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 ± In this context, hierarchical means that changes in posture must precede changes in limb position, or

commands to stabilize the shoulder must precede commands to the arm and hang. Similarly, sequential organization

involves the timing and ordering of the various muscle commands.

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is not the only way to view motor performance and learning. A number of extremely well-respected scientists are critical of the

info processing analogies used to explain motor behavior. These scientists propose an alternative viewpoint that has come to be

known as the dynamical systems perspective (e.g., Bernstein, 1967; Kelso, 1984; Turvey, 1990).

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info processing propose that subjects must directly control the many degrees of freedom in the human body in order

to produce coordinated movement. Turvey (1990) proposes that the human body is comprised of nearly 100 degrees

of freedom (joints), 1000 muscles, and 100 trillion cells that must be appropriately organized and controlled.

Bernstein maintained that this direct control would place tremendous organizational and computational demands on

the brain.

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across joints and neurologically linked as a result of the neural circuits in the spinal cord.

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  Ñ the functional group formed by this linkage between muscle groups

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These linkages may play an important role in

reducing the difficulty of controlling movement.

i To understand the concept of synergies or coordinative structures, consider the example of a

puppeteer attempting to control the movement of a marionette. Each joint or body part of the

marionette is connected to a string that the puppeteer can use to control the movement. Do

puppeteers attempt to control each string independently or have these artists learned that they

can link the strings together in some fashion to decrease the difficulty but still achieve

relatively complex movements? Indeed, they have found a way to configure the strings on a

paddle such that relatively complex movements like walking-including not only leg

movements but head and arm movements as well-can be realistically created by simply tilting

the paddle back and forth.

i Engineers use this principle whenever possible in designing machinery. Consider an airplane

control example provided by Tuller, Turvey, and Fitch (1982). They noted that the ailerons on
 the wings, the elevators on the tail, and the rudder on the tailfin of an airplane must be

coordinated to achieve efficient flight control.

i The point of this discussion is not just about marionettes or airplanes, but about efficient

control systems, There is every reason to believe that the human control system is the most

elegant system ever assembled and that synergies are an integral part of this system.

 Bimanual MovementsÑ While the dynamical systems approach relying on coordinative structures

potentially reduces the demands on the control system, it may pose difficulties under some conditions.

Consider that your hands/arms are constrained to act as a functional unit.

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.".- Ñ We all should be amazed at the degree of motor control required to perform movement. Remember,

movement is our way of communicating with the world. Facial expressions, speech, and hand gestures are the basis of formal

communication, but we communicate more subtly with movements when we play, work, or perform a skill.

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Ñ The CNS is continually receiving feedback from the various sensory receptors. Consider

the info that an athlete¶s senses are relaying to their brain during competition. Feedback is unquestionably used in the selection

of a response and the formulation of an action plan. The question that remains, however, is the extent to which this feedback is

utilized in the control of an ongoing movement. Does the athlete actively process info during a movement or had they practiced

the response to the extent that is could be executed nearly automatically?

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Ñ It is thought that feedback can be used not only to plan and initiate movement but to adjust

the progress of an ongoing movement. Consider a task like threading a needle. As you move the needle and the thread

closer together, it may become necessary to engage in additional info processing activities to complete the task. On

the basis of feedback, it may become apparent that the thread is not moving on a trajectory to meet the eye of the

needle. This info is then processed and a corrected trajectory is affected. The sequence may be repeated until the

thread successfully passes through the eye of the needle. In a sense, athletes sometimes have to thread the needle with

their response.  does not require detailed initial movement commands. Adjustments based on response-produced

feedback can be used to adjust the progress of the movement. Thus, movement control is regulated by an error-

nulling process and the movement is completed only when all perceptible error has been eliminated.

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&$ (  )$Ñ Closed-loop control has three major advantages and two significant disadvantages.

The first advantage is that closed-loop can be utilized to produce movements in new situations. As long as the

performer can determine the discrepancy between the current position and the desired position, a correction can be

executed. Second, a great deal of movement flexibility can be exhibited under closed loop control. This is because

movement control is not dependent on specifying in advance the exact movement path required to achieve a

movement goal but rather involves nulling the error between a current movement state and a desired state. Consider

the problem of catching a fish in an aquarium. The desired outcome is to catch the pet in a net. The movment required

to achieve this goal may require a very flexible movement plan that is determined by the movement of the pet. Lastly,

closed-loop control can be used to produce very accurate movement outcomes. Consider threading a needle or
 removing a small splinter in your finger. These movements require a great deal of precision and are clearly controlled

by closed-loop processes.

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Ñ is based on the concept of a motor program. This concept has a long history in explaining

behavior that is difficult to explain by closed-loop principles.

 A motor program was defined as a ³set of muscle commands that are structured before a movement

sequence begins, and that allows the sequence to be carried out uninfluenced by peripheral feedback´

(Keele, 1968, p.387).

 This definition suggested that a motor program was the biological analog to a computer program. This

analogy may be unfortunate because the nervous system is quite different from a cpu and a motor program

may be quite different from the simple computer programs with which most of us are familiar.

 ©owever, one useful aspect of the analogy is that more sophisticated computer programs can be

programmed to be somewhat flexible in their operation and can be instructed to receive input from the

operator or some sensing device. Consider the many movements you execute each day that appear to be

controlled almost automatically. These movements may be controlled by a motor program. Many experts

believe that at least parts of a gymnastic routine would have to be controlled by a motor program. The

routines are extremely well practiced and consistently performed. Indeed, many coaches tell their

advanced gymnasts not to think about the routineÑ ³Just do it, let it flow.´ Could it be that these athletes

have developed motor programs?

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&$ (  )$Ñ Open-loop control has two major advantages and two disadvantages. The

first advantage is so obvious that it is easily overlooked. Open-loop control can produce very rapid

movement or movement under conditions in which normal feedback sources have been eliminated or

disrupted.

i 
, because open-loop control is restructured, feedback does not have to be processed

during the movement, and attention normally allocated to making corrections (and presumably

other info-processing activities) is not necessary. This permits the performer to engage in other

strategic processing that would not be possible if closed-loop control was employed.

i Open-loop control is not effective when the environmental conditions are constantly changing

such that the demands of the movement cannot be determined in advance. Likewise,

movements that require a great deal of precision may require extensive amounts of practice for

an efficient motor program to be developed.

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Ô ' is an abstraction or a set of rules for determining a movement.

Ô Because the important features of a potentially large number of specific movements can be abstracted in a schema,

memory and retrieval requirements are greatly reduced. It also proposes that novel movements can be generated
 because the rules encapsulated in the schema can be applied to new movements within a class of movements. Thus

schema theory proposes that movements are controlled by a generalizable motor program.

Ô The product is a generalizable motor program that, when provided response specifications, produces a unique

response.

Ô The program is composed of (  
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These features are thought to include the hierarchical characteristics of the movement (termed order of elements of

Schmidt, 1975), the relative forces, and relative timing.

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i The additional (above TV) amount of air moved during a maximal inspiration is called the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and

the additional air moved during a maximal expiration is termed expiratory reserve volume (ERV).

Ô Together these reserve columns produce the forced vital capacity (FVC), which is the total amount of air that can be

moved in one breath

Ô The remaining air left in the lungs afer maximal exhalation is called the residual volume (RV). It tends to increase

with age. Thus, inspiration and expiration reserves become smaller with age.

Ô The sum of the residual lung volume and vital capacity is called the total lung capacity (TLC).

i Systolic blood pressure is measured during systole and diastole blood pressure is measured during diastole.

Ô Blood pressure is the product of cardiac output and peripheral resistance.

Ô Therefore, it is elevated by increased cardiac output and/or increased peripheral resistance.

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)1 scientific study of the thought process, feelings, and behavior of humans in their interaction with the environment

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)1 is the study placed within context of sports - how people think, feel, and behave in sporting situations and what mental
processes motivate the way they behave in training and competition

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Connection between brain activity and workings of muscle joints, limbs, and bodily systems
- in athletic performance, cerebral cortex plays a key role
- generates general mental state prior to athletic event (eg. nervousness might lead to extra stimulus being placed on muscles and the
development of "nervous tension")
- controllable through relaxation exercises and techniques

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- "in the zone", "auto pilot", "nailed routine"Ñ a combo of the right mental commands with flawless physical execution
- "Ideal Performance State"Ñ
* complete absence of doubt and fear of failure
* lack of critical thought of performance
* narrow focus of attention; little or no distraction
* sense of effortlessness
* powerful feelings of being "in control"
* feeling that time has "stood still"
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 Arousal
- being "psyched up" - athlete feels ready both physically and psychologically to do his or her very best
- allows athlete to perform at high levels during competition
Anxiety
- manifested in apprehension, sense of uncertainty
- muscular tension; "butterflies"
- must be limited/controlled or channeled to enhance performance
RelaxationÑ
- mind-body state with no anxiety, athlete feels "loose", ready to do his/her best
- psychologists assist over-anxious athletes to relax mind and body to be able to compete effectively
- breathing, Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR), Biological Feedback, Imagery Relaxation
 Motivation
- direction and intensity of effort
- intensity refers to amount of physical and mental energy
- direction refers to attraction to certain sport situations
Concentration
- ability to keep one's focus on task without being distracted
- sort out info - what is and isn't relevant to performance
- concentration improved by mental exercises
- mental tools for athletes to filter out external factors such as distractions, and attempts of opponents to "psyche them out"
Audience
- some react positively to large crowds and their encouragement
- others are better suited to settings of isolation
- tools are used to control responses to audiences
Fatigue
- mental stae where feelings of tiredness can lead to decreases in performance
- "push through pain" to realize new performance levels
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 Tools to help improve athletic performance
- self-talk
- imagery/visualization
- hypnosis
- relaxation/arousal regulation
- improving motivation
- setting goals
- developing concentration
Self-talk
- internal monologue going through one's mind before competition, encouraging one to achieve success
- can be negative or discouraging
- athletes need to regulate and control internal talking "positive" way to use it to achieve peak performance
Imagery/Visualization
- seeing oneself succeeding is a powerful incentive for success, imagery and visualization tools are available to achieve this
- athletes who benefit from this technique are those who believe it is a powerful tool for athletic enhancement
©ypnosis
- state of intense concetration in which the mind directs the body to perform certain tasks while blocking out all external stimuli except
those essential to those completion of goal
- two types
* heterohypnosisÑ placed under hypnosis by another person
* self-hypnosisÑ placed under hypnosis by self
- 3 phases
* inductionÑ create feelings of relaxation; feels sleepy
* hypnoticÑ able to do suggestions (waking hypnosis)
* wake-upÑ coming out of "trance" upon the therapist's signal
Relaxation/Arousal Regulation
- enforce a state of relaxation over mind and body leading to enhanced performance by removing anxiety
- many athletes require help in relaxing and focusing
- tools include breathing exercises, meditation, imagery
Developing Concentration
- able to maintain one's focus in the face of distractionsÑ selective attention
- "choking" result of inability to maintain attenal focus for long enough - or in the right way - achieving success
- tools include positive self talk, duplicating distractions during practice, cue words
Improving Motivation
- some degree required for competing at any level
- desire to gain recognition, to please others, willingness to set goals and achieve them
- 4 basic principles that relate to athletesÑ
* personal traits vs environment
* multiples motives
* staying motivated
* leadership
Setting Goals
- can vary widely depending on the athlete
- need a clear idea of what one wants to achieve in order to accomplish the goal
* objective goalsÑ emprically quantifiable (eg breaking a time barrier)
* subjective goalsÑ outcomes are harder to quantify (eg becoming a better player)
- SMART principle, goals should beÑ
* Specific - able to be precisely defined
* Measureable - able to be qualified
* Attainable - within an athlete's limitations
* Realistic - attainable within constraints
* Timely - achievable within a set time frame
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 Many Definitions
- attaining personal goals
- winning certain competitions
- attaining certain rankings at end of season
- gains in finance or prestige
- achieving consistency in training


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7 Key Elements
- commitment
- focussed attention
- confidence
- positive images
- mental readiness
- distraction control
- ongoing learning
According to Orlick, the 7 key concepts of excellence was taken as a whole, "provide the mental keys that empower you to excel you and
free you to become the person and performer you really want to be." Furthermore, "the great news is that each of those elements is within
your potention control".
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 - can have a significant impact on approach to sports from a physical, social, and mental perspective

- those who perceive themselves as "athletes" and have a positive perception of own abilities and are more likely to continue to participate

as they grow older

- children respond well to praise and encouragement, and enjoyment of activities that will help them build skills and confidence

- children benefit from participation during both games and practices