000010 kg
8002.
41
Significant Figures : A/S Rule
• The rule for addition and subtraction (A/D) doesn’t tell you how many
significant digits are in the result (at least directly). Instead it tells you which is
the smallest digit that is significant in the result.
• The numbers that we are adding or subtracting must be multiplied by the same
power of 10 if they are expressed in scientific notation.
• For each of the numbers being added (subtracted), we determine the number
of decimal places present. Each number has a smallest significant digit. (It is
the sig fig farthest RIGHT). The result will have the same number of decimal
places as the number which has the smallest significant figure that is in the
largest decimal position.
• Examples: 1.06 + 1.270+412.3 = ? 1.10 - 3.572+728.376 = ?
1.06 (6 : hundreths pos.) 1.10

1.275 (5 : thousandths ) -3.572
412.3 (3 : tenths pos.) 728.376
414.635 = 414.6
42
• The rule for addition and subtraction (A/D) doesn’t tell you how many
significant digits are in the result (at least directly). Instead it tells you which is
the smallest digit that is significant in the result.
• The numbers that we are adding or subtracting must be multiplied by the same
power of 10 if they are expressed in scientific notation.
• When quantities are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the
answer is equal to the number of decimal places in the quantity with the
smallest number of decimal places. Or, put another way:
• Identify the final (right-most) significant digit. The largest of these (left-most)
will be the final significant figure in the result.
• Examples: 1.06 + 1.270+412.3 = ? 1.10 - 3.572+728.376 = ?
1.06 (6 : hundreths pos.) 1.10 (hundredths is biggest)

1.275 (5 : thousandths ) -3.572
412.3 (3 : tenths pos.) 728.376
414.635 = 414.6 725.904 = 725.90
43
• Examples: Scientific notation:
1.321 x 102 + 6.54 x 10-1 = ????
First, express both to the same power of ten. It doesn’t matter what
power of 10 you choose, but both (all) have to be the same. Then apply
the rule to the numbers before the power of ten:
44
• Example: Scientific notation:
1.321 x 102 + 6.54 x 10-1 = 1321 x 10-1 + 6.54 x 10-1 = 1327.54 x 10-1
=1328. x 10-1
=1.328 x 102
This is the largest of the final significant digits
1.321 x 102 1321 x 10-1
6.54 x 10-1 6.54 x 10-1
1328 x 10-1 = 1.328 x102
Do the calculation and then round-off as a final step. DO

NOT round off first before doing the calculation. More on
this later.
45
If More Calculations Will Be Done Later
• Often we calculate a series of results from one starting set of data. We

want to report intermediate calculations, with the correct number of
significant figures indicated without rounding off before the final
calculation. Often happens in lab.
• We do an intermediate calculation and report a number. We determine
the number of significant figures in this intermediate number and carry
one extra digit to avoid round off errors. Mark this extra digit with a
bar to indicate that it is not significant:
(18.79) (2.0) = 37.58 = 38. (also written as 37.6)
46
Arithmetic With Significant Figures : Examples
What does the calculator say?

What is the correct answer?
43.7 - 2.341 =
89.3 x 77.0 x 0.08 =
0.004+0.09879 =
(5.01 x 105) / (7.8 x 102)=
47
Arithmetic With Significant Figures : Examples
What does the calculator say?

What is the correct answer?
43.7 - 2.341 = 41.359 = 41.4
89.3 x 77.0 x 0.08 =550.088 = 600 (1 sig fig)

=6 x 102
0.004+0.09879 =0.10279 = 0.103
(5.01 x 105) / (7.8 x 102)=6.423 x 102 = 6.4 x 102
48
Some Formulas Combine A/S with M/D
• Do operations stepwise as indicated by brackets – use the

appropriate rule for the operation that is going on in that bracket.
• For example:
[(2.853 x 107) – (1.200 x103)] x 2.8954 = ????

Do subtraction first, so for that calculation we use
A/S rule:
[(2.853 x 107) – (1.200 x103)]=(28530 x 103) – (1.200 x103)
= 28528.8 x 103 = 28530 x 103

=2.8528 x107
Next, do the multiplication. Use the M/D rule:

(2.8528 x107) x 2.8954 = 8.25999 x 107
4 sig fig’s x 5 sig figs = 8.260 x 107 49

Accuracy and Precision
• Precise = close together (should occur if there are a large number of sig
figs.)
• Accurate=close to correct answer. Should occur if equipment is
properly calibrated and properly used.
50
Changing Units / Factor Label Method
Dimensional Analysis
• Some calculations only involve a change in units.

• Other calculations have a change of units as one of the steps in a multi-
step calculations.
• Factor label method is a simple way to handle these unit conversions.
– Simple rule that allows you to do the calculation with a minimum of
memorization
– Avoids a common problem: “do I multiply or divide by …..?????”
– Always multiply by the conversion factor.
• Factor label method can be applied to many other problems that are
not exactly unit conversions. Same method:
convert: 1.5 ft to meters

calculate: What amount of CO2 is produced when 181 grams of ethane,
C2H6, is burned?
51
Dimensional Analysis or Factor Label Method
1. We multiply a known quantity (with one kind of units) by a conversion factor to

get a the new answer, the desired quantity (in the new units).
(Known) x (Conversion Factor) = Desired Quantity

Or,
(Old units) x (Conversion Factor) = New Units
2. The conversion factor is selected from two conversion factors that are
generated from a single true statement.
N1 units1 = N2 units2
Divide Both Sides of Equation by Divide Both Sides of Equation by

N2 units2 to get Conversion N1 units1 to get Conversion
Factor #1: Factor #2:
N1 units1 N 2 units2 N1 units1 N 2 units1

 1 1 
N 2 units2 N 2 units2 N1 units1 N1 units1
Convert units2 to units1 Convert units1 to units2
52
Simple Examples: lbs  grams
a fact is required:
1 lb = 453.6 g
two conversion factors are obtained by dividing:
Convert g to lb, multiply by : Convert lb to g, multiply by:
1 lb 453.6 g 1 lb 453.6 g
 1 1 
453.6 g 453.6 g 1 lb 1 lb
Old x Conversion Factor = New
1. Convert 0.765 lb to g:
 453.6 g 
0.765 lb     0.765453.6g  347g
 1 lb 
2. Convert 27.5 g to lb:
 1 lb  27.5
27.5 g     lb  6.06 10  2 lb
 453.6 g  453.6 53
A Conversion
• Convert 1.75 lbs to grams:
1 lb  453.6 g
• Which of the following is the correct equation?
 453.6 g   1 lb 
1.75 lb     ? g 1.75 lb     ? g
 1 lb   453.6 g 
lb g 54
A Conversion
1 lb  453.6 g
 453.6 g   1 lb 
1.75 lb     ? g 1.75 lb     ? g
 1 lb   453.6 g 
lb g 55
A Conversion
1 lb  453.6 g
 453.6 g   1 lb 
1.75 lb     794 g 1.75 lb     ? g
 1 lb   453.6 g 
grams are the new unit: 453.6 g goes on top

lb g
lb are the old unit: 1 lb goes on bottom
A Conversion
• Convert 1.75 lbs to kilograms:

1 lb  453.6 g
1 kg  1000 g
• We can do multiple conversions in a single equation:
 453.6 g   1 kg 
1.75 lb        0.794kg
 1 lb   1000 g 
grams are the new unit: 453.6 g goes on top
lb are the old unit: 1 lb goes on bottom
lb g kg
kg are the new unit: 1 kg goes on top
g are the old unit: 1000 g goes on bottom
What About the Ratio Method??
• Ratio method and Dimensional Analysis are essentially the same thing.
• Ratio method: Do I multiply or divide?? What goes where?
• Dimensional Analysis: Always multiply. NEW = OLD x Conversion Factor
• Dimensional analysis is more easily applied to problems with multiple steps
(or conversions):
7
• Use Dimensional Analysis Method (or 8) times:
58
More Examples: Conversions
Step #1: We need a fact that links the 2 units.

What fact will we use for each?
27 g = ? Lb
52 ml = ? L
3.5 cm = ? in
59

What fact will we use for each?
27 g = ? lb 1 lb = 453.6 g
52 ml = ? L 1 ml = 0.001 L
3.5 cm = ? in 1 in = 2.54 cm
Step #2: Write the equation. Always same form,

Old x Conversion Factor = New
60

Step #2: Write the equation. Always same form:
27 g = ? lb  1lb 
27 g     6.0 10 2 lb  0.060 lb
1 lb = 453.6 g  453.6 g 
52 ml = ? L  10 3 L 
52 ml     0.052 L
1 ml = 0.001 L  1 ml 
3.5 cm = ? in  1 in 
3.5 cm     1.4 in
1 in = 2.54 cm  2.54 cm  61

Sometimes it is easier to do it in 2 steps:
0.00872 cm = ? μm
1 cm = ? μm (not easy to remember)
1 cm = 10-2 m (centi = 10-2)

1 μ m = 10-6 m (micro= μ =10-6)
cm m μm
 102 m   1 m 
0.00872 cm      6   87.2 m
 1cm   10 m  62
Another Example – Count by Weighing
• 1 index card = 1.46 g Stack of index cards = 67.36 g

How many cards are present?
1 card  1.46 g 1 card  1.46 g

 1.46 g   1 card 
    
 1card   1.46g 
new units (g) new units (cards)

old units (cards) old units (g)
From cards to grams multiply by this From grams to cards multiply by this
Convert 67.36 g to cards. Old units are grams, new units are cards. We use the red
conversion factor.
 1card 
67.36 g     46.1 cards
 1.46 g  63
Intensive and Extensive Properties
• Properties of materials are of two types : intensive and extensive.

• Extensive properties properties depend on the size of the sample.
– When the size of the sample changes, the value of the property changes.
– The measured extensive property applies only to the sample measured
– Extensive property is not useful for describing the material
– Extensive properties must be measured
• Intensive propertives are independent of the sample size.
– Intensive properties are the same for all samples of the same material
– Intensive property can be used to characterize or identify a material
– Intensive properties must be measured once but that measurement can be
shared
– Theories or models of material structure attempt to explain or predict
intensive properties
– Different values obtained for the same intensive property reflect
experimental uncertainty or error
• Examples: Volume (I or E?), Mass (I or E?), Temperature (I or E?),
Density (I or E?), Pressure (I or E?), Melting temperature (I or E?)
64
Intensive and Extensive Properties
• Properties of materials are of two types : intensive and extensive.

• Extensive properties properties depend on the size of the sample.
• Intensive properties are independent of the sample size.
• Examples:
Volume Extensive
Mass Extensive
Temperature Intensive
Density Intensive
Pressure Intensive
Compressibility Intensive
65
Density is an Intensive Property
• Definition of density:
m
d
V
where, m  mass ;V  volume
• Mass and volume are extensive properties but both are directly
proportional to sample size. Taking the ratio of the 2 intensive
properties causes the dependence on sample size to cancel, making
density an intensive property.
• If we compare two samples of the same material: If the second sample
is twice as ‘big’ the volume increases by 2X (V2=V1 *2) and the mass
increase by 2X (m2=m1 *2) so the density is unchanged. The mass and
volume are extensive but the density is intensive.
66
Measurement of Density
• To determine the density of a material, we need to measure both the volume

and mass.
• Example:
Titanium (Ti) bar with dimensions of 1.84 cm x 2.24 cm x 2.44 cm has a mass of
45.710 g . Calculate the density.
m
d  , where, m  mass ;V  volume
V
V  (1.84 cm)(2.24 cm)(2.44 cm)
45.710g
d  4.545226 g/cm 3
(1.84 cm)(2.24 cm)(2.44 cm)
lengths have 3 sig. figs., mass has 5, all M/D so answer will
have 3 sig figs :
d  4.54g/cm 3
67
Density and Conversion Factors
(method is important)
• Another way to state the density information is as an ‘equation’
• Example:
density of carbon tetrachloride at some temperature = 1.584 g/ml
g 1.584 g CCl 4 m
d (CCl 4 )  1.584  
ml 1 ml CCl 4 V
This provides a ‘fact’ for the dimensional analysis method:
1 ml of CCl4 = 1.584 g of CCl4
68
Density and Conversion Factors
• Another way to state the density information is as an ‘equation’

• Example:
This provides a ‘fact’ for the dimensional analysis method:
We can generate 2 conversion factors:
Convert ml to g, multiply by : Convert g to ml, multiply by:
1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4 1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4

1   1
1 ml CCl 4 1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
 0.6313 ml /g
Density g/ml 1.584 g CCl 4
Specific Volume, ml/g

69
Density and Specific Volume

This provides a ‘fact’ for the factor label method:
1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4  1
1  1.584 g CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4 1 ml CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
 0.6313 ml /g
1.584 g CCl 4
1. A procedure requires 15.0 ml of carbon tetrachloride but you only have a balance
available. What mass is required?
2. A procedure requires 15.0 g of carbon tetrachloride. What volume is required?
What do you do? (same method for both).
70

1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4  1
1  1.584 g CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
 0.6313 ml /g
1.584 g CCl 4
What do you do? Dimensional analysis. Multiply by conversion factor.
Which one?
71

1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4  1
1  1.584 g CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
 0.6313 ml /g
1.584 g CCl 4
What do you do? Dimensional analysis. Multiply by conversion factor.
Problem #1 = blue conversion factor. Problem #2 = red conversion factor

72

1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4

1 ml CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4  1
1  1.584 g CCl 4 1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
 0.6313 ml /g
1.584 g CCl 4
1 ml CCl 4
15.0 g CCl 4   9.4697 ml CCl 4
1.584 g CCl 4
 9.47 ml CCl 4 73
Temperature Measurements
• Scientists either use º C (centigrade) or K (kelvin)

– They are similar scales – the spacing between degrees is the same for both.
– The temperature in kelvin is 273.16 º higher than temperature in centigrade
T ( K )  T (C )  273.16
T (C )  T ( K )  273.16
• Some important temperatures:
T(ºC) T(ºK)
coldest -273.16 ºC 0.0 ºK

temperature (exactly)
possible
Freezing and 0.00 ºC 273.16 ºK
melting of (exactly)
water/ice
Boiling 100.00 ºC 373.16 ºK

water (exactly) 74
Fahrenheit is mostly for weather (and body temp)
• Fahrenheit is still used for weather because it matches the range of weather:
0º F is very cold and 100º F is very hot.
• Conversion between ºC and º F :
9
T ( F )  T (C )  32
5
5
T (C )   (T ( F )  32)
9
• All science formulas should use ºC or ºK. Most will use ºC.
• We won’t use ºF so you don’t need to worry about these formulas. All you
need to do is recalibrate your brain. Remember: Water boils at 100 ºC and
freezes at 0 ºC.
• When it is necessary to use ºK, I will let you know.
75
Comparison of Temperatures
• Changes in temperature indicate release or absorption of energy.

• Temperature goes up = reaction releases energy = exothermic
• Temperature goes down = reaction absorbs energy = endothermic
76
Simple Unit Conversions
Convert 83 pL to nL
What fact do we use to create the conversion factors?????
77
Convert 83 pL to nL
What fact do we use to create the conversion factors?????

Use 2 facts that you are sure of, rather than 1 that is less sure:
1 pL = 10-12 L (pico always means 10-12)

1nL = 10-9 L (nano always means 10-9)
Now what?
78
Convert 83 pL to nL
What fact do we use to create the

conversion factors?????
1 pL = 10-12 L (pico always means 10-12)

1nL = 10-9 L
pL L nL
 1012 L   1nL 
83 pL      9   8.3 102 nL
 1 pL   10 L 
79
Unit Conversions w/ Powers
• Convert 9.325 x 103 cm2 to in2

=
9.325 × 103 𝒄𝒎𝟐 (9.325 × 103 ) (1 𝑐𝑚) (1 𝑐𝑚)
1 in = 2.54 cm . Need to convert both 1 cm’s to in:

9.325 × 103 𝒄𝒎𝟐
1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛
= 9.325 × 10 1 𝑐𝑚 ×
3 × 1 𝑐𝑚 ×
2.54 𝑐𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚
9.325 × 103 𝒄𝒎𝟐 = 1.445 × 103in2
80
Recitation #2 – Starting Monday (2/7)
Recitation #3
• Week #2 Significant figures and calculations (quiz #1)
• Week #3
• Dimensional analysis (unit conversions) (quiz #2 )
• Density (quiz #2)
81
Blackboard
• We have finished Chapter 1.

• The charts will not be available on Blackboard.
• Later today probably (or tomorrow 7AM at latest)
82

Chemical Foundations: CHEMISTRY 113.4 General Chemistry I Spring 2011

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CHEMISTRY 113.

• But the most important example is: human body

• Uncountable different things, with obvious similarities and

• Many kind of change are possible

• Some parts of world/universe are obviously predictable

• Chemistry tries to provide an explanation of why things

• Goal is to simplify, not complicate

• Chemistry: The study of the properties and transformations

• Matter = atoms. Sometimes individual, independent atoms but mostly

• Matter is everything that is ‘real’

• Chemistry attempts to explain the properties and transformations of

• The scientific method produces new knowledge in a disciplined way.

General Chemistry texts often start with

• Most important properties are measured quantities.

• Two important characteristics of measured quantities vs.

• Other units are derived from these units.

1 milligram = 1mg = 10-3 g

1 microgram = 1μg = 10-6g

1 centimeter = 1cm =10-2 m

1 millimeter = 1mm = 10-3m

1 nanometer = 1nm = 10-9m

Should become simple –

• The SI unit for volume is very large for laboratory measurements. 1 m3

• Measurements are never exact.

• Devices without electronic displays.

• The ruler has markings every 0.1 cm.

• Devices without electronic displays.

• Devices without electronic displays.

• The ruler has markings every 1 cm. 1 cm spacing

What volume does this

bigger What volume does this buret

What volume does this

bigger What volume does this buret

• We should be careful to report the answer to the right number of

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count

0.891 is the same as .891, they both have 3 significant figures

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count the

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count the

• To determine the number of significant figures in a number we count

• Zeros at the end of a number are ambiguous.

Between 1000 and 2000.

Between 1200 and 1300.

Between 1300 and 1310.

• When no additional information is given we will assume that the

• How many significant figures do the following numbers have?

• How many significant figures do the following numbers have?

• Formulas often contain numbers like constants or integer that are

• Weigh elephant = 8002 kg.

How much does the elephant weigh now?

• Weigh elephant = 8002 kg.

1.06 (6 : hundreths pos.) 1.10

1.06 (6 : hundreths pos.) 1.10 (hundredths is biggest)

414.635 = 414.6 725.904 = 725.90

• Examples: Scientific notation:

1.321 x 102 + 6.54 x 10-1 = ????

• Example: Scientific notation:

1.321 x 102 1321 x 10-1

6.54 x 10-1 6.54 x 10-1

1328 x 10-1 = 1.328 x102

Do the calculation and then round-off as a final step. DO