The Nuclear

Renaissance:
Materials of Choice
for Power Plant
Surface Condensers &
BOP Heat Exchangers

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 The Nuclear Renaissance: Materials
of Choice for Power Plant Surface
Condensers & BOP Heat Exchangers
Educational Objectives
On completion of this course, students will:
1. Discover the impurities that can cause the most
damage to nuclear plant heat exchangers.
2. Learn some of the most common corrosion
processes that occur in heat exchangers.
Amidst the clamor and increasing world demand for en-
ergy, the continued use of fossil fuels for electric power
generation has recently emerged as the bane of the indus-
try. Green power is being championed as the new fuel de
jour kid on the block. Environmentalists and other global
warming advocates are successfully lobbying their political
agendas for cap & trade policies, carbon sequestration, N0X
and S0X and other greenhouse gas limits. In many cases,
these efforts have resulted in the outright cancellation,
delay or unit reductions of new coal-fired plants. Indeed,
the Obama Administration has tacitly noted that coal-fired
power plants are not necessarily off the table – they just
won’t be affordable. Similarly, simple and combined cycle
gas turbine (CCGT) units, popularized during the Enron
“gas bubble” era, are, due to currently competitive pric-
ing, may be the only stopgap option for new base load and
peaking capacity additions. Indeed, due to its low cost, 2-3
year construction window and lower emissions vs. compet-
ing technologies, the CCGT conundrum remains as one of
the few remaining options suitable for power production.
Wind, biomass, hydro, photovoltaic, solar and other re-
newables continue to produce an increased percentage of
the power base but contribution remains politically driven,
costly, inefficient and pitifully low.
Enter the nuclear renaissance. Continuing market pres-
sures, generation efficiencies, increasing ROI revenues and an
enviable safety record since TMI and Chernobyl has allowed
2 www.powergenu.com
3. Be introduced to the materials that are considered
state-of-the-art for heat exchanger fabrication.
4. Learn about modern technologies to minimize
corrosion in heat exchangers, and thus reduce plant
costs due to outages and maintenance repairs.
the nuclear phoenix to rise with the promise of emission-
free power. Even many of the fiercest and pragmatic green
power advocates have assumed a dramatic paradigm shift
from their early anti-nuke platforms. Assuming this energy
source conceives and bears the gestated fruit of the renais-
sance, the next several years will be telling in terms of the
challenges brought forward by licensing, design, financing,
construction and operation of a new generation of nuclear
power reactors.
Paramount among these is a new, time-tested generation
of construction materials that will be evaluated to insure a
40 - 60 operational life of the plant. Consider the problem-
atic copper materials that were chosen during the early 70’s
for their high thermal conductivity, competitive cost and
ease of fabrication. Contrast these past lessons-learned to
current-day, state-of-the-art generation fleet construction
standards where high performance, state-of-the-art materi-
als can emerge as the prominent industry players of choice.
The paper will examine these and other relevant aspects of
the technical and commercial supply chain that is predicted
to both challenge and reward designers and material suppli-
ers well into the next decade.
Overview
Currently, there are 440 nuclear power reactors around the
world with 104 in the US producing some 11% of the world’s
power generation needs and 20% in the US (See Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Current U.S. Fuel Mix Breakdown Figure 3 – The Boiling Water Reactor

18.6% Natural Gas Reactor Building

3.0
% (Secondary Containment)
Oil
Inerted Drywell Main Turbine Electricity
(Primary Steam Lines Generators to Switch Yard
19.4% Nuclear Containment)

Reactor
6.4% Core
Nucle
ar
2.7
%
49.9% Coal Ren Feedwater Condenser
ew
abl Control Rods Pumps
es

Torus

Figure 4 – The CANDU Reactor

Figure 2 – The Pressurized Water Reactor

Of the some 440 reactors, there are three (3) main
producers of electrical power. All are classically defined as
pressurized light water fission reactors varying in design and
configuration (see Figures 2, 3, 4).
Advanced Reactor Designs
To compliment the significant availability factor advances
made by the existing nuclear fleets, new, Generation II &
Generation III reactor designs have been heralded as dra-
matically advancing the economics and safety of the package.
Indeed, this new generation of light water reactors offers
a highly economical and more modular design, enhanced
safety, purported minimal waste and resistance to fuel pro-
liferation. Currently, the U.S. NRC has certified a number of
reactor designs. They include the following in Table 1.
Background & History
Most of the worlds 440 Generation 1 nuclear power reactors
were designed and constructed employing one of the afore-
mentioned Figure 1, 2 or 3 designs. And, since most were
designed in the 1960’s and 1970’s, many could be considered
as nearing the end of their useful life. Indeed, operating
license extensions may have become the industry savior
allowing many plants to extend their careers well beyond
initial design limits.
Early concepts utilized during the first generation of
nuclear power plant design employed materials that had
their DNA connected to the more mature industries. These
reference industries included chemical process, petrochemi-
cal and of course, existing oil and coal-fired power plants.
Material and design standards covering general heat ex-

Table 1: Generation III Advanced Reactor Designs Current Committed COL Design Applications
Design
ABWR: Toshiba America Nuclear Energy Corporation Advanced Boiling Water Reactor design
AP1000: Reactor by Westinghouse Electric Company
EPR: U.S. Evolutionary Power Reactor by AREVA Nuclear Power
ESBWR: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor by GE-Hitachi
USAPWR: U.S. Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.

www.powergenu.com 3
changers within these industries were transferred directly
into the heat transfer equipment within the nuclear steam
supply system (NSSS). Design codes such as the early ver-
sions of the HEI, ASME, TEMA and other governing bod-
ies were driven by design standards already in place. Steam
generators, surface condensers, feedwater heaters, MSR’s,
and BOP exchanges all followed the traditional paths. It
was not until later in their operational life did problems
manifest themselves. These problems were typically as-
sociated with improper material selection within the plant
operating envelope highlighted by the use of copper bearing
materials in the secondary side.
This conventional wisdom drove the material selection
process for the secondary or steam and raw water side materi-
als for the Generation 1 NSSS. Copper and copper-alloys were
typically chosen for their high thermal conductivity, ease of
fabrication and competitive cost. Selection and use of these
and other materials proved to be less than adequate causing
costly repairs and replacements over the years. Many of the
worlds fleet of nuclear units, and in particularly in the US, have
replaced their entire secondary side cadre of materials due to
a number of maladies that have effected plant performance.
Denting (a phenomenon of copper pick up and transport
from mainly the feedwater heater system and, to a lesser
extent, the main surface condensers and other cycle heat
exchangers) has been particularly problematic resulting in
the replacement of plant steam generators, turbine blades
and secondary side equipment such as surface condenser
and regenerative feedwater heater tube materials. Addi-
tional and unforeseen corrosion activities have also greatly
reduced the operating life of many secondary side systems
requiring significant modification and cost to mitigate the
issues. These issues will be addressed later in the paper.
It is clear that there are significant lessons to be learned
in the material application of the latest generation of nuclear
plants. Based upon the success of license extensions, power
uprates, etc. the existing nuclear fleet has demonstrated
dramatic success in metallurgical upgrades over the past
20 years. These lessons learned can provide a successful
pathway for material upgrades for BOP/secondary side heat
exchanges within the NSSS loop.
High Purity Water
Water chemistry is strictly controlled in NSSS systems.
Protection of this working fluid is essential and continu-
ously monitored as a vital organ of the plant water system.
Having noted this, extreme care must be exercised in the
selection of appropriate materials that come in contact with
this water and systems must be put in place to prevent the
intrusion of unwanted elements.
In support of this requirement, all NSSS manufactur-
ers have provided guidelines relating to high feedwater/
condensate water purity. Paramount on the purity level is
the control of dissolved oxygen, reducing conductivity and,
possibly the most important is maintaining an exceedingly
low level of chlorides (Table 2). Of equal importance is the
limitation of the noted corrosion products to very low levels.
It bears noting at this point in the paper that the larg-
est single source of potentially corrosive product ingress
is the surface condenser. Assured protection against these
intrusions must be considered in the equipment designs to
prevent a reoccurrence of past catastrophic failures within
the CIRH2O, air removal and condensate systems.
More on Water Purity
While feedwater heaters and other power plant heat exchang-
ers can be bypassed, a power plant cannot operate without the
full or partial availability of the surface condenser. As noted
above, the power plant surface condenser is also the largest
potential single source of corrosive product ingress. Within
this context, condensate contamination may be the single larg-
est operational malady. Since the circulating water (CIRH2O)

Table 2: Steam Turbine Feedwater/Condensate Purity Requirements (*) 1 (PARTIAL)

Water Quality Parameters Typically Reported Value And/Or Range
Dissolved Oxygen ppb (mg/L) 10 - 20
Conductivity mmhos/cm (μS/cm) 0.3 – 0.5
Chlorides ppb as CL 1-5
Silica ppb as Si02 10 - 50
Sulfate ppb as S04 <1
TDS ppb (mg/L) 50
Corrosion Producing Materials
Cu PPB 0.5 – 2.5
Co PPB 0.005 - 0/10
Zn PPB 0.002 – 0.020
Fe PPB 0.6 – 1.3
(*) Normalized summary range from GE, Westinghouse & ABB.

4 www.powergenu.com
source may be from the ocean, fresh
Table 3: “Typical” Gray/Impaired or Treated Effluent Water Analysis 6
water lakes, rivers, cooling towers and
in more increasing numbers, gray water Effluent
Parameter Heavy Metals (total) Effluent (mg/l)
(mg/l)
or treated sewage effluent, it become
absolutely imperative that this device Fecal Coliform 13 Aluminum 0.15
be afforded all possible protection. Gray Fecal Coliform 7 Antimony <0.001
water is particularly troubling as this BOD (Biochemical 0²
5.5 Arsenic <0.001
medium can produce not only a toxic Demand)
environment if not treated properly TSS (Total Suspended
5 Barium <0.1
but can become a breeding ground for Solids)
organic buildup due to high blowdown COD (Chemical 0² Demand) 47.3 Beryllium <0.001
levels, producing a MIC-friendly envi- Nitrate+ite 21 Boron 0.3
ronment (Table 3). This below graphic Ammonia <0.1 Cadmium <0.001
identifies a typical gray water environ-
TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) 2.66 Calcium 73
ment with specific areas of concern.
T Phosphorus 2.23 Chromium 0.002
Should gray water be considered or
Potassium 10.8 Cobalt <0.001
suspected to be present, the appropriate
experts should be consulted. pH 7.49 Copper 0.01
Sodium 139 Iron 0.1
More on Corrosion Hardness 320 Lead <0.001
Other areas of concern that should Calcium 71.6 Magnesium 34
be investigated when evaluating the Magnesium 34.4 Mercury <0.0002
circulating water would include some
Alkalinity 97.2 Molybdenum 0.003
of the following corrodent activities
Carbonate 0 Nickel <0.01
characterized from the traditional to
the more exotic (Table 4). It is not Bicarbonate 119 Selenium <0.005
the intent of this paper to discuss the Chloride 65.2 Silicon 7.1
many corrosion activities that can Fluoride 0.67 Silver <0.001
occur within a power plant circuit. Sulfate 312 Strontium 0.7
Rather, these possible maladies are TDS 730 Thallium <0.001
noted and should be addressed care- Tin <0.1
fully when selecting construction focus attention on selected candidate
Uranium 0.002
materials for heat exchangers. materials that have demonstrated a
Vanadium <0.001
high level of worthiness and suitabil-
Candidate Materials ity. Those materials would include Gr. Zinc 0.07
Should the nuclear phoenix arise to 2 titanium and the family of super-
renaissance maturity and currently stainless alloy tubing materials. Table 4: Corrosion Activities
planned programs are fully implanted, Due to its now-approaching 40 years Oxidizing Neutral
there exists a wide selection of tubing of corrosion-free service9 in condenser & Inhibited Conditions
materials available in the marketplace applications and demonstrated im- Chlorides
that may, on the surface, appear suitable munity to general and localized attack, Steam Droplet Erosion (Nuclear)
and cost effective for the application titanium has been and continues to be Inlet Erosion/Corrosion
within surface condenser and secondary the preferred material for sea water and
Crevice & Underdeposit Corrosion
side BOP heat exchangers (Table 5). brackish water-cooled heat exchanger
Ammonia
However, as a cautionary note, this tubing. However, given the significant
author is compelled to strongly sug- excursions in titanium pricing and Galvanic (I-C)
gest that nothing short of an opera- availability over the past several years, Suspended Solids Erosion (I.E. Sand)
tional 90%+ capacity factor coupled engineering companies and end-users Calcium Carbonate
with a 40-60 year expected equipment have shown an increasing interest in MIC
service life will be acceptable. These more cost-effective alternative solutions Manganese
commercial and operational severe- using highly alloyed stainless steels. Grey Water (Impaired Effluent)
service requirements will indeed, pre- These high performance stainless
Hydrogen Embrittlement
clude the use of most of these material alloys demonstrate a much improved
Biocidal Growth Fouling
options. As a result, this paper will corrosion resistance over past gen-

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 Table 5: Surface Condenser & BOP Exchanger Candidate Material Options (Partial List - Values May Vary)
Thermal Cond Modulus Density
Material Spec (ASTM) UNS No. Tube Condition Min Yield (ksi)
BTU/hr-°F 106 ksi LB/in3
Titanium Gr. 1 B-338 R50250 Wld/Smls 25 12.68 15.5 .163
Titanium Gr. 2 B-338 R50400 Wld/Smls 40 12.68 15.5 .163
Titanium Gr. 3 B-338 R50550 Wld/Smls 55 12.68 15.5 .163
TP304L A249 S30403 Wld 25 8.6 28.3 .29
TP304N A249 S30451 Wld 35 8.6 28.3 .29
TP316L A249 S31603 Wld 25 8.6 28.3 .29
TP317L A249 S31703 Wld 30 8.6 28.3 .28
AL2003 A240 S32003 Wld 70 10 30.5 .279
LDX2101 A240 S32101 Wld 70 9.2 29 .28
TP439 A268 S43035 Wld/Smls 30 12.3 29 .28
2205 A789 S32205 Wld 65 11 27.5 .285
2507 A789 S32750 Wld 80 8.7 29 .28
904L B674 N08904 Wld 31 8.8 28 .287
254SMO® B676 S31254 Wld 45 ~8 29 .287
AL6XN® B676 N08367 Wld 45 7.9 27 .29
SeaCure® A268 S44660 Wld 65 9.8 31 .28
AL29-4C® A268 S44735 Wld 60 9.8 29 .28
Inh Admiralty B111/B543 C44300/400/50 Smls 15 64 16.0 .308
Al Brass B111/B543 C68700 Wld/Smls 18 58 16.0 .301
Al Bronze B111/B543 C60800 Wld/Smls 18 46 17.5 .301
CuNi 70/30 B111/B543 C71500 Wld/Smls 18 17 22.0 .323
CuNi 90/10 B111/B543 C70600 Smls 15 26 18.0 .323
Ars Copper B111/B543 C14200 Smls ~15 112 17.0 .323
Copper Iron B111/B543 C19400 Smls ~15 150 17.5 .317
Carbon Steel A-179 Smls 24.3 @ 400° 27.5 29.5 .283
Carbon Steel A-214 Wld 24.3 @ 400° 27.5 29.5 .283

erations while maintaining a modest increase in premium
pricing when compared to conventional stainless steels.
Given the lessons learned from Generation 1 designs, this
paper will examine the relevant characteristics of both the
titanium and super-stainless alloys for application into the
new Generation of nuclear power plants.
Mechanical Properties
Table(s) 6 & 8 will enable the reader to compare the chemi-
cal & mechanical properties of titanium with three super al-
loy alternatives which have been developed for the market:
They include UNS S31254 super austenitic alloy and UNS
S44735 and UNS S44660 super-ferritic alloys.
Heat Transfer Properties
Table 7 identifies the thermal conductivity of the three com-
peting super alloys under consideration and cp (commer-
cially pure) titanium. All three super alloys have reasonable
thermal performance in steam condensers, especially when
used in thin-wall conditions. Titanium, due to its improved
thermal conductivity, performs somewhat better than the
stainless alloys. However, the thermal performance all four

Table 6: Typical Chemical Requirements (%) According to ASTM

Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Young’s Modulus
UNS No. Elongation % Max Hardness BHN
(0.2%) MPa (ksi) Strength MPa (ksi) GPa (ksi x 103)
R50400 Titanium 275 (40) 345 (50) 20 107 (15.5) 180
S31254 NiCr Aust 310 (45) 675 (98) 35 200 (29) 210
S44735 AL29-4C 415 (60) 515 (75) 18 200 (29) 241
S44660 Sea Cure 450 (65) 585 (85) 20 217 (31.5) 241

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candidate materials is decidedly less than that of the copper Table 8: Erosion Of Unalloyed Titanium In Seawater Locations
alloys. Flow Rate Duration
Location Gr 2 Titanium
Experience within the power generation industry has Ft/sec (m/sec) Months
demonstrated that thermal conductivity is only a small <0.098
Brixham Sea 32.9 (9.8) 12
contributor to overall heat transfer. Steam and water-side (<0.0025)
film and fouling coefficients have a more significant influ- 3.3 (1) 54 3 x 10 -5
ence. Rather, the heat transfer performance is more closely 27.9 (8.5) 2 4.9 x 10 -3
linked to the corrosion resistance of the tubing material. An Kure Beach 29.5 (9) 2 1.1 x 10 -2
alloy surface that exhibits low corrosion rates in the heat ex-
0.020
changer environment while remaining relatively clean can 23.6 (7.2 plus air) 1
(0.0005)
provide excellent heat transfer performance over the service
2.0-4.3 0.004
life of the heat exchanger. 6
Wrightsville (0.6 – 1.3) (0.0001)
Beach 0.007
Table 7: Thermal Conductivity of Candidate Alloys 29.5 (9) 2
(0.000175)
Conductivity
UNS No. Mediterranean
KW/(moC) [[BTU/hr ft oF) 23.6 (7.2 plus air) 0.5 0.5 mg/day
Sea
R50400 (Titanium) 22 [13] (@ 20oC/68oF)
Dead Sea 23.6 (7.2 plus air) 0.5 0.2 mg/day
S31254 (NiCr Austenitic) 13.5 [8] (@ 20oC/68oF)
S44735 (AL29-4C) 17 [10] (@ 20oC/68oF)
Published literature again suggests that titanium is
S44660 (Sea Cure) 15.9 [9] (@ 20oC/68oF)
considered one of the best cavitation-resistant materials
available for seawater service. UNS S31254, UNS S44735 and
Mechanical Properties – Erosion Resistance UNS S44660 super-alloys also demonstrate an outstanding
The four materials under investigation demonstrate excel- resistance to cavitation, turbulence and high velocity flow
lent resistance to suspended solids (sand) erosion, steam side thanks to their high mechanical strengths.
droplet impingement, cavitation, turbulence and high velocity Steam droplet erosion is the second type of erosion dam-
flow including mechanical damage as a result of flow-assisted age experienced with condenser tubing. Erosion can typi-
corrosion (FAC). Superior mechanical strength associated with cally take place immediately below the exhaust hood, in the
these alloys is the principal reason for their excellent resistance steam lanes and/or along the bundle to shell clearance. The
to this type of attack (see Table 8). A further review of suggests problem mainly occurs during winter periods when the con-
UNS S44735 and UNS S44660 exhibit very high mechanical denser cooling water temperature is low. If the CIRH2O
properties and are particularly erosion-resistant. . is not throttled at these low temperatures, condenser back-
Two types of erosion can commonly cause potential pressure will follow the reduced temperature curve greatly
problems for condenser applications. increasing the velocity of wet steam entering the condenser.
• ID erosion and/or cavitation caused by the The phenomenon can ultimately result in a turbine “choke
circulating water (CIRH2O) scouring or flow” condition that accelerates condensed water particles
collapsing a vena contracta “bubble”. (droplets) in the exhaust steam. This impinging action even-
• OD erosion can be caused by localized tually removes the metal oxide and metal. Should the condi-
steam droplet impingement erosion. tion continue unabated, perforation of the tube eventually
ID erosion is typically caused by high water velocities takes place.
as a result of partial blockage by debris or micro- or macro- Resistance to this erosion phenomenon can be linked
biological activity. Published literature has suggested that directly to the metal hardness. Higher hardness provides
both titanium and the family of super- stainless steels have increased erosion resistance. UNS S44735 and UNS S44660
demonstrated an ability to safely accommodate sea water are therefore particularly resistant to this kind of erosion
or brackish water flowing at velocities up to 30 m/s (~100’/ damage, with a slightly better behavior than UNS S31254
sec). In many cases, these numbers carry little significance and Titanium Gr. 2. Thanks to these high mechanical prop-
as condenser tube velocities rarely get above 7-10’/sec. erties, UNS S44735 and UNS S44660 are particularly suited
It is of interest however that in 1970, Imperial Metals as erosion-resistant materials.
(see Table 8 Reference) performed actual erosion tests us-
ing Gr. 2 titanium in various unfiltered sea water locations Pitting & Crevice Corrosion Resistance
around the world. The locations varied as did the salinity Titanium is known to offer an exceptional resistance to cor-
and suspended solids concentration levels. The reader will rosion because of its naturally forming protective oxide film
note that the erosion rates for each of the test cases are very layer. This film layer, which increases over time, provides
low and in most cases defy accurate measurement. immunity to general and localized attack in power plant

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 Table 9: PREN, CPT and CCT of UNS S31254, S44735 and S44660
PREN
UNS N° Average Min. Max. Average
S31254 44.1 42.2 46.0 63.4
S44735 42.2 39.9 44.6 61.1
S44660 38.4 34.9 41.8 51.9
PREN = (%Cr) + (3.3 × %Mo) + (16 × %N) (Herbsled 1982)
CPT (°C) = (2.5 × %Cr) + (7.6 × %Mo) + (31.9 × %N) - 41.0 (G-48)
CCT (°C) = (3.2 × %Cr) + (7.6 × %Mo) + (10.5 × %N) - 81.0 (G-48)
surface condenser applications where high chloride and
brackish water conditions exist. Grade 2 cp titanium has
operated nearly 40 years in condenser power plant service
without one reported corrosion incident 9.
UNS S31254, S44735 and S44660 are highly alloyed
stainless steels designed to resist mainly pitting and crevice
corrosion but also stress corrosion cracking in saline envi-
ronments. Their performance can also be linked to their
oxide film layer. A considerable upturn over the past 10
years in the usage of the super stainless materials has sug-
gested these materials provide good resistance to the pitting
and SCC maladies within their operational temperature and
concentration limits.
It is necessary however to take several precautionary
measures when considering the super stainless family.
These measures include keeping the tubes clean and free
from ID build-up that may promote an underdeposit pitting
event. In addition, it is not recommend that heavily chlo-
rinated waters be left in the tube for any extended period
of time. A fresh water flush is recommended for extended
layup periods.
Corrosion Resistance Measurements Using Empirical Data
Certain corrosion resistance measurements are commonly
used in order to assess the resistance of stainless steels to lo-
calized corrosion phenomena. Table 9 provides the average,
minimum and maximum values for the Pitting Resistance
Equivalent Number (PREN), the Critical Pitting Tempera-
ture (CPT) and the Critical Crevice Temperature (CCT)
of the three super stainless alloys under investigation, ac-
cording to the chemical composition range as indicated in
ASTM standards.
Attention is to be paid not only to the average values
but also to the minimum values PREN, CPT and CCT can
reach due to the tolerances of the different chemical com-
ponents of the three super alloys under investigation. The
empirical values of PREN, CPT and CCT are typically ac-
cepted benchmarks within industry and employed as tools
to estimate the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of
conventional stainless steel grades. Unfortunately, these
calculated values are not sufficiently accurate to legitimately
8 www.powergenu.com
CPT (°C) CCT (°C)
Min. Max. Average Min. Max.
59.1 67.6 32.8 28.9 36.6
56.4 65.9 41.4 36.0 46.9
44.3 59.4 30.4 21.8 39.0
compare the family of highly alloyed stainless - one against
the other. Corrosion investigations performed on super
stainless alloys used in sea water applications require both
electrochemical and conventional ASTM tests, which will
enable the investigator to have a better overview of the ma-
terials’ performance.
ASTM G48 Test: Pitting & Crevice Corrosion Assessment
– Method A & B
ASTM G48 standard Method A and Method B tests were
conducted on superferritic stainless materials, UNS S44735
and S44660. Weight loss leading to the corrosion rate and
visual/optical examination of the specimens after testing
allow assessment of the susceptibility to localized corro-
sion. According to the ASTM G48 Method A, samples were
immersed into an iron chloride solution at 50°C during 24
hours (pH 0.5). Both
UNS S44735 and S44660 materials showed a low suscep-
tibility to pitting corrosion without any trace of pits and low
corrosion rates (4 µmpy for UNS S44660 and 3 µmpy for
UNS S44735).
Following the procedure requirements of ASTM G48
Method B, samples were immersed in an iron chloride solu-
tion at 50°C for 24 hours (pH 1.08). Two TFE-fluorocarbon
blocks were fastened to the test specimens in order to
reproduce calibrated deposits where crevice corrosion
susceptibility could initiate. Both UNS S44660 and S44735
materials showed a low susceptibility to crevice corrosion
(no sign of crevice corrosion).
Electrochemical Investigation
The drawback to the ASTM G48 testing method is of
course the use of an artificial medium to test the materials in
question. This medium may not accurately represent actual
performance in a seawater or brackish water service envi-
ronment. Therefore, electrochemical tests were performed
using artificial sea water as a reference; i.e. the fitness-for-
purpose environment according to the medium in contact
with materials in heat exchangers. The investigations were
carried out on welded tube samples of 25.4 mm OD × 0.7 mm
WT at 50°C, in two testing solutions:
• Artificial seawater based on ASTM D-1141 (pH = 7.5) rankings are identified below and, left to right, rank from
representing typical in-plant service conditions. the rated highest corrosion resistance to the lowest.
• Chloride solution composed of 100 g/L NaCl In addition to the polarization tests, electrochemical
(pH = 5.8), representing more severe conditions tests were performed on the three super-stainless candidates
(higher chloride content and lower pH) in order using 100 g/L NaCl solution (Table 10). This additional test-
to more clearly distinguish the materials. ing appears to confirm the superior corrosion resistance of
Figure 6 (See Attachment), identifies the electrochemi- UNS S44735 over UNS S44660 and S31254.
cal testing apparatus employed to develop polarization
curves referenced in the following paragraph. Simply Figure 10: Electrochemical Parameters of Materials Tested in 100 g/l
stated, samples were mounted in a Teflon resin cylinder NaCl Solution
representing the working electrode. The two testing solu- 100 g/L NaCl solution
tions identified in the previous paragraph were employed,
Jc (µA.cm-2) Ecorr (mV/SCE) Jp (µA.cm-2)
temperatures were fixed and a testing electrode measured
UNS S44735 2.7 -340 2.2
the corrosion potential of the material. The electrochemical
recording was carried out in a glass cell, with a Saturated UNS S31254 2.9 -562 2.7
Calomel Electrode (SCE) immersed in the solution with a UNS S44660 7.1 -510 4
KCI saturated solution. Legend
Ecorr = Corrosion (open-circuit) Potential
Figure 6 – Testing Assembly Used for Electrochemical Tests
Jc = Critical Current Densities
Jp = Passivation Current Densities
Note: The higher Ecorr and the lower Jc & Jp, the more
Counter Electrode corrosion resistance the alloy.
Ref. Electrode (SCE)

Cyclic polarization curves measure the pitting potential

in 1M NaCl solution according to ASTM Standard G61 (pH
Electrochemical Cell
3 - 50°C). The results (Table 11) are conclusive and lead to the
Working Electrode same stainless ranking as identified in the electrochemical
tests identified in Table 10.

UNS S44735 > UNS S31254 > UNS S44660

Figure 11: Pitting Potentials of Materials in 1M Solution @ pH 3.0

Polarization tests performed in an artificial seawater UNS S31254 UNS S44735 UNS S44660
environment (Figure 7 See Attachment) then result in a Ep 1 (mV/SCE) 921 963 884
ranking in terms of nobleness of the materials. According Ep 2 (mV/SCE) 934 971 875
to current densities (both critical related to dissolution peak
Average (mV/SCE) 927.5 967 879.5
and passivation stage), this same ranking can be applied
Std. Dev. (mV/SCE) 9 6 6
to the corrosion resistance properties of the alloys. These

Figure 7 – Polarization Curves & Electrochemical Parameters* of Materials Tested in Sea Water
100.0 mA
10.00 mA
1.000 mA Jc (µA.cm-2) Ecorr (mV/SCE) Jp (µA.cm-2)
100.0 µA
UNS S31254 6.2 -660 4.8
10.00 µA
lm (A)

1.000 µA
UNS S44660 4.1 -582 4.1
100.0 nA UNS S44735 2.7 -350 2
10.00 nA Titanium Grade 2 1.3 -80 1.5
1.000 nA
Ti-Gr.2 > UNS S44735 > UNS S31254 > S44660
100.0 pA
-2.000 V -1.000 V 0.000 V 1.000 V 2.000 V
CURVE (254 SMO TTh á 1200°C - cordon de soudure - TEST1.DTA)
Vf (V vs. Ref.) CURVE (SEA CURE - cordon de soudure - TEST1.DTA)
CURVE (29-4C - cordon de soudure - TEST1.DTA)
*critical current density (Jc), Corrosion Potential Ecorr & Passivation Current Density (Jp) CURVE (TITANE VALTIMET 25x0.5 clée V382464-Pol - TEST1.DTA)

www.powergenu.com 9
Figure 8 – Polarization Curves & Electrochemical Parameters of Samples Tested in Artificial Reference Seawater
100.0 mA
10.00 mA
1.000 mA Jc (µA.cm-2) Ecorr (mV/SCE) Jp (µA.cm-2)
100.0 µA
10.00 µA
900-H2/1650F 1 -355 2
lm (A)

1.000 µA
100.0 nA 900-Air/1650F 5 -435.5 5.5
10.00 nA
1.000 nA As received 6.5 -492 6
100.0 pA
-2.000 V -1.000 V 0.000 V 1.000 V 2.000 V
Vf (V vs. Ref.)

Influence of Heat Treatment on Corrosion Resistance 21 The polarization curve of the “Open Air” specimen, even if it
Investigations were carried out on UNS S44735 (Allegheny has been cleaned from residual oxidation in an acidic solution,
Ludlum AL29-4C Superferritic) material to assess the impact shows a small increase of the passivation stage conventionally
of various heat treatment (HT) processes which are used dur- correlated to a small susceptibility to crevice corrosion which
ing the tube manufacturing operation. Electrochemical and might be generated under remaining oxidized area.
conventional ASTM tests were performed on three different Electrochemical tests performed using a 100 g/L NaCl
tube surface conditions in accordance with two (2), commer- solution will similarly allow ranking of the three heat treat-
cially available heat treatment processes. These processes ment conditions of the UNS S44735 material when tested in
would include the following three conditions. 100 g/L NaCl solution:
• Condition 1: As Received: UNS S44735 (AL29-4C) strip
tested without any additional heat treatment other Bright Anneal (900-H2)/1650F >Open Air Anneal
than the one performed during the strip production (900-Air/1650F) > As Received
• Condition 2: Open-air anneal - UNS S44735 (AL29-
4C Superferritic) annealed @ 900C/1650+F and The use of corrosion rate assessment (Table 12) and pit-
pickled & passivated to remove residual oxidation ting potential values (Table 13) also point to a better corro-
due to the oxidizing environment during the heat sion resistance of UNS S44735 material when heat treated
treatment process (representative of welded tubes under hydrogen/ protective atmosphere.
which are open-air annealed and pickled)
• Condition 3: Bright anneal - UNS S44735 (AL29-4C Table 13: Pitting Potential of Materials in 1M NaCl Solution @ pH 3.0
Superferritic) annealed @ 900C/1650+F under H2 Bright Open Air As received
hydrogen protective atmosphere (representative Anneal (Pickel) No Post
of welded tubes which are bright annealed) 900C/1650F 900C/1650F Weld HT
Ep 1 (mV/SCE) 963 808 936
Electrochemical Investigation
Ep 2 (mV/SCE) 971 842 936
Polarization tests again performed in artificial seawater (Fig-
ure 8) demonstrate that the heat treatment under a protective Average (mV/SCE) 967 825 936
atmosphere provides improved corrosion behavior vs. either
Std. Dev. (mV/SCE) 6 24 0
the “As Received” or the “Open Air Annealed” specimens.

Table 12: Corrosion Rate (C.R.) of Materials Under Investigation in Artificial Reference Sea Water
H2 Bright Anneal 900C/1650F Open Air (Pickel) 900C/1650F As received No Post Weld HT

Test 1 Test 2 Test 1 Test 2 Test 1 Test 2

0.1681 0.1784 0.3579 0.1623 0.2672 -

0.1719 0.1748 0.3826 0.2031 0.2781 -

0.162 0.1857 0.368 0.1684 0.2678 -

0.1775 0.1701 0.3603 0.1591 0.239 -

C.R. (mmpy) 0.174 0.270 0.263
Std. Dev. (mmpy) 0.007 0.105 0.017

10 www.powergenu.com
 Table 14: Weight Loss Corrosion of Samples Under Investigation (ASTM G-48 Method A & B)
ASTM G48 Method A ASTM G48 Method B ASTM G48 Method B

Materials Corrosion Rate (µmpy) Corrosion Rate (µmpy) Crevice Spots (Arbitrary Units)

H2 Bright Anneal 900C/1650F 2 12 No

Open Air (Pickle) 900C/1650F 7 7842 10/20

No Post Weld HT 5 5 No

Table 15: Weight Loss Corrosion Samples Investigation (ASTM G48 Method(s) A&B
Loss of Corrosion
Materials L (mm) L (mm) Ø (mm) E (mm) Area (cm2) T (°C) Time (h)
Weight (g) Rate (µmpy)
H2 Bright Anneal 900C/1650F 50.89 - 24.86 0.77 79.49 50 24 0.0005 3
H2 Bright Anneal 900C/1650F
51.70 - 25.07 0.70 40.72 50 24 0.0002 2
(second test)
Open Air (Pickle) 900C/1650F 69.60 10.44 - 0.67 7.266 50 24 0.0001 7

As received No Post Weld HT 69.90 13.22 - 0.68 9.240 50 24 0.0001 5

ASTM G48 Pitting & Crevice Corrosion Assessment
ASTM G48 pitting and crevice corrosion tests also con-
firm that heat treatment under a hydrogen (or) protective
atmosphere demonstrates better corrosion resistance than
either the “Open Air Anneal” (900-Air/1650F) or the “As
Received” (Table 11 – See Attached). Furthermore, the
“Open Air Annealed” (900-Air/1650F) UNS S44735 speci-
men showed a very high susceptibility to crevice corrosion
apparently due to a residual oxidation contamination fol-
lowing the heat treatment and acid pickling process. See
Figures 9, 10, 11 Attached)
Table 14 summarizes the ASTM G-48 – Method(s) A&B
test results identifying weight loss corrosion in each of the
three tube conditions tested.
The ASTM G-48 pitting and corrosion tests can be gen-
eralized to all stainless steels concluding that welded tubes
which are bright-annealed during the production process
demonstrate a better corrosion resistance than the ones
which are open air-annealed then pickled.
Conclusion
Current market conditions coupled with the possible emer-
gence renaissance of new nuclear units have encouraged
engineering companies, fabricators and end-users alike to
consider all material options for surface condensers and BOP
exchangers including the super stainless alloy materials as
alternates to cp Gr. 2 titanium. Of particular interest is their
long-term performance history in sea water, brackish water
or polluted water conditions were the control of condenser
condensate and reactor feedwater chemistry is of paramount
importance. Electrochemical and ASTM standardized corro-
sion investigations on welded tube portions presented in this
paper have shown that UNS S31254, S44735 and S44660 are
three super stainless alloys potentially suitable for seawater
service with S44737 demonstrating the best performance. It
is also clear that titanium remains the best technical solu-
tion combining reasonable heat transfer characteristics with
general corrosion immunity. Its superiority and corrosion-
free record is well documented for 409 years particularly for
industries such as power generation and desalination
The reader should clearly understand however that the
family of super stainless steels examined perform well up to
certain tested concentration and temperature limits. It can
also be stated that research has demonstrated that titanium
provides not only corrosion immunity at classic equipment
operating levels but provides this immunity at significant in-
creases in both temperature and concentration. For instance,
at typical sea water concentration and equipment operating
temperatures, (3.5% sea water @ 120F/49C), Figure 11 dem-
onstrates titanium’s general corrosion immunity in actual sea
and brackish water environments even up to elevated tem-
peratures in excess of 120oC/248oF. However, certain sea
water-cooled cooling towers and canals can, through cycle
concentration and recirculation, increase chloride and con-
ductivity concentration limits significantly – anywhere from
1.3 to 2X normal levels. If we again refer to Figure 11, titanium
remains completely immune to chloride attack even when
approaching concentrations of 6X normal and temperatures
approaching 80oC/176oF – well below the operating metal
temperature of a surface condenser. For more severe applica-
tions such as brine concentrators and salt evaporators, alloyed
titanium should be considered. In addition, titanium can be
utilized in very thin-wall gauges (down to 0.4mm/0.016”)
enabling savings in both first cost and weight.
The paper also presented a variety of corrosion mea-
surement tools for evaluating welded stainless steel tubing
including PREN, electrochemical assessment and ASTM
standardized test investigations. These tests have demon-

www.powergenu.com 11
 Figure 11 – Influence of Temperature, Concentration, and pH on Crevice
Corrosion and Pitting Corrosion Propensity of Commercially Pure
Titanium in Sea Water and NaCl Brines
Typical Condenser
Operating Point
strated that super alloys, UNS S31254, S44735 and S44660
can be, within limitations, considered for use in brackish
and sea water service. These same data have also demon-
strated that the bright annealed, super stainless UNS
S44735 provides better corrosion resistance than either al-
loys S31254 or S44660 (open air annealed and pickled). With
15-25 years of service in both the US and Europe, the use of
super stainless can be considered for use in aggressive water
service conditions.
Having noted the favorable super stainless corrosion
data resulting from the electrochemical assessment and
ASTM investigations, certain precautionary measures must
be identified when considering their use.
• To resist the possibility of underdeposit pitting attack,
tubes must be kept clean – either through the use of
an on-line system or regular maintenance cleaning. In
particular, organic buildup on the tube ID can reduce
the corrosion resistance of the material introducing
the possibility of MIC or pitting. Remember that
excessive chlorine usage to mitigate bio-fouling may
in fact, reduce the pitting resistance of the material.
• In addition, a fresh water flush of the condenser is
highly recommended during off-line conditions.
Stagnant water or highly chlorinated water left to
evaporate in the tube may induce a corrosion cell
ultimately causing a thru-wall condition failure.
• The family of super stainless steels examined are
limited to the temperature and concentration limits
A final cautionary note should be added for the reader:
The selection of a tube material for the condenser or BOP
heat exchanger may indeed be appropriate for current and/
12 www.powergenu.com
or even anticipated operating conditions. However, there is
no guarantee that in the future, these conditions may dra-
matically change where the cooling water could conceivably
morph from benign to aggressive. There is also no guaran-
tee that the cooling water source may change from pond to
tower, from lake to tower or to a highly polluted source such
as sewage effluent or other highly impaired water source.
Final evaluation and selection of these critical materials
must consider these worst-case scenarios.
References
1
1. General Electric Infra Energy Company: ESBWR Feedwater
Water Quality, Wilmington, NC – Jack Noonan & Ultrapure
Water, October, 2007
2. EIA – Energy Information Association & CERA –
Cambridge Energy Research Associates.
3. Nuclear Tourist Website & UtiliPoint International
4. Power Magazine – Issues April & May, 2007 & Power
Engineering – July, 2007
5. ITA 2007 – TITANIUM - THE MATERIAL OF CHOICE
FOR THE NUCLEAR RENAISSANCE, Schumerth
6. ASME Paper _ IJPGC 2006 Electric Power Conference,
Paper No: PWR2006-88115 GRAY & IMPAIRED WATER
COOLING IN SURFACE CONDENSERS AND HEAT
EXCHANGERS
7. Valtimet & EPRI Seminar: A Tube Material Selection
& Design Seminar for Condenser & Heat Exchanger
Applications.
8. Titanium Heat Exchangers for Service in Sea Water, Brine
& Other Natural Aqueous Environments – Technical
Information Bulletin – Imperial Metal Industries Ltd.,
Witton UK – Multiple authors, 1970.
9. NRG – Arthur Kill Power Station
10. ValBrite TM is a trademark of Valtimet
11. Titanium & Super Stainless Steel Welded Tubing Solutions
for Seawater Cooled Heat Exchangers – IDA World
Congress-Maspalomas, Gran Canaria – Spain October 21-26,
2007 REF: MP07-021, Richaud-Miner, Gerard, Marchebois
12. ASME Standardization News – July, 2007 – Nuclear Power
Generation
13. Fortune Magazine – August, 2007
14. Forty (40) years of PowerGen experience by the author
Miscellaneous Contributing References
15. D. Vuillaume, VALLOUREC, “Tube Materials for Modern
Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Steam Condensers”, August 1985
16. Valtimet Titanium Tubing Design & Fabrication Handbook
17. Ivan A. Franson, “Selection of Stainless Steel for Steam
Surface Condenser Applications” - 85-JPGC-Pwr-15 – ASME/
IEEE Power Generation Conference, 1985
18. Plymouth Tube Co SEA-CURE® Superferritic Stainless Steel
(UNS S44660) Alloy Application & Data

19. Donald M. McCue, David K. Peacock, Titanium Metals

Corporation, “The Application of Titanium for Power Plant
Surface Condensers”

20. H. Marchebois, C.E.V., Technical report 2006- COR-06045

“Comparison of Highly Alloyed Stainless Steels for Sea Water
Applications: UNS S31254 vs. UNS S44735 vs. UNS S44660”,
August 2006

21. H. Marchebois, C.E.V., Technical report 2006- COR-06044

“Influence of Heat Treatment of UNS Ferritic Stainless
Steel on Corrosion Resistance for Sea Water Applications”,
October, 2006

Acknowledgements:
This course is based on the presentation “The Nuclear Renaissance:
Materials of Choice for Power Plant Surface Condensers
& BOP Heat Exchangers” by Dennis Schumerth, Director
of Business Development, Valtimet, Inc., at NUCLEAR
POWER International 2009. The presenters acknowledged
the technical contributions made by Valtimet to the approach
method sections of this paper.

www.powergenu.com 13
Online Completion
Use this page to review the questions and choose your answers. Return to www.powergenu.com and sign in. If you have not previously purchased the program
select it from the “Online Courses” listing and complete the online purchase. Once purchased the exam will be added to your User History page where a Take
Exam link will be provided. Click on the “Take Exam” link, complete all the program questions and submit your answers. An immediate grade report will be
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1. How many nuclear power plant
reactors currently operate
in the United States?
a. 84.
b. 94.
c. 104.
2. In the boiling water reactor (PWR)
shown in Figure 1, the steam pro-
duced in the reactor is sent directly
to the turbine. Thus, this steam
and its condensate are slightly
radioactive. True or false, the
pressurized water reactor (PWR)
has two loops such that the turbine
and condenser do not directly
process the radioactive steam?
a. True.
b. False.
3. What is a critical aspect
in minimizing corrosion
within heat exchangers?
a. Producing and maintaining
high purity water.
b. Installing expensive infrared
monitoring equipment.
c. Regularly shutting down the
equipment for mechanical cleaning.
4. Three critical high-purity water
chemistry issues are control of
dissolved oxygen, control of
conductivity, and maintaining a
very low level of what impurity?
a. Chromium.
b. Molybdenum.
c. Chloride.
14 www.powergenu.com
Questions
5. What is typically the single
largest source of contaminant
ingress to condensate?
a. The condenser.
b. The nuclear reactor.
c. The turbine.
6. Which of the following metals
will most often show up as
corrosion products in a nuclear
condensate/feedwater system?
a. Copper (Cu).
b. Cobalt (Co).
c. Zinc (Zn).
d. Iron (Fe).
e. All of the above.
7. Table 4 outlines the most common
corrosion mechanisms that can
affect condenser tube mate-
rial. Would you expect that MIC
(microbiologically influenced cor-
rosion) and other microbiological
influences on the waterside of the
condenser tubes could be one of the
most problematic of the corrosion
mechanisms, and thus requires
proper cooling water treatment?
a. Yes.
b. No.
8. What has been a popular material
for condenser tubing in seawater
and brackish water for 40 years?
a. Tantalum.
b. Titanium.
c. Zirconium.
d. Palladium.
9. Due to cost concerns regarding
the metal from question 8, what
material is becoming more popular
as a replacement in seawater and
brackish water applications?
a. Tantalum.
b. Zirconium.
c. Highly-alloyed stainless steels.
10. One of the three steels outlined
in the paper is known as an
austenitic stainless steel. The
term “austenite” refers to a
particular crystal lattice. What
are the other two steels?
a. Martensitic.
b. Pearlitic.
c. Ferritic.
11. Many condenser and heat exchang-
ers installed during the middle of
the last century utilized copper alloy
tube material, due to the high heat
transfer property of copper. The
paper points out that titanium and
stainless steels have a much lower
thermal conductivity, but that this
“is only a small contributor to overall
heat transfer.” What does the paper
say is much more influential regard-
ing heat transfer [or lack thereof]?
a. Steam and water-side film
and fouling coefficients.
b. Steam flow to the condenser.
c. Cooling water flow rate.
Online Completion
Use this page to review the questions and choose your answers. Return to www.powergenu.com and sign in. If you have not previously purchased the program
select it from the “Online Courses” listing and complete the online purchase. Once purchased the exam will be added to your User History page where a Take
Exam link will be provided. Click on the “Take Exam” link, complete all the program questions and submit your answers. An immediate grade report will be
provided and upon receiving a passing grade (70%) your “Certificate of Completion” will be provided immediately for viewing and/or printing. Certificates of
Completion can be viewed and/or printed anytime in the future by returning to www.powergenu.com, sign in and return to your User History Page.
12. For the principal materials
outlined in the paper, what is
a mechanically-induced, flow-
related corrosion process on the
water-side that they resist well?
a. Solid metal impact.
b. Macrofouling.
c. Erosion.
13. What is the name for the
mechanical corrosion process
that can occur on topmost
condenser tubes on the steam-side
below the turbine exhaust?
a. Sonic velocity corrosion.
b. Steam droplet erosion.
c. Steam expansion erosion.
14. Titanium and stainless steels are
corrosion resistant due to formation
of an oxide layer that covers the
metal surface. Before these new
developments of stainless steel,
stainless steels could not be utilized
in high chloride waters because
chloride would penetrate the
oxide film and cause pitting. Even
though the new stainless steels are
much more resistant to pitting,
what does the paper say is necessary
to prevent this type of corrosion?
a. Keep the tubes clean and free from
ID buildup that may promote an
under-deposit pitting event.
b. Install extremely thick-walled tubes.
c. Consider switching to a different
cooling water source.
www.powergenu.com 15
Questions
15. Even though the new stainless
steels are much more resistant to
chloride attack, what water-side
procedure is recommended if
the condenser will be out of
service for an extended period?
a. Complete drain and drying
with portable heaters.
b. A fresh water flush.
c. Shoot the condenser tubes with
water-absorbing brushes.
16. What does the acronym
PREN stand for?
a. Polarization resistance
equivalent number.
b. Penetration resistance
equivalent number.
c. Pitting resistance equivalent number.
d. None of the above.
17. What chemical solution
is utilized for the ASTM
G48 Test for corrosion?
a. Zinc chloride.
b. Iron chloride.
c. Sodium chloride.
18. Why does the author conclude that
this test may not be accurate?
a. The chemical solution is
much too aggressive.
b. The chemical solution does not
represent real-world conditions.
c. The chemical solution is too
difficult to synthesize.
19. Which of the three super
stainless steels was shown to
have the most corrosion
resistance, as listed on page 13?
a. S44735.
b. S44660.
c. S31254.
20. Many metals for a wide
variety of applications are given
additional mechanical or heat
treatment (annealing) after
fabrication to improve corrosion
resistance and relieve stresses
within the metal structure. Three
conditions are outlined on page
14. Which most improved the
corrosion resistance of S44735?
a. Annealing in open air and
then pickling/passivating.
b. Annealing under a hydrogen
protective atmosphere.
c. No additional treatment at all,
as the initial fabrication puts the
metal in pristine condition.