Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(CAES)
David E. Perkins
ActivePower,Inc., Austin, Texas,
U.S.A.
Abstract
Compressed-air energy storage (CAES) is currently being deployed as an alternative to lead-acid batteries
for uninterruptible power supplies. These systems use compressed air supplied from either transport
cylinders delivered by local gas services, or from stationary cylinders refilled from on-site compressors to
drive avariety of economical expansion engine topologies. Several factors make these systems feasible for
use in small-scale CAES systems for load leveling in conjunction with wind or solar energy generation
while opportunities exist for improving cycle efficiency.
214
control is provided by acombination of solenoid valves cost is relatively expensive, manufacturing processes are
1050 and1052 in Fig. 3that, respectively,either simplifiedbyintegrating the thermal storage and pressure
pressurizesthe dome with air supplied by an upstream retention functions and an annular channel configuration [7 ]
regulatorand accumulator, or depressurizes the dome by achieves very high heat transfer coefficients and heat
venting the dome to atmosphere. Operation of these two extraction efficiencies ( Fig. 5 ).
valves is provided by adigitalcontroller with feedback Advanced micro-porous insulation is used to prevent
from downstream sensors. For reliable termination of excess heat loss and provides atemperature gradient of
dome pressure in emergency situations, aredundant NO over 6008 Cwith approximately25-mm thickness. Maxi-
solenoidvalve 1060 is in line with an Emergency Power mum operating temperature of 7008 Cischosenbased on
Off(EPO) circuit and is powered closed during normal life considerationsfor replaceablecartridge heating
operation. Faults such as sensed turbine overspeed or elements and creep considerations for the storage material
manual EPO will de-power the valve and vent the dome based on estimated time at pressure and temperature. In the
causing the pressure regulator to close (Fig. 4). case of UPS, the expected cycling is low, but low-cycle
fatigue due to dilatation stresses in the inlet piping when
THERMAL ENERGY cold air from the regulators is introduced were investi-
STORAGE gated. These were found to be non-issues for UPS. For
High-temperature thermal storage using 304stainless steel more extensive cycling that would be requiredfor wind
provides extremelycompact, robust, and low-riskTES or solarstorage,further investigationisneeded. In
when designed in accordancewith American Society of addition, work is ongoing to identify more economical
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) rules. Although material TES designs.
been used for high-pressure applications in the oil and gas † Thermal energy storage cost reductionand or increase
industry. Scaling dynamic compressor designs for small- in allowableoperating temperature.
scaleapplications andadaptingfor high-discharge
temperatures poses significant technical challenges, but Focus on these initiatives will allow consideration of
will be crucial if high cycle efficiency is to be achieved. TACAS technology for near-term electricity storage in
Afurther enhancement to the TACAS technology conjunction with wind or solar power generating systems
wouldallowhigherturbine inlettemperatures since with lower upfront capital expenditure compared to large-
limitations on turbine-exhaust temperatures imposed by scale systems.
indoordischarge requirements of UPS couldberelaxed.
Increasing the discharge temperature reduces the TES
discharge temperature range and so mustbecompensated REFERENCE
by higher storage temperatures or additional TES mass for S
agiven output. Further advances in TES materialselection 1. Crotogino, F.; Mohmeyer, K.; Scharf, R. Huntorf CAES:
and design will be neededtoachieve economic viability. More than 20 Years of Successful Operation,Proceeding
Finally,inapplications for solarand wind energy SMRI Spring Meeting, Orlando, FL, U.S.A., 15–18 April
storage,itmay be possible to eliminate the bridging 2001.
2. Daly, J.; Loughlin, R.M.; DeCorso, M.; Moen, D.; Davis, L.
ywheel since the turbine hassuchrapid response.
CAES—Reduced to Practice,ASME 2001-GT-397, 2001.
However, the excellent load regulationand speed control
3. Bullogh, C.; Gatzen, C.; Jakiel, C.; Koller, M.; Nowi, A.;
attributes of the ywheel in tandem with the turbine make Zunft, S. Advanced Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy
this element of the architecture favorable if power quality Storage for Integration of Wind Energy,Proceeding of
enhancements are desired. European Wind Energy Conference (EWEC), 22–25
November 2004.
4. Pinkerton, J.F. Thermal and Compressed Air Storage
System. U.S. Patent 7086231, 8August 2006.
SUMMAR 5. Schuetze, K.T.; Hudson, R.S. Systems and Methods for
Y Controlling Temperature and Pressure of Fluids. U.S. Patent
Compressed-air energy storage and TES system have been Application 2006/0076426A1, Filed 5February 2003.
successfully integrated for UPS applications. Selected 6. Schuetze, K.T.; Weaver, M.D. Systems and Methods for
Controlling Pressureof Fluids. U.S. Patent Application 2006/
features of the TACAStechnology are presented and
0060246A1, Filed 17 September 2004.
enhancements for improving storage cycleefficiency are
7. Perkins, D.E.; Hudson, R.S. Thermal Storage Unit and
discussed. These enhancements include: Methods of Using the Same to Heat aFluid. U.S. Patent
6955050, 18 October 2005.
† Development of asmall-scale high-pressureadiabatic
compressor with high discharge temperature capa-
bility.
† Modification to thermal storage charge and discharge BIBLIOGRAPH
ow path. Y
† Turbine bearing upgrades for longer operational life. 1. Vosburgh, K. Compressed Air Energy
† Turbine modifications for increased inlet and discharge Storage,AIAA
Conference on New Options in Energy Technology, San
temperatures. Francisco, CA, 2–4 August ,1977.
Abstract
Compressed air is amajor cost component in manufacturing. As such, it offers one of the largest savings
opportunities. The investment in compressing air to energize it and then letting it escape from the system
through leaks, without doing any useful work, is acomplete waste. This waste can be minimized by
implementing aprogram of leak detection and repairs. This entry covers the subject of how to use a
handheld ultrasonic leak detector to locate leaks and the procedures required to implement repairs. The
documentation and informational database required to ensure that leak waste is controlled and that new
leaks are prevented is summarized. Different application technologies for controlling leaks are presented,
and time and cost controls reviewed.
219
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Ar e a s q. 1/64 1/32 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 1/8 9 /6 4 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 3 /8 7/16 1 /2 9/16 5 /8 3 /4 7/ 8 1
i n. p re ss .00019 .00077 . 0 0 17 3 .0 0 3 0 7 .0 0 4 7 9 .0 0 6 9 0 .0094 .01227 .01553 .01973 .02761 .03758 . 04 9 0 9 . 0 62 1 3 .0 7 6 7 0 .1 1 0 4 5 .1 5 0 3 3 .1 9 6 3 5 .2 4 8 5 0 .3 0 6 8 0 .4 4 1 7 9 .6 0 1 3 2 .78540
1 0.0 2 8 0 . 1 1 2 0 . 2 53 0 .4 5 0 0 .7 0 0 1 .0 6 1 .4 8 1 . 8 0 2 . 2 7 2 . 8 0 4 .0 5 .5 7 . 2 9 .1 1 1 .2 1 6 .2 2 2 .0 2 8 .7 3 6. 3 4 4 . 8 6 4 . 7 8 8 1 1 5
2 0.0 4 0 0 . 1 5 8 0 . 3 56 0 .6 3 3 0 .9 8 9 1 .4 2 1 .9 4 2 . 5 3 3 . 2 0 3 . 9 5 5 .7 7 .7 1 0 . 1 1 2 .8 1 5 .8 2 2 .8 3 1 .0 4 0 .5 5 1. 0 6 3 . 4 9 1 . 2 1 2 4 1 6 2
3 0.0 4 8 0 . 1 9 4 0 . 4 36 0 .7 7 5 1 .2 5 1 .7 4 2 .3 7 3 . 1 0 3 . 9 2 4 . 8 2 6 .9 9 .5 1 2 . 4 1 5 .7 1 9 .2 2 7 .8 3 7 .8 4 9 .5 62 . 5 7 7 . 0 1 1 1 . 0 1 5 2 1 9 8
4 0.0 5 6 0 . 2 2 3 0 . 5 02 0 .8 9 2 1 .3 9 2 .0 0 2 .7 3 3 . 5 6 4 . 5 0 5 . 5 5 8 .0 1 0 .9 1 4 . 3 1 8 .1 2 2 .2 3 2 .1 4 3 .5 5 7 .0 72 . 0 8 8 . 9 1 2 8 . 0 1 7 5 2 2 8
5 0.0 6 2 0 . 2 4 8 0 . 5 60 0 .9 9 3 1 .5 5 2 .2 3 3 .0 4 3 . 9 7 5 . 0 2 6 . 1 9 8 .9 1 2 .2 1 5 . 9 2 0 .1 2 4 .7 3 5 .7 4 8 .5 6 3 .5 80 . 1 9 9 . 3 1 4 3 . 0 1 9 5 2 5 4
6 0.0 6 8 0 . 2 7 2 0 . 6 12 1 .0 9 1 .7 0 2 .4 5 3 .3 2 4 . 3 4 5 . 4 9 6 . 7 5 9 .8 1 3 .3 1 7 . 4 2 2 .0 2 7 .1 3 9 .1 5 3 .0 6 9 .5 87 . 9 10 8 . 0 1 5 6 . 0 2 1 3 2 7 8
7 0.0 7 3 0 . 2 9 3 0 . 6 95 1 .1 7 1 .8 2 2 .6 3 3 .5 8 4 . 6 8 5 . 9 0 7 . 2 9 1 0 .5 1 4 .3 1 8 . 7 2 3 .6 2 9 .2 4 2 .2 5 7 .3 7 5 .0 94 . 7 11 6 . 0 1 6 8 . 0 2 3 0 3 0 0
8 0.0 8 3 0 . 3 3 1 0 . 7 41 1 .3 2 2 .0 6 2 .9 6 4 .0 5 5 . 3 0 6 . 7 0 8 . 2 4 1 1 .9 1 6 .2 2 1 . 2 2 6 .9 3 3 .0 4 7 .7 6 4 .7 8 4 .7 1 0 6. 0 13 2 . 0 1 9 1 . 0 2 6 0 3 3 9
1 2 0 .0 9 5 0 . 3 7 9 0 . 8 56 1 .5 2 2 .3 7 3 .4 1 4 .6 5 6 . 0 7 7 . 6 6 9 . 4 2 1 3 .6 1 8 .6 2 4 . 3 3 0 .7 3 7 .8 5 4 .6 7 4 .1 9 7 .0 1 2 2. 0 1 51 . 0 2 1 8 . 0 2 9 7 3 8 8
1 5 0 .1 0 5 0 . 4 2 0 0 . 9 45 1 .6 8 2 .6 2 3 .7 8 5 .1 5 6 . 7 2 8 . 5 0 1 0 . 4 8 1 5 .1 2 0 .5 2 6 . 9 3 4 .0 4 1 .9 6 0 .5 8 2 .5 1 0 8 .0 1 3 6. 0 16 8 . 0 2 4 2 . 0 3 2 9 4 3 0
2 0 0 .1 2 3 0 . 4 9 1 1 . 1 00 1 .9 6 3 .0 5 4 .4 0 6 .0 0 7 . 8 6 9 . 9 2 1 2 . 1 2 1 7 .6 2 4 .0 3 1 . 4 3 9 .8 4 8 .8 7 0 .7 9 6 .0 1 2 6 .0 1 5 9. 0 1 96 . 0 2 8 3 . 0 3 8 5 5 0 3
2 5 0 .1 4 0 0 . 5 6 2 1 . 2 6 2 .2 5 3 .5 0 5 .0 5 6 .8 8 8 . 9 8 1 1 . 3 8 1 3 . 9 9 2 0 .2 2 7 .4 3 5 . 9 4 4 .5 5 6 .0 8 0 .9 1 1 0 .0 1 4 4 .0 1 8 2. 0 22 4 . 0 3 2 3 . 0 4 4 0 5 7 5
3 0 0 .1 5 8 0 . 6 3 3 1 . 4 2 2 .5 3 3 .9 4 5 .6 8 7 .7 1 0 . 1 1 2 . 7 7 1 5 . 7 0 2 2 .7 3 1 .0 4 0 . 5 5 1 .3 6 3 .0 9 1 .1 1 2 4 .0 1 6 2 .0 2 0 5. 0 25 3 . 0 3 6 5 . 0 4 9 6 6 1 8
3 5 0 .1 7 6 0 . 7 0 3 1 . 5 8 2 .8 1 4 .3 8 6 .3 1 8 .6 1 1 . 3 1 4 . 2 6 1 7 . 6 0 2 5 .3 3 4 .5 4 5 . 0 5 7 .0 7 0 .0 1 0 1 .0 1 3 7 .0 1 8 0 .0 2 2 7. 0 28 1 . 0 4 0 5 . 0 5 5 1 7 2 0
4 0 0 .1 9 4 0 . 7 7 4 1 . 74 3 .1 0 4 .8 4 6 .9 7 9 .5 1 2 . 4 1 5 . 6 5 1 9 . 3 1 2 7 .9 3 8 .0 4 9 . 6 6 3 .0 7 7 .0 1 1 2 .0 1 5 1 .0 1 9 8 .0 2 5 0. 0 31 0 . 0 4 4 6 . 0 6 0 7 7 9 3
4 5 0 .2 1 1 0 . 8 4 5 1 . 90 3 .3 8 5 .2 7 7 .6 0 1 0 .3 1 3 . 5 1 7 . 0 5 2 1 . 0 0 3 0 .4 4 1 .4 5 4 . 1 6 8 .0 8 4 .0 1 2 2 .0 1 6 5 .0 2 1 6 .0 2 7 3. 0 33 8 . 0 4 8 7 . 0 6 6 2 8 6 5
5 0 0 .2 2 9 0 . 9 1 6 2 . 06 3 .6 6 5 .7 1 8 .2 2 1 1 .2 1 4 . 7 1 8 . 6 0 2 2 . 9 0 3 2 .9 4 4 .9 5 8 . 6 7 4 .0 9 1 .0 1 3 2 .0 1 8 0 .0 2 3 5 .0 2 9 6. 0 36 5 . 0 5 2 8 . 0 7 1 8 9 3 8
6 0 0 .2 6 4 1 . 0 6 2 . 38 4 .2 3 6 .6 0 9 .5 0 1 2 .9 1 6 . 9 2 1 . 4 0 2 6 . 3 5 3 7 .9 5 0 .8 6 7 . 6 8 5 .0 1 0 5 .0 1 5 2 .0 2 0 7 .0 2 7 1 .0 3 4 2. 0 42 2 . 0 6 0 9 . 0 8 2 8 1 , 0 8 2
7 0 0 .3 0 0 1 . 2 0 2 . 69 4 .7 9 7 .4 5 1 0 .5 3 1 4 .7 1 9 . 2 2 4 . 2 5 2 9 . 9 0 4 3 .0 5 8 .6 7 6 . 7 9 7 .0 1 2 0 .0 1 7 3 .0 2 3 5 .0 3 0 7 .0 3 8 8. 0 47 9 . 0 6 9 0 . 0 9 3 9 1 , 2 2 7
8 0 0 .3 3 5 1 . 3 4 3 . 01 5 .3 6 8 .3 3 1 2 .0 4 1 6 .4 2 1 . 4 2 7 . 1 0 3 3 . 3 3 4 8 .1 6 5 .5 8 5 . 7 1 0 8 .0 1 3 1 .0 1 9 3 .0 2 6 2 .0 3 4 3 .0 4 3 3. 0 53 7 . 0 7 7 1 . 0 1 ,0 5 0 1 , 3 7 1
9 0 0 .3 7 0 1 . 4 8 3 . 33 5 .9 2 9 .2 5 1 3 .3 4 1 8 .2 2 3 . 7 3 0 . 0 0 3 6 . 9 0 5 3 .0 7 2 .3 9 4 . 8 1 2 0 .0 1 4 7 .0 2 1 3 .0 2 8 9 .0 3 7 9 .0 4 7 8. 0 59 2 . 0 8 5 3 . 0 1 ,1 6 1 1 , 5 1 6
1 0 0 0 .4 0 6 1 . 6 2 3 . 65 6 .4 9 1 0 .5 0 1 4 .5 8 1 9 .9 2 6 . 0 3 2 . 8 0 4 0 . 5 0 5 8 .0 7 9 .0 1 0 4. 0 1 3 2 .0 1 6 2 .0 2 3 4 .0 3 1 6 .0 4 1 5 .0 5 2 3. 0 64 9 . 0 9 3 4 . 0 1 ,2 7 2 1 , 6 6 1
1 1 0 0 .4 4 1 1 . 7 6 3 . 96 7 .0 5 1 1 .0 0 1 5 .8 2 2 1 .5 2 8 . 2 3 5 . 6 0 4 3 . 9 0 6 3 .0 8 6 .0 1 1 3. 0 1 4 3 .0 1 7 6 .0 2 5 4 .0 3 4 5 .0 4 5 2 .0 5 7 0. 0 70 2 . 0 1 ,0 1 6 . 0 1 ,3 8 3 1 , 8 0 6
1 2 0 0 .4 7 6 1 . 9 1 4 . 29 7 .6 2 1 1 .4 0 1 7 .1 5 2 3 .4 3 0 . 5 3 8 . 5 1 4 7 . 5 0 6 8 .0 9 3 .0 1 2 2. 0 1 5 4 .0 1 9 0 .0 2 7 4 .0 3 7 3 .0 4 8 8 .0 6 1 6. 0 71 2 . 0 1 ,0 9 7 . 0 1 ,4 9 4 1 , 9 5 1
1 2 5 0 .4 9 4 1 . 9 8 4 . 45 7 .9 0 1 2 .3 0 1 7 .7 9 2 4 .2 3 1 . 6 4 0 . 0 0 4 9 . 2 5 7 0 .0 9 6 .0 1 2 6. 0 1 6 0 .0 1 9 6 .0 2 8 4 .0 3 8 6 .0 5 0 6 .0 6 3 8. 0 78 9 . 0 1 ,1 3 8 . 0 1 ,5 4 9 2 , 0 2 3
1 5 0 0 .5 8 2 2 . 3 7 5 . 31 9 .4 5 1 4 .7 5 2 1 .2 0 2 8 .7 3 7 . 5 4 7 . 4 5 5 8 . 2 5 8 4 .0 1 1 5. 0 1 5 0. 0 1 9 0 .0 2 3 4 .0 3 3 8 .0 4 5 9 .0 6 0 0 .0 7 5 8. 0 91 0 . 0 1 ,3 1 5 . 0 1 ,7 8 9 2 , 3 3 8
2 0 0 0 .7 6 1 3 . 1 0 6 . 94 1 2 .3 5 1 9 .1 5 2 7 .5 0 3 7 .5 4 9 . 0 6 2 . 0 0 7 6 . 2 1 1 0 .0 1 5 0. 0 1 9 6. 0 2 4 8 .0 3 0 5 .0 4 4 1 .0 6 0 0 .0 7 8 4 .0 9 9 0. 0 1 , 22 5 . 0 1 ,7 6 4 . 0 2 ,4 0 1 3 , 1 3 6
2 5 0 0 .9 3 5 3 . 8 0 8 . 51 1 5 .1 8 2 3 .5 5 3 4 .0 0 4 6 .2 6 0 . 3 7 6 . 1 5 9 4 . 0 1 3 6 .0 1 8 4. 0 2 4 1. 0 3 0 5 .0 3 7 6 .0 5 4 2 .0 7 3 8 .0 9 6 4 .0 1 , 2 1 8. 0 1 , 50 8 . 0 2 ,1 6 9 . 0 2 ,9 5 2 3 , 8 5 6
3 0 0 0 .9 9 5 4 . 8 8 1 0 .9 5 1 8 .0 8 2 8 .2 5 4 0 .5 5 5 5 .0 7 1 . 8 9 0 . 6 1 1 1 . 7 1 6 1 .0 2 2 0. 0 2 8 7. 0 3 6 4 .0 4 4 6 .0 6 4 6 .0 8 8 0 .0 1 , 1 4 8 .0 1 , 4 5 4. 0 1 , 79 5 . 0 2 ,5 8 3 . 0 3 ,5 1 5 4 , 5 9 2
4 0 0 1 .2 2 0 5 . 9 8 1 3 .4 0 2 3 .8 1 3 7 .1 0 5 3 .4 5 7 2 .4 9 4 . 5 1 1 9 . 4 1 4 7 . 0 2 1 3 .0 2 8 9. 0 3 7 8. 0 4 7 9 .0 5 9 0 .0 8 5 1 .0 1 , 1 5 5 .0 1 , 5 1 2 .0 1 , 9 1 5. 0 2 , 36 0 . 0 3 ,4 0 2 . 0 4 ,6 3 0 6 , 0 4 8
5 0 0 1 .5 1 9 7 . 4 1 1 6 .6 2 2 9 .5 5 4 6 .0 0 6 6 .5 9 0 .0 1 1 7 . 3 1 4 8 . 0 1 8 2 . 5 2 6 4 .0 3 5 8. 0 4 6 9. 0 5 9 3 .0 7 3 0 .0 1 , 0 5 5 .0 1 , 4 3 0 .0 1 , 8 7 6 .0 2 , 3 6 0. 0 2 , 93 0 . 0 4 ,2 2 1 . 0 5 ,7 4 5 7 , 5 0 4
7 5 0 2 .2 4 0 1 0 . 9 8 2 4 .6 0 4 3 .8 5 6 6 .1 5 9 8 .5 1 3 3 .0 1 7 4 . 0 2 2 0 . 0 2 7 1 . 0 3 9 2 .0 5 3 1. 0 6 9 6. 0 8 8 1 .0 1 , 0 8 4 .0 1 , 5 6 6 .0 2 , 1 2 5 .0 2 , 7 8 4 .0 3 , 5 1 0. 0 4 , 35 0 . 0 6 ,2 6 4 . 0 8 ,5 2 5 1 1 , 1 36
1 0 0 0 2 .9 8 5 1 4 . 6 0 3 2 .8 0 5 8 .2 1 9 1 .0 0 1 3 0 .5 1 7 7 .0 2 3 1 . 0 2 9 1 . 5 3 6 0 . 0 5 2 0 .0 7 0 8. 0 9 2 4. 0 1 , 1 7 1 .0 1 , 4 4 0 .0 2 , 0 7 9 .0 2 , 8 2 0 .0 3 , 6 9 6 .0 4 , 6 5 0. 0 5 , 79 0 . 0 8 ,3 1 6 . 0 1 1 ,3 1 8 1 4 , 7 84
Tableisbased on 100% coefficient of ow. For well-rounded orifice, multiply by 0.97. For asharp-edged orifice, amultiplier of 0.65 will give approximate results. Values calculated by approximate formula
p ); where: W ,discharge (lb/s); A ,area of orifice (in.
proposed by S.A. Moss. W Z 0.5303(ACP = T 2 ); C ,coefficient of ow; P ,upstreampressure (PSI, abs.); T ,upstreamtemperature ( 8 F, abs.); Values used in
calculating table: C Z 1; T Z 5308 R(708 ); P Z Gage pressure plus14.7 psi;weights converted to volumes using density factor of 0.07494 lb/ft 3 (correct for dryair at 14.7 psi abs. and 708 F); values from 150 to
1000 psi calculated by Compressed Air Magazine and checked by Test Engineering Dept. of Ingersoll-Rand Co.
noisesignature that is beyond the hearing threshold of the Different color tags can be used to visually indicate the
humanear. The ultrasonicleakdetector translates the severity of leaks and establish priorities. Typical classi-
ultrasonic noise of the leak signature into an audible sound fications might include three levels:
heardinthe earphones worn by the leak surveyor. Some
instruments are also equipped with display meters and Level 1: Not audible in any environment without an
indicator lights that visually register the magnitude of the ultrasonic detector.
air leak. Adistinctive, loud rushingsound is produced in Level 2: Audible in aquietenvironment but not in an
the earphones when the leak detector sensor probe is operatingfacility.
aligned with aleak. With the productionbackground noise Level 3: Serious leaks requiring immediate attention.
suppressed and filtered out by the headphone set, the
leakage hissing is heard. Level 1leaks cannot be felt or heardunder any
The sound wavegenerated by an air leak is directional conditions and require the use of the previously described
in transmission. The intensityofthe leak noise is based procedures to detect. They are less than 1scfm and are
upon the shape of the orifice opening, the distance to the assigned no value, sincethe cost of the associated logistics
senso rprobe,and the differential expansion pressure.The and labor do not economically justify the repair, unless it is
sound level is loudest at the actual point of the leakage very simple, such as the ubiquitous push lock fitting on
exit. Theprocedure for detecting leaksultrasonically uses plastic tubing. Level 1leaks are tagged and documented
this characteristic to locate the actual leaks. Initially, the for future recheck, sinceair leaks never fix themselves and
leak detector is set at the maximum practical sensitivity only grow larger over time. Thecumulative effect of the
consistent with the specific environment of the area being Level 1leaks on the compressed air system can be better
inspected. Asweep of the general area is performed as the controlled by maintaining astable delivered air pressure at
surveyor walks the system.When aleakisdetected, the the lowest optimum level through the applications of
direction of the leak is determined by scanning the area pressure/ ow control and regulating use points.
until the loudest noise levelregisters. With the probe Level 2leaks are in the 2scfm range and can typically
pointing in the direction of the noisesource, the surveyor be felt but not heard without the use of an ultrasonic leak
movestowards the leak, adjusting the sensitivity of the detector. Repairs are economically justifiable and should
leak detector accordingly. The intensityofthe sound be performed within a60-dayperiod.
increases in the proximity of the leak and is loudest at the Level 3leaks in excessof2scfm can typically be felt
actual point of air exit. Extensiontubesorcones attached and sometimes heard by the human ear. These require
to the sensorprobe focus the sound and pinpoint the immediate attention, since they not only waste air but
location of smaller leaks. The bigger, moreserious leaks impact the operational efficiency of the compressed air
can be felt. Afurther test using abubblesolution can system.Leak owisareal demand that adds to the
augment the process by visual enhancement of the exact filter/dryer loading, increases the pressure drop throughout
location. One such productisformulated to producean the system, and createspressure uctuations that impact
ultrasound shockwav easthe bubbles burst, so the surveyor production.
gainsthe benefitsofboth the visual observation and While the true owfor any specific leak cannot be
ultrasonic detection. measured practically, the surveyorcan assign values based
Competing sounds often mask aleakorotherwise upon the chosenleak volume associated with the various
distortthe directional transmission. If possible, the best leak levels.These can then be totaled at the end of the
way to eliminate acompeting sound is to shut the system surveytoestimate the cumulative system leak waste. The
off. If that is not possible, shielding techniques can be surveyorwilltypically overestimateabout thesame
applied. The angle of the probe extension can be changed. amount of leakages that are underestimated, so the final
The competing sound can be blocked using the body or figure givesagood portrayal of the total leak waste. As
othersolid barrier like apiece of cardboardorclipboard. long as the survey procedures are replicated during the
Cupping the hand over the leak ,orusing arag, can often re-check, the comparative value for trending becomes an
isolatethe true sourceofthe sound. Bubble tests can accuratemeasure forevaluatingthe remedial repair
pinpoint the location regardless of the competing sound. It actions taken. Acost figure can be assigned for use in
is imperative when workinginand aroundoperational the financial analysis. Take into account power cost and
machinery that safety be most important. Common sense associated compressor maintenance and repair costs, plus
dictates the extent of effort that should be expended to thecosts to operate andmaintainall theauxiliary
identify and quantifyaspecific leak. equipment, when determining the real value of the leak
The first step in the preparation for performing aleak waste.
surveyistoestablish apattern for surveying the facility to Efforts have been madetoestimate the actual volumeof
ensurethat all the piping, connected use points, and an air leak based upon pressure and the decibel level
workstations in an area are inspected. Detected leaks are registered at aspecific distance. People have assembled
identified and tagged during the surveillance of the system. test stands usin gthe most common orifice configurations
found in compressed air systems, and then have measured repairs. Regardless of theconfiguration of thetag,
air ow and decibel noise at different pressuresand information sufficient to allow revisiting an individual
distances. One such Chart,publishedbyUESystems of leak for repair,even if the tag falls offorismissing, should
Elmsford, NY, is presented in Fig. 1. Note the disclaimer be recorded on aseparate worksheet. This typically
that the values are not stated as “factual CFM”and are consists of:
provided as a“general guideline.” Aleak signature is
affected by manyfactors, and the loudness of the noise † Recording the unique, sequential tag number assigned
generated is by itselfnot the sole measureofthe volume of to the specific leak.
the leakage. For example, ahigh-pitched whistle will † Defining its workplace location in away that is
sound alot louderthan alow-level whoosh sound, but the meaningful to the air user.
whistle will consume less air. At best, the leak detection † Identifying the specificitem that is leaking.
process will provide an estimatefor use in planning the † Identifying the actual point of air exit on the leaking
priorities of the remedial repair proceduresand avalue for item.
evaluating trends. Classifying the degree of leakage so priorities for
†
remedial action are established.
orig inal worksheet and entered into adatabase to establish LOGISTICAL PROCEDURES AND
time and cost control accou nting procedures. OVERHEAD
ASSOCIATED WITH LEAK
The surveyor should record complete information on REPAIRS
the worksheet to describethe leak. The probable cause of 1. Meetings and Planning
theleak, such as aging, wear,damage, looseness, 2. Maintenancerequisitions
mishandling, breakage, or otherreasons, should be noted 3. Purchaser—product and supplier identification
with an explanatory note if required.Determinewhether 4. Order costs—cost per placed order
the leak should be repaired or apart replaced, and note it 5. Transportation
on the worksheet. If replacement is recommended, the 6. Control of receipt—administration
surveyor should collect enough information about the item 7. Storage—space and logisticscosts
to allow for purchasing the repair part or replacement unit. 8. Labor schedule—days/weeks
Someone will have to do this if the leakisgoing to be 9. Leakage cost per week/month
fixed, so the surveyor shouldmake the extraeff ort to 10. Time control—verification and administration
record the information at the same time the leak is
identified. Theair user will also need to know if the leak is
repairable without having to shut down the associated LEAK
machinery. The worksheet should have areas for helpful MANAGEMENT
comments and field notes to facilitate remedial actions or Air leaks grow bigger over time, and repaired leakages
to alert peopleabout other issues and opportunities that usually reappear within six months to one year after they
cometothe attention of the surveyor. are fixed. Steps mustbetakentocontrol the growth rate of
Detected leaks must be repaired in order to realize any leaksand to preventreoccurrences afterrepairs are
savings. Since mostleaks occur at the operating machinery completed. Thekey to managed leakage control and
in theproduction area,repairprocedures tend to be prevention is rechecks anddocumentation.Periodic
repetitive. Stressesare applied to all the various hoses and rechecks at predetermined intervals ensurethat the leak
couplings, tubing connections, and pipe joints because of rate is stabilized at alow level. Through documentation,
machinery vibration and movement of the connected tools the trends become obvious and developing patterns, both
and pneumatically driven devices. Over time, leaks develop good and bad, are identified. Problemsare recognized
at sealing areas. These are easily fixed by reconnecting the beforecreatingissues that are more serious.Takin g
hose or reinstalling the pipe fitting after inspection and appropriate actions drives the leak trend downward until
cleaning. Worn couplings or quick disconnectsare it reaches the target established by management,typically
replaced. The plastic components of point-of-use devises, 5%–10% of thetotal air demand.Thishistorical
such as filters,regulators, and lubrications, tend to age and information is used to institute leak prevention measures
crackover time.These must be replaced. Gaskets and seals and for calculating the mosteconomical interv al for
dryout andbecomebrittle,sotheynolongerseal rechecks to ensurethat the gains realized are maintained in
effectively. Valve stem packing and sealingrings, manifold the future. Establishing standards and good practices
gaskets, hose reel rotary joints, and cylindershaftseals wear minimizesfutureleakage. With the time andcosts
over time and need to be replaced. Clamps, pipe unions, documented, controls can be put in place to properly
anges,and pipe groove seals often require re-tightening. administer aleak management program.
Leaksinthe compressorroomare foundaroundair An alternative approach to implementing afullleak
treatment equipment, condensatedrains, receiverman- management program is to simplyfixthe leaks immedi-
holes, and control tubing. ately upon discovery, assuming asystem is checked for air
Leaks on pipe joints are relatively easy to fix by either leaks on aregular basis. The technician brings alongatool
tightening or reinstalling aconnection. Clean all surfaces tote with the appro priate equipment needed to fix the most
beforereassembly. Use anon-hardening sealing paste for commonly found leaks. Usually, only the more serious
threadedconnections to prevent the possiblecontami- leaks are addressedinthe simple seek and fix approach.
nation of the air system from torn or frayed Te on e Little, if anything,isdocumented.
tape. [1 ] Leaks in main headers and branchlines often The total leakage for afacility can be estimated using
require lifts or special rigging equipment to gain access, techniques that measurepressure degradation over time
and may require special plumbing skills to repair. Advance whenthere are no production demands on the system.
planning and scheduling will be necessary for coordinating One such method is to measurethe load/unload cycle
the repairs on machinery not accessible during production. time of compressors whenproduction is shut down and the
The largest obstacletorepairing leaks is the logistics only air demand on the system is leakage. Start the
involved in planning andimplementingthe repair compressor(s) and record the on-load time and off-load
procedures. These logistical problemsoften take months time over asampling period long enough to provide a
to resolve and sometimes impede the process entirely. A representative average. Calculate the leakage lost as atotal
typical scenario follows. percentage of compressor capacity usingthe formula:
supplypressure from rising because of the lower demand leak survey shouldbeperformed several timesayear in a
that stems from leak repairs. Without some method of system recheck. Results should be entered into adatabase
supplyside pressure control, the system pressure increases and analyzed. Flow monitoring systemsare available to
inversely with demand, forcing leaks and other unregulated measureactual ow. These can interface with manage-
use points to consumemore air. The savings achieved by ment informationsystems that have remoteaccess.
lowering the leak demand are offset by air that is shunted Measuring real ow allows the true cost of the delivered
out elsewhere in the system because of the rising pressure. air to be calculated in $/mmcf (Dollarsper millioncubic
The application of point-of-use pressure regulationis feet). Charting the savingsinreports for management
another method for minimizing leakages. Settingand ensures continuedsupport for the program.
securing pressure regulators to supply air at the lowest
minimal acceptable pressure maintains the respective leak
losses at their lowest possible level. SUMMAR
Y
Shuttingoff the air to non-productive workstations and
assembly lines is another good method of leak control. In summary, agood leak control and preventionprogram
Lock out valves and isolationvalves can be installed to for acompressed air system starts with aleak survey.
completely shut offthe air to machinery that is shut down. Ultrasonic leak detectors are the best tool to find air leaks
The procedure can be manual or automated through the and pinpoint their location. The information about the air
installation of actuated shut offvalves that are activated by leaks is recorded in aworksheet and documented in a
an external signal. Automation eliminates the dependency database for use in generating reports and identifying
on ahuman action to stop the waste. trends. Savings are only realized if leaks are repaired.
Repairproceduresmustbeestablished and an investment
madeinsatisfying all of the logistical obstacles before the
LEAK actual remedial actions can be taken. Consideration should
COSTS
be giventocontracting outthe repairs, alongwith the
The cost of leaks mustbedetermined to allow manage- logistical requirements, to expeditethe process and realize
menttomake properdecisions about the compressed air the savings as soon as possible. Rechecks and monitoring
system. TheChart in Fig. 3illustrates the cost of air are necessary to drive the leak trend down and keep it at
consumed by leaks. the targeted rate.
In addition to thepower cost showninFig.3,
consideration should be giventoother associated costs,
such as labor to logdailyoperations, scheduled REFERENCE
maintenance, repair services, and periodic major over- S
hauls. Leaks are areal demand that require real air ow to 1. Ultraprobee Instruction Manual Volume 3. UE Systems,
satisfy. There is an added cost burdenthat resu lts from Inc., Elmsford,
treating the leak air, removing conden sation, additional NY.Corporation Catalog No. 20, 11510 Gold Coast Drive,
2. Exair
compressor wear, and increased powertocompensate for Cincinnati, OH.
the greater pressure drop because of the higher ow. The
final cost figures can more than doublethe cost based
solely upon electrical power. BIBLIOGRAPH
An effective leak control and prevention program Y
requirescontinuousmonitoring and verification that the 1. ConservAIR Technologies Company, LLP, Kenosha, WI,
gainsrealized are ongoing into the future. At aminimum, a Industrial Seminar Series, Compressed Air Management.
2. Improving Compressed Air System Performance aSource-
book for Industry,U.S. Department of Energy, Energy
Air consumed by leaks at 100 psig
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Prepared for the
Compressed Air Challengew and the United States Depart-
D i a me te r i n . SC F M Le a k a ge A nn ua l v o l ume C os t pe r y ea r *
ment of Energy, Prepared by Lawrence Berkeley National
1 / 6 4( . 01 6 ) 0 . 4 1 2 1 5 , 49 6 c f/ y r $ 47 . 4 1
Laboratory, Washington, DC, and Resource Dynamics
1 / 3 2( . 03 2 )1. 6 2 8 5 1 , 47 2 c f/ y r $ 18 7 . 3 2
Corporation, Vienna VA, Section 2–3 Compressed Air
1 / 1 6( . 06 3 ) 6 . 4 9 3 , 4 1 1 , 14 4 c f/ y r $ 75 0 . 4 5 System Leaks.Nov 2003.
3 / 3 2( . 09 4 ) 1 4. 6 7 , 6 7 3 , 76 0 c f/ y r $ 1 , 6 88 . 2 3 3. Taranto, T. Data Power Inc., Energy Efficiency in
1 / 8 (. 1 25 ) 2 6. 0 13 , 6 6 5 ,6 0 0 c f/ y r $ 3 , 0 06 . 4 3 Compressed Air Systems,1998, Chapter 6-Compressed Air
5 / 3 2( . 15 6 ) 4 0. 5 21 , 2 8 6 ,8 0 0 cf / yr $ 4 , 6 83 . 1 0 Systems, Performance.
4. Te one is atrademark of DuPont.
1 / 4 (. 2 50 ) 11 3 . 0 5 9 , 3 9 2 ,0 8 0 c f/ y r $ 1 3 , 06 6 . 4 2
5. Wilson, R. PEMCO Services, St. Petersburg, FL,
*B as e d u p o n r a te u s e d b y US D e p t. o f E n e rg y, EER E, Presen-
tation, 2005.
A So u r ce b o o k f o rIn d u st r y. C =1.0
6. Winkler, D. LeekSeek International Ltd., Training Presen-
Fig. 3 The typical cost of air leaks. tation, 2005.
Abstract
Consistent stable operation of an industrial compressed air system is achieved when compressed air
ow supplied to the system equals compressed air demand. Energy distributed to the system is available
from two sources; rotating energy of the air compressors, and energy from compressed air storage.
Optimum system energy efficiency is possible when the proper amount of energy is available from
compressed air storage. Presented here are the physical and mathematical relationships that may be used
to assess system performance and determine compressed air storage requirements. These relationships
are also applied to design the air storage volume and distribution pressure profile necessary for effective
compressed air storage.
Keywords:Air; Compressed air; Storage; Receiver; Pneumatic; Supply; Supplying peak air ow demand with rotating on-line
Demand; Air storage; Energy; Compressor. generation requires one or morecompressors to operate in
226
the part-load or unloaded condition. As the peak demand The ideal balance between generation and demand is
occurs, the compressor(s) will load for ashort time during achieved when Q g en Z Q d mn d .
the demand event and then return to part-load or unloaded
operation. The result is poor overall system efficiency. IdealAir System Energy Balance
For acompressed air system to achieve maximum Qg en Z Q ð2Þ
d mn d
operating efficiency, the compressed air supply should
Only whensystem pressure Z constant
incorporate both compressed air generation and storage.
The goal is to supplyaverage air demand with generation Eq. 2Ideal compressed air system energy balance.
(on-line rotating energy) and to supply peak air ow The first law of thermodynamics for achange in state of
requirements from storage (stored compressed air energy). asystem, [2 ] or the law of conservation of energy, states
that energy is not created or destroyed. This implies that
Compressed Air System EnergyBalance
the air ow rate of generation mustequal the air ow rate of
demand. From practical experience, it is observed that
The energy delivered to and consumed in acompressed
generation and demand are not always equal, resulting in
air system is afunction of the weight or mass owofair
changing system pressure. When Q g en
O Q d mn d ,system
moving through the system. Themassofcompressed air
pressureincreases,and when Q gen
! Q d mn d ,system
dependsonpressure and temperature. Increasing pressure
pressure decreases.The energy imbalancebetween
increases the density and, therefore, the mass of air.
generation and demand is either absorbed into or released
Increasing air temperature will decrease the air’s density,
from storage ( Q s to ).
decreasing the mass of air. This relationship is stated in the
IdealGas Law. [ 1] With Compressed Air Enteringand Exiting Storage
pV Qgen G Q ZQ
sto d mn d
ð1Þ
T Z aconstant ð for afixed mass of gasÞ Entering storage pressure increases
Eq. 1IdealGas Law for fixed massofgas. Exiting storage pressure decreases
Compressed air is often measured in terms of its
ð3Þ
volume—ft 3 ,for example. The volumetric measureofair is
irrelevant with respecttothe airmassunlessthe Eq. 3Actual compressed air system energy balance.
temperature and pressure of the air volume are also Defin ition: Q sy s .Air ow rate of the system is the
known. Therefore, standards are adopted to express the compressed air mass ow rate (scfm) produced by the
massofair under “Standard” conditions, resulting in the rotatingon-line compressorcapacity(Q g en
)atany
definition for aStandard Cubic Foot of air (scf). Standard moment,minus the air ow absorbed into storage ( K Q s to
conditions adopted by CAGI (Compressed Air and Gas for increasing pressure) or plus air ow released from
w
Institute) and Compressed Air Challenge (CAC) are storage ( C Q s to for decreasing pressure) (Fig. 1).
14.5 psia,68 8 F, and 0% relative humidity.
Compressed air energy transfer can be expressed as the Practical Air SystemEnergy Balance
mass ow rateofair at agiven operating pressure in Qs ys Z Q d mn d
stan dard cubicfeet per minute (scfm). This is both a ð4Þ
measure of volumetric ow rate and the mass or weight Qs ys Z Q gen
GQ sto
ZQ d mn d
ow rate of compressed air. Higher- ow-rate scfm accounts for changing system pressure
deliversahigherpower rate, and the time duration of
ow determines the energy transferred. Eq. 4Energy balance of compressed air systems.
Compressed air power enters the system from the air
compressors and exits the system through air demands,
including productive demand, leaks, and all points where
compressed air leaves the system,expanding back into the
atmosphere.Power delivered from the compressors is
measured as mass ow rate Q (scfm)from generation, or
Q ge n ,and power leaving the system also is measured as
mass ow rate of air demand, or Q dm n d
.
Definition: Q g e n .Air ow rate of generation is the com-
pressed air mass owrate(scfm) produced by the rotating
on-line compressor capacity at any moment.
Definition: Q dm n d .Air ow rate of demand is the
compressed air mass ow rate (scfm) escaping from the Fig. 1 Air ow relationship: generation, storage, and system
compressed air system to the atmosphere at any moment. ows.
Fig. 2 Compression of air from atmospheric pressure to 100 psi gauge (114.5 psi).
sy s rec CV p i pe
Cp n Z V ZV ð9Þ
Pa Pa
s ys
Vg as Z C pn
DPZV DP
Pa
Fig. 3 Air receiver pressure change.
Cp n Z 100 cu ft ð 10Þ
It is important to note that the receiver’s pressure 1atm Z 100 scf atm
change is the slope of the line calculated from final
pressure minus initial pressure. Lookingatthe receiver Vgas Z 100 scf
pressure throughout time, when pressureisfalling atm ! 1atm Z 100 scf
(negative slope), air is owing from the receivertothe
system. The xy plot in Fig. 3shows pressure ( y )and time Eq.10Volume of gasasafunction of pneumatic
( x ). Storageair ow Q s to
hasaninverse relationship capacitance ( C p n ).
betweenthe storage receiverand system—that is to say, Eq. 10 showsthata100 ft 3
-volumeair receiver
air leaving the receiver ( K Q s to )isair entering the system changing pressure y 1atm will displace 100 scf of air
( C Q s to ). into or out of the vessel. The pneumatic capacitance of the
system is 100scf/atm. If the D P is positive (i.e., initial
Pneumatic Capacitance pressure is lower than the final pressure), the air displaced
is 100 scf, and air is absorbed into the air receivertank.If
Pneumatic capacitance of acompressed air system ( C pn
) the D P is negative(i.e., initial pressure is higherthan the
represents the compressed air energyabsorbed into or final pressure), the air displaced (100 scf) is delivered from
released by acompressed air system as its pressure the air receivertank.
increases or decreases. It is expressed in terms of the mass Becausecompressedair system pressure is often
of air/un it change in pressure—for example, Standard measured in psi, it is desirable to express the capacitance
Cubic Foot/Atmosphere (scf/atm) (Table 1). of compressed air systemsinterms of scf per psig (scf/psi).
Considering that ( P f psigK P i psig)yieldsabsolute pipe, it is often insignifican t. For example, 1000 ft of 2-in.
3
pressure difference D P (psia):Substituting P f K P i (psia) schedule 40 pipe has avolume of 23.3 ft or 174 gal
3
for the Storage Pressure Delta ( D P atm). (7.48 gal/ft ), and 1miof1-in. schedule 40 pipe is only
31.7 ft 3 (237 gal). Theavailable pressure delta for storage
Vs ys ð cu ftÞ
Vgas Z is determined by the system pressure profile.
Pa ð atmÞ D P ð atmÞ
Vs y s ð cu ftÞ Air System Pressure Profile and Storage Delta
Vg as Z KP ÞðpsiaÞ ð 11Þ
Pa ð psiaÞ ð P f i
The highest pressure available in the system is usually
sy s
ð cu ftÞ determined by the maximum working pressure of the air
Therefore : C ZV
pn
P a ð psiaÞ compressors. Thelowest acceptable operating pressure is
determined by manufacturing requirements. With an air
Eq. 11 Capacitance and storage pressure delta (scf/psia). compressor rated at 125 psig maximum workingpressure
Therefore, pneumatic capacitanceofacompressed air and arequired use-pointpressure of 75 psig, for example,
system ( C p n )isafunction of the total volume of the system amaximum 50 psig pressure differential is available. Only
and atmosphericpressure, which can be expressedas: aportion of this differential can be used for storage,as
there are unrecoverable pressure losses as compressed
CV
Cpn Z V sys
ZV r ec p ip e
ð 12Þ air owsthroughthe system. The pressure profilein Fig. 4
Pa Pa allows for 15-psig control pressure band, 5-psig treatment
Eq. 12 Capacitance ( C pn ) Z scf/psia. pressure drop, 2-psigloss through distributionpiping, and
The V g as of the system and the C p n in units of scf/psia 8-psig differential in the point-of-use connection piping.
are directly related by the change in system pressure ( D P ) Given aminimum demand-side use-pointpressure of
in units of psia. 75 psig, and including the imposedpressure delta (10 psi)
through distribution plus point-of-use piping, the pressure
Vg as Z C pn
DP ð 13Þ profile in Fig. 4shows that the lowest optimum target
pressure of the supply-side headeris85psig. The normal
Eq. 13 Gas volume as afunction of capacitanceand
supply-side header pressure is 105psig. This profile
delta P .
3 allowsfor primarystoragepressure differential of
For the system above with V s y s Z 100 ft ,the capaci-
20 psig available to the system.
tance is 6.896 scf/psia. If the system pressure delta is
3 There are costsassociated with compressed air energy
14.5 psia (1 atm), the stored V g as is 100ft (see Eq.14),
becau se atmosphere (14.5 psia)isthe condition defined for storage.The discharge pressure at air compressors must
Standard Gas Conditions V g as Z 100 scf. be increased to provide storage pressure differential.
Increased energy is about 1% for each 2-psigincrease in
Vsy s 100 cu ft compressor discharge pressure (for positive displace-
Cpn Z Z ment-typecompressors).Also, increasingthe com-
Pa 14: 5psia Z 6 : 896 cf= psia
pressed air system pressure increases the air demand of
Vg as Z C pn
DP the system.Compressedair leaves the system through
various openings to the atmosphere, such as the open
For D P Z 14: 5psiað 1atmÞ the Gas Volume is : port of acontrol valve, ablowing nozzle or open
blowing tube,oraleakinthe piping. Any opening in the
Vg as Z C pn
D P Z 6 : 896 ! 14: 5 system that does not have apressureregulator
controlling the applied pressure will blow an increased
Vg as Z 100scf amount of air ow as the system’s applied pressure is
ð 14Þ increased. This increasedair owiscalled artificial
demand. System air demand is increased by approxi-
Eq. 14 Calculating gas volume.
mately 1.0%–1.3%for every 2-psig increaseinsystem
pressure.For systemswith little effective use-point
UsableCompressed Air EnergyinStorage pressure regulation, artificial demand will be greater.
Definition:Artificial demand. Artificial demand is the
In the previous discussion, it is apparent that two factors additional compressed air ow demand consumed by the
determinethe amount of compressed air energy storage: system due to actual applied air pressure being greater than
the receivervolume and pressure delta (initial minus final the minimum required target pressure.
pressure). The volume of acompressed air system is For the pressure profileshown in Fig. 4, the storage
determined primarily by the number and size of air pressure differential is 20–35 psig as compressor controls
receivers in the system. Piping volume adds to the total, cycle between their load and unload set points. If the
but unless there are several hundredfeet of large-diameter average storagepressuredifferential is 28 psig,the
dP Pf K P i
period that might range from many seconds to minutes
Qs t o Z C pn pn depending on the type of compressors and controls. Most
dTZC dT
0 1 air compressors must start in an unloaded state to allow the
electricmotor to accelerate to normal running speed.For a
Qs t o Z 9 : 2 cf@ft A 80ð psigÞ K 105ð psigÞ
typical lubricant-injected rotary screw compressor with
psia 0 : 5 ð minÞ
part winding or Y -Delta, for example, starting might
Qs t o Z K 460ð scfmÞ require 5–10 sfor transition to full running torque. When
the permissive time is past, the compressor’s controls must
The storage air owrate is 460 scfm, which is equal to
open the inlet to begincompressing air.Then the internal
approximately100 hp of rotating on-line compressor
piping, oil sumpreceiver, and possibly after-cooler must
capacity.
be pressurizedbefore the compressor’s internal pressure
Calculating Required ReceiverVolume for exceeds the system pressure and the first cubic foot of air is
Demand Events forced through the compressor’s discharge check valve
into the air system.
How much air receivervolume should be added to support Consider the air system shown in Fig. 5 , including
the demand event while maintaining supply pressure at three compressors operating in abaseload ,trim capacity,
85 psig minimum? Solve Eq.15for pneumatic capaci- andstandby controlconfiguration.The system air
tance ( C p n ); then converttogal and solve for additional demand is 700 scfmrequired at 85 psig minimum
receivervolume. pressure.The base-load and standby compressors are
fixed-speed load/unload compressors with rated capacity
dP of 400 scfm. The trim compressor is avariable-speed
Qs t o Z C pn
dT drive (VSD) compressor rated at 500 scfm capacity. The
VSD trim compressor is set to maintain atarg et pressure
dT dT
Cp n Z Q of 90 psig.Assume that the standby compressor is set to
st o sto
dPZQ Pf K P i start automatically at apressure of 88 psig and requires
3
0 : 5 ð minÞ a15spermissive startup time to deliver its first ft of air
Cp n Z K 460ð scfmÞ into the system.
ð 85 K 105ÞðpsiaÞ
With the unanticipated shutdown of the base-load
Cp n Z 11: 5 ð scf= psiaÞ compressor, whatsize air receiver (gallons) is necessary to
ensure that the system pressure does not fall below85psig
Vrec Z C pn
Pa during thepermissivestartup time of thestandby
0 1 compressor?
scf First, calculatethe air ow required from storage after
Vrec Z 11: 5 @ A 14: 5 ð psiaÞ Z 166: 8 ð cu ftÞ shutdownofthe base-load compressor. System air demand
psia
is 700 scfm with shutdown of the base-load compressor;
0 1
the VSD trim compressor will increaseits air delivery
Convert to gallons : 166: 8 ð cu ftÞ ! 7 : 48 gal@ A to full capacity of 500 scfm. Theremainingair deficit
cu ft of 200 scfm must be supplied from storage(Q ).
sto
Z 1248ð galÞ The pressure profilefor the event will result in afall of
pressure to 88 psig before the standby compressor is
Additional Receiver Volume: 1248 K 1000 signaled to start. Theminimumpressurefor the
receiver is 85 psig. Therefore, the initial receiver pressure
Z 248ð galÞ ð 17Þ
( Pi )is88psig, and the final receiverpressure ( P f
)is
88 psig. The permissive startup event duration is 15 s
Eq. 17 Solve for additional air receiver volume (gal). or 0.25 min.
dT dT
Calculating Air Storage for Compressor Permissive Cp n Z Q sto sto
dPZQ Pf K P
Start-up Time i
Storage of compressed air energy is also necessaryto Cp n Z K 200ð scfmÞ 0 : 25ð minutesÞ
85 K 88ð psiaÞ
supportcompressed air demand duringvarious supply-side
events. One common supply-side event is the unantici- Cp n Z 16: 7 ð scf= psiaÞ
pated shutdownofanair compressor (due to amotor
overload or ahigh-temperature condition, for example). Vrec Z C pn
Pa
The startup of reserve compressor capacity requiresa
0 1
Higher pressure also adds energy cost to the system’s
scf
Vr ec Z 16: 7 @ A 14: 5 ð psiaÞ Z 242: 2 ð cu ftÞ air demand. Increasing supply-side pressure createsa
psia corresponding demand-side pressure increase. The result
0 1
gal is additional energy consumption of the system through
Convert to gallons : 242: 2 ð cu ftÞ ! 7 : 48 @ A an air system loss called artificial demand. Simply stated,
cu ft
if the compressed air pressure applied to leaks and
Z 1812ð galÞ ð 18Þ unregulated airuse points is increased, theair ow
consumed will alsoincrease. Artificial demand is the
Eq. 18 Permissive startup—solve for pneumatic capaci- additional compressed air ow demand consumed by the
tanceand receiver volume. system when the actual applied air pressure is higherthan
Pneumatic capacitance calculations can be applied to the minimum requiredtarget pressure. Artificial demand
solveavariety of compressed air storage requirements. in asystem withoutany effective point-of-use pressure
regulation will increase the system’s energy demand by
2% for each 2-psig increaseinpressure. In a“typical”
compressed airsystem, it is common to find that
MAXIMIZE AND CONTROL 35%–50% of all air demands have effective pressure
COMPRESSEDAIR
ENERGY regulation. Therefore,artificial demand typically
STORAGE increases by 1.0%–1.3% for every2-psig increasein
For compressed air energy in storage to be effective, the applied system pressure.
storage pressure mustbehigherthan the demand-side Artificial demand can be eliminated by controlling
target pressure.Assupply-side pressure increases, the the demand-side target pressure at an intermediate point
powerrequiredbypositivedisplacement compressors also separating the supply and demand sides of the system.An
increases. Theair compressor’s powerincrease is intermediate ow control valveisinstalled as shown in
approximately1%for every 2-psig increaseindischarge Fig. 6 , downstream of the primary storage air receiver
pressure.Increasedstorage pressure or increased air at the beginningofthe distribution piping. This separates
receiver volume increases usable air in storage.The the supplyside from the demand side of the system.
economic tradeoffisthe capital cost of increased air Flow control is used to control the energy (air ow)
receiver volumevsthe increased compressor supply-side entering the system while maintaining areal-time energy
energy cost of higher storage pressure. balance betweensupply and demand. An intermediate
Abstract
Compressed air is avaluable resource for manufacturers, allowing the use of pneumatic-driven hand tools,
which can be an ergonomic boon to employees. This resource comes with aprice, however, in the form of
higher energy costs. This article describes the use of compressed air and the creation and delivery of
compressed air from both asupply side and demand side approach. Amajor focus of this article is on the
costs associated with the generation of compressed air and ways to reduce the waste of this resource.
236
End End
Use Use
Compressor #1
DEMAND
SIDE
Control
Compressor #2 (Wet) Dryer Filter
Receiver
Receiver Dry
Compressor #3 SUPPLY
SIDE End End
Use Use
† Regenerative desiccant: Typically operated in tandem system operating at 100 psig can cost over $5000 ayear.
between two twin dryers, with one operating and the Another operating consideration associated with the
other regenerating. The requiredvolumeofpurge air demand side is the cost of “normal production.” Decisions
needed to regenerate can increase the load or even cause to add additional applications shouldundergoarealistic
an idle compressor to be started. Heaters can be used in cost evaluation. Consider the following exampleofan
place of purge air, but present their own energy penalty. end-use application:
† Heat of compression: Similar to theregenerative
desiccant dryer, this type of dryer is available for Example (Addition of an End-Use Application)
lubricant-free rotary screw compressors and utilizesthe
hot dischargecompressed airtoregenerate the Aquarter inch orifice requiredtooperate apneumatic hand
desiccant. Their efficiency is affected by changing air tools at arecommended pressure of 100 psig was found to
temperatures and additional heat may be required for have a ow rate of 63.3 scfm (standard cubic feet per
low load situations. minute). After ayear of constant use, this equates to
† Deliquescent desiccant: Adissolvable desiccant is used. 33.3 MMcf (million cubic feet) of compressed air. If com-
Regular replacement of this resource is necessary, pressed air generation costs $300/MMcf, then the power
requiring laborand material costs. cost for this application will be approximately $10,000/
† Membran e-type: Aporous membrane separates water year. If we add additional operating costs of $170/MMcf to
vapor from the air and suppressesthe dew point. account for the operator maintaining the compressed air
Although thereisalow initial cost, these dryersare equipment and the maintenance, lubricant,and repair costs
appropriateonly for low-volume applications. for the system, we find that the cost of this new application
use is over $15,000/year. Compare this with less than
Airreceivers canbefound on either thesupplyside $2000/year to operate acomparable electrical tool.
(immediately afterthe compressor or thedryer)oronthe High costscan also be incu rred through the artificial
demand side,close to theapplication enduse.Air receivers demand associated with setting the compressor pressure
storecompressedair andhelpcover peak events of short level higher than needed. According to Ref. 3, p. 56,
duration.Ifsized properly,theycan greatlyreducethe supplying20% extra psig will force the system to consume
frequent loadingand unloadingofthe compressor,saving 20% moreair ow, resulting in 20% waste. Poor applica-
both energy andmaintenance costs. They also stabilize tions, such as stuck condensatedrains, personnel use of
system pressure,which improves performanceofthe enduse. compressed air for cooling or drying, or sparging (aerating
Other componentsassociated with the supply side may of liquids), also use up precious compressed air.
include aftercoolers or intercoolers (for lubricant-free
systems), moisture separators, and condensate drains.
Depending on the manufacturer, theselatter items may ESTIMATING NECESSARY
be packaged in asingle housing with the compressor itself. PRESSURE
SET
POINT
Demand Side The determination of the pressure set point for the air
compressors needs to be equated. Because of natural
Besides adownstream air receiver, the demand side pressure drops associated with the componentsofacom-
consistsofthe distribution system or pipin g, and the end- pressed air system,aswell as unrepaired air leaks, the final
use applications. Correct sizing of the distributionpiping point is more difficult to find than just dialing in the pressure
is acritical featureincompressed air system design in recommended by the end-use equipment manufacturer.
order to minimize energy costs. In fact, it is not unusual for plant personnel to reach the
The piping typically consists of rigid metal or plastic desired pressure by trial and error, increasing the set point
piping from the air compressor room to the general area of until equipment operators stop complaining about low
the end-use equipment. From this point, exible rubberor pressure.When possible, pressure measurements shouldbe
plastic tubing is used, which may be plumbed directly to made after each component of the compressed air system to
the end use, or have ashut-offvalvewith quick-co nnect monitor system performance. Flow or electrical readings
attachment points. This exible tubing may be subject to can also provide useful performancedata. More infor-
being run over by foot or equipment traffic and can wear mation on how to calculate optimum compressed air system
out over time. As aresult, air leaks can grow to epidemic settings can be found in Ref. 2, p. 205. Fig. 2 provides an
proportions, and greatly increasethe demand on the exampleofthe pressure drops that can occur alon gthe line.
information. Theorganizationcharged with actually 2. Scales, W.; McCulloch, D. Best Practices for Compressed Air
deliveringthe compressed air training can be found at: Systems;The Compressed Air Challenge, 2003; 9–10.
http://www.compressedairchallenge.org . 3. Taranto, T. Compressed Air Management;ConservAIR
Technologies Industrial Seminar Series, Conservair Tech-
nologies Company, LLP, Kenosha, WI, ( www.conservair.
com )1998; 56.
REFERENCE
S
1. Fundamentals of Compressed Air Systems;Training Manual
for the Compressed Air Challenge, Prepared by Laurel and BIBLIOGRAPH
Associates, Ltd and Resource Dynamics Corporation and Y
presented by the trade association known as the Compressed 1. Advanced Management of Compressed Air Systems;Training
Air Challenge, ( www.compressedairchallenge.org )1999. Manual for the Compressed Air Challenge, 1999; 205.
Optimization
R. Scot Foss
IR Air Solutions, Davidson, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Abstract
This article will provide you with an complete action plan to optimize your compressed air system
including compressor optimization, demand management, density management, and storage in avariety of
different applications.
Compressed air represents one of the most critical regulation, which is adjustedlower than the lowest
utilities in mostproduction and process environments. The supply pressure. If it is not possibletoachieve this
efficiency of acompressed air system is 100% energy in with operator discipline, then you mustuse a
and, when perfect,produces 11% usefulworkout. demand controller or expander at acentral location
Understanding this,itwill cost more to operate a adjusted in the same man ner.
compressor in the first year than it costs to buy and install. 2. Reduce the pressure differentials on installation
Despitethisharsh information, power is thrown at componentssuch as filters, regulators, lubricators,
symptoms of undefinedproblemsevery day. The tube, hose, and disconnects on the demand side of
opportunities of reducing operating cost and energy in the system.The intent is to operate demand at the
air systems is typically more than 50%. This session will lowest possiblesupplypressure on criticalhigh-
carveout aplan of attack to optimize the supply and pressure applications.
demand systemically and yield the lowest demand at the 3. Flat line thehighrateof ow,intermittent
highest rate of standardcubic feet per kilowatt of energy. applications with dedicated storage and metered
There are anumber of essential actions that need to be recovery.This is muchlike abattery charger or
takentooptimize the compressed air systems. You need to water tower application. This can alsobeapressure
minimize demand,control theexpansion of theair, driver for the operating protocol. You will slightly
distributeitwhile minimizing energy loss, store potential increase the base usage and eliminate peaks.
energy,and compressthe airefficiently. Otherthan 4. Review and add as necessary general and control
operatingthe compressors, as efficientlyaspossible, storage to slow the rate of change in the system.
everything else seemstoelude most everyone. This This will allow youtomaintain ahigher point of
workcannot be done theoretically on each piece of use pressure if necessarywithout increasing the
equipment only in the compressor room. It must be done supply pressure. If there is any diligence used, you
systemically. More efficient compressors makemoreair can normally reducethe supplypressure simul-
with the same amount of power. They cost more and can taneously.
be an important part of awell-operated system. On the 5. Upgradethe quality of informationtotrack
otherhand, if you throw amoreefficient compressor at a progress and improv edecisionmaking. This should
highly inefficient system,you will waste more air at the include a ow meter and demand pressure monitor
sameoperating cost and save nothing. at the discharge of the demand controller or the
expander. If you do not use ademand controller,
recognizethat demand is only accurately displayed
CONTROLLING DEMAND IN THE when the demand exceeds the supply. This is
SYSTEM referred to as anegativerate of change.When
1. Control the expansion of the compressed air to the supply exceeds demand, which is apositive rate of
point of use. You mustcontrol 100% of userswith change, youare measuring supply response to
demand. The system will take whatever supply
power you throw at it.A450 scfm negativerate of
*
This entry originally appeared as “Optimizing the Compressed Air change will recover to the original pressure in
System” in Energy Engineering,Vol. 102, No. 4, 2005. Reprinted with 1min, if we respond with a200 hp compressor.If
permission from AEE/Fairmont Press. we throw a400 hp compressor at the event,itwill
recover in 15 satamore rapid rise in pressure.The
Keywords:Compressors; Compressed air; Storage; Demand controls;
Expanders; Metered storage; Leaks; Transient events; Air dryers and inefficiency is the part load energy of the larger
filters; Potential energy. compressor for the balance of the 45 s. If we match
241
the event with a100 hp compressor, the pressure alternatives.Use electricity whenever possiblefor
will hold at the load pressure of the compressor its better wire to work energy relationship.
until the event stops, at which time, the pressure 4. Reduce the size of demand events as seen by the
will reco ver at the same rate of rise as the initial system including high rampapplications. This can
rate of decay. be accomplished by slowing down the introduction
6. Review and add as necessary general and control of these eventsinto the system. This can be done by
storage to slow the rate of change in the system. opening the demand valve slower manually or
This will allow you to maintain ahigher point of automatically. This reduces the “ramp in” rate of
use pressure,ifnecessary, without increasing the ow, so that the supply including control storage
supply pressure. If there is any diligence used, you can match the event limiting the ultimate pressure
can normallyreducethe supply pressure drop, which would result.
simultaneously. 5. Regulate all pointsofuse, even if youhave
installed ademand controller or expander in the
main supplysystem’s piping. Make sure that the set
pointsonthe regulators are equal to the minimum
supplypressureminus thepoint of usefilter
REDUCING DEMAND IN THE and regulator pressure drop or less. If you allow
SYSTEM for a2–3 psig margin below this value, small leaks
1. Developaleak benchmarking program on a and filter dirt loading will not cause frequent
gradual reduction of the tolerance volume. Select changesinprocess performance.
alevel at aknownlow load, and repair your way to 6. Limit the coincidence of events that cause peak
that level. Every several weeks, check the low load demands in the system.Thisincludesminimizing
and scan the system using an ultra sonic leak the blow duration on timer drains and adjusting
detector. Find and repair the largest leaks found to intervals seasonally for relative humidity. Move
bring the system back intobenchmark. When you large events to low load timeswhere possible.
are comfortable with this level, lower the level and 7. Shut offall air usingequipment whennot in use.
begin again. You will reach apoint where there are Make sure that the shut offvalves are ergonomi-
so many small leaks to fix during the benchmarking cally installed, so that operatorscan easily reach
period, the labor hours cannot be justified. At this them. If this does not work, install solenoidshut off
point return to the previoushighertolerance value. valves that are tied into the electrical shut offonthe
Record the types and nature of the leaks that you machine, work station, or process.
are fixing, so that you can leverage this information
into buyingmoreleak resistant componentsand
improving best practices installations. Notethat it
is important that the reduction of demand does not
cause the demand pressure to rise. If it does, then STORE POTENTIAL ENERGY TO
other unregulated users will increase at the elevated SUPPORT
TRANSIENT EVENTS INCLUDING
pressure. That is why it is so important to have A
COMPRESSOR FAILURE IN
demand controlsinstalledbefore youbecome THE
SUPPLYSYSTE
aggressive in demand reduction. It is also important M
to offload alinear amount of supplyenergyfor the 1. Convert enough kinetic energy to potential energy
demand reductions. so that you can handle largest event without turning
2. Eliminate all open compressed air blowing appli- on another compressor during normal operation.
cations and replace with low pressure centrifugalor If you do this, you will alsohandleall of the smaller
positive displacement blowers, if at all possible. If transient events that are notcontrolled from
it is not possibletouse blowers, applyspecialty air downstream. This can include the coincidental
volume reducing nozzles for the application. Take impact of athird to first shift startup. Remember
your time with these applications developing the that storage is afunction of the capacity to store air
thrust per squareinch as close as possibletothe timesthe useful differential across it. If you are
open blowing application. You will alsoneed to operating constant pressure compressor controls
filter the air for specialty nozzles, as they will easily and they operate correctly, no amount of capaci-
plug up with pipe debris. Whenever possible, use a tancewill generate any useful storage.
solenoid valvetoshutofthe aironcyclical 2. Storeenough air on the supply side of the system to
applications. manage adesired pressure drop, while bringin gup
3. Replace all applications, which are poor users of abackup compressor to replace afailedone. The
compressed air.Focus on operating cost intent would be that the event will have no impact
on the process or production serviced by the ow and storage keeps it functioning. Mass ow
system.The intent is to operate onlythe restrictions are differential pressures in the system,
supply that is requiredatany time with everything which change as asquare function of owchange.
else off. It is important to design or retrofit your system for a
Example :largest compressorZ 1600 scfm, maximumdifferentialathighest ow, highest
maximum allowablepressure drop from the load temperature, and lowest inlet pressure. This will
pressure on the back up compressorZ 10 psid, produce the highest differential pressure across the
permissive time to load the compressor from a componentsbeing evaluated. Althoughweare
cold start signal to full loadZ 15 s, atmospheric recommending aconservativeapproach towards
pressureZ 14.3 psia, gallons per standard cubic this process, the piping distribution system should
feetZ 7.48 gal not be made intentionally oversized or all the same
size for convenience. Oversized piping will not
1600 ! ð 15= 60Þ ! ð 14: 3 ! = 10Þ ! 7 : 48 provideeconomicalstorageand will makeit
difficult for supply to see demand efficiently. A
Z 4278: 6gal reasonable differential pressure would be 1–2 psid
from the discharge of the cleanup equipment at the
3. Create enough storage to control the maximum supply or the discharge of the demand controller, as
load cycles per time period on any trim compres- it applies to your system, to the farthest point in the
sor. It is safe to say that 3min load–unload cycles demand system at the previously discusseddesign
or longerwouldbedesirable on any positive conditions.
displacement compressor.This can get trickier on 3. In most systemsthat have distribution problems,
large dynamic compressors, but it is not imposs- you should minimize waste and at line transient
ible. users with dedicated storage and metered recovery
4. If the size of any event or compressor is too large to at the point of use before considering making
handle with control storage or you wanttoprotect changes in the pipingdistribution system.
the system and production against an electrical
outage, single phase, or brown out, of ine high- As little as a10%–20% demand reduction at the peak
pressure peak shaving would be the mostdesirable condition can be sufficient to eliminate themost
approach to minimize on board power. It would not distribution losses and the requirement for piping retrofits.
be unusualtostore30–40,000ft 3 of air in a
Abstract
Cooling is necessary to many industrial processes, such as power generation units; refrigeration and air
conditioning plants; and the manufacturing, chemical, petrochemical, and petroleum industries. As recently
as 20 years ago, cooling towers were more the exception than the rule in the industry because of their high
operating cost and the large capital required for their construction. Due to the recent stringent
environmental protections, cooling towers became more common. Cooling towers range in sizes and types.
Wet, dry, and hybrid are the main types, and each type has many variations in design according to the way
the uids aremoved through the system. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of these types, methods
of determining their performance, and some terminology common to the cooling industry are presented in
this entry.
246
Air
inlet Fill
Water
outlet Condenser Fan
Pond
Air inlet
Fig. 4 Induced-draft counter- ow tower. back to the chimneythat would otherwise reducethe
performanceofthe cooling tower. The immediate vicinity
is not affected by plumes from the cooling tower,because
pressure drop in relation to their capacityand lower fan
the hot-airexit is situated at avery high elevation. The
power requirement, leading to lower energy costs, but the only drawbacktonatural-draft towers is that they are large.
risk of recirculation increases in tower exhaustair. On the There is also the assisted-draft tower, which is a
other hand, counter- ow arrangements occupy less oor natural-draft tower with some fans added at the air entry
space than cross- ow towersbut are taller for agiven that help reducethe size of the tower.Natural-draft towers
capacity,sothey require higherpump heads.Itshows are also divided into counter ow and cross ow, defined
better tower performance, since, the driest air contacts in asimilar fashion to the mechanical-draft towers.
the coldest water,producing higherdriving force to
the heat. Heat Exchange in Wet Cooling Towers
Anatural-draft tower is alarge chimneyand typically
has ahyperbolic profile, which is chosenfor its structural The type of heat rejection in awet cooling tower is termed
capability of withstanding wind-induced stressesand evaporative, in that it allows asmall portion of the water
vibration; also, it requiresless material. The design creates being cooled to evaporateinto amoving air stream to
achimneyeffect that causesair to move by natural provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream.
convection through the fill region, which is located inside The heat from the water stream transferred to the air
the base of the chimney( Fig. 7 ). As the air gets warmer stream raises theair’stemperature andits relative
from the contact with the cooling water,itgets lighter; humidity to 100%, and then this air is discharged to the
buoyancyforces drive the air to the top of the tower and atmosphere. Theambientair wet-bulb temperature is the
into the atmosphere, and draw fresh air into the bottom of controllingfactor in recirculatedsystems andwill
the tower.The major economical advantage of natural- determinethe steam condensate temperature. Evapora-
draft cooling towers is the extremely low auxiliary power tive-heat rejection devices such as cooling towersare
consumption. Because thereare no rotatingparts, commonly used to provide significantly lower water
operationalsafety andlow maintenancecosts are temperatures than areachievablewith air-cooled or
maintained. The great distancebetweenair inlet and air “dry” heat rejection devices. The evaporative process
exit in the cooling tower prevents any hot-airrecirculation enhances the performance of wet cooling towers over dry
cooling towers severalfold due to the change in both
sensible and latent heats.
Water inlet
Fill
Consequences and Concerns for Wet
Cooling Towers
Fan Air outlet Wet cooling towers are the mostcommon type due to their
high effectiveness, but there are some drawbacks. If cooled
water is returned from the cooling tower to be reused, as in
the circulating systems, some water mustbeadded to
replace, or make up, theamount of thewater that
Water outlet
evaporates. Becauseevaporation consistsofpure water,
Fig. 5 Mechanical-draft cross- ow tower. the concentration of dissolved minerals and othersolids in
Air outlet
Eliminator
Water inlet
circulating water will tend to increase unless some means droplets. To wer maintenan ce and operation levels can also
of dissolved-solidscontrol (such as blow-down) is in uence the formation of drift,such as excessive water
provided. Blow-downisthe amount of the circulating ow, excessive air ow,orbypassing the tower drift
water that is removed to maintain the quantityofdissolved eliminators can increase drift emissions. Types of drift-
solids and other impurities at an acceptable level. Some eliminatorconfigurationsinclude herringbone(blade-
water is alsolost from droplets being carried out with the type), wave form, and cellular (or honeycomb).The
exhaustair (drift). The makeup amount mustequal the cellular units generallyare themostefficient. Drift
total of the evaporation, blow-down,drift, and other water eliminators aremadeofvarious materials, such as
losses (such as wind blow-out and leakage) to maintaina ceramics, fibre-reinforced cement,fibreglass, metal,
steady water level. Devicessuch as wind screens, louvers, plastic, and wood.
splash de ectors, and water diverters are used to limit Otherunfavourable environmentalimpacts of wet
theselosses. cooling are pollutant discharge—e.g., zinc, chlo rine, and
The mag nitude of drift loss is in uenced by the number chromium (chromium is used to protect cooling-system
and size of droplets produced withinthe cooling tower, equipmentfromcorrosion)—tothe atmosphere.The
which in turn are determined by the fill design, the air and spread of Legionnaires’ disease is due to the bacteria
water patterns, and other interrelated factors. Driftis that thrive at temperatures typical in wet cooling systems
typically reduced by installing baf elike devices, called and that can be transported through air aerosolsformed in
drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after cooling towers. Other impacts are mineral drift and the
formation of visual plumes.Under certainconditions, a
leaving the fill and sprayzones of the tower to collectthe
cooling-tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards
to its surroundings (Fig. 8). Some interesting pictures of
cooling towerscan be found at The Virtual Nuclear
Plumes Tourist: Nuclear Power Plants Around the World (www.
nucleartourist.com/systems/ct.htm).
Types of Fill(Packing)
To wers
The fill may consist of multiplevertical, wetted surfaces
upon which athin film of water spreads (film fill); several
levels of horizontal splashelements, which create a
cascade of many small droplets that have alarge combined
surface area (splash fill); or trickle, which is acombination
of the film-and splash-type fills. Awide varietyof
Fig. 8 Visual plume from cooling towers. materials and geometries have been used for packing, such
as corrugated roofing sheets made of cement-based or In powergeneration applications, the heat transfer
plastic material, timber laths of triangularorrectangular between air and cooling water is achieved by convection,
cross section, plastic-impregnated paper honeycomb, and and the driving force of this cooling process is the
complexcellular geometries madeofthin plastic material. approach temperature (which is defined as cooling water
temperature at outlet and air temperature at inlet)—not by
Thermo-Fluid Dynamic Efficiencyin evaporation, as in awet cooling tower. Some of the
Cooling Towers advantagesofdry cooling towers are that they do not need
any makeup cooling water or water treatment and they do
To choose the most convenient fill, you need to find the not generateplume, fog, mineral drift, and disposal issues
one that produces the maximum heat transfer with the associated with wet cooling. Size is aconcern in dry
minimum pressure drop. Other factors to be considered cooling systems, however, because dry cooling is not as
are the physical and chemical characteristics requiredfor effective as wet cooling; the towers have to be much larger
the water to cool, fouling properties,suspended materials, to achieve comparable heat rejection. Another challenge to
etc. Sirena [1 ] has suggestedaThermo-Fluid Dynamic direct dry cooling is operational control in regard to how to
Efficiency that can be used to compare and select afill balancethe steam ow to keep thedesired steam
materialfor aparticular application. This efficiency is condensationtemperature (and, hence, turbineback-
defined as the ratio of the number of units of diffusion to the pressure), which varies with loading. Other disadvantages
pressure drop coefficient. In this paper,the pressure drop of dry cooling are increase in noise, plume recirculation,
coefficient is given for somecommercial fill materials. maintenance of manycomponents, and energy penalties
Al-Nimr [2 ] has studied the dynamic thermal behaviour of caused by the variation sofdaily temperature and increases
cooling towerscontaining packing material and was able to in air emissions.
predict closed form solutions for the transient and steady Dry-cooling performance dependsonthe ambientair
performance of acounter- ow cooling tower. dry-bulb temperature (i.e., the sensible heat)instead of the
wet-bulb temperature in the case of awet cooling tower.
Dry Cooling Dry cooling becomes more economical when the approach
temperature becomes considerably high. Other factorsthat
Dry cooling towers transfer heat to the atmosphere without affect the performance of dry cooling towersare the
the evaporative loss of water. Dry cooling is capable of crosswind speed and the way that the heat exchanger
only smaller temperature variations(around10 8 C), unlike bundles are arranged. The effect of crosswinds at different
wet cooling. Similar to wet cooling, there are twotypes of speeds and the effect of adding windbreak walls on the
dry cooling: direct and indirect. Direct dry cooling systems thermal performance of natural-draft dry cooling towers is
utilize air directly to condense steam, which is exhausted given by Al-Waked and Behnia. [3 ] Theeff ect of arranging
from the turbine into ducts and headers for distribution the heat exchanger bundles—either vertically aroun dthe
into rows of small-diameter finned tubes (i.e.,heat circumference of the tower or horizontally in the inlet
exchanger). Indirectdry cooling, which is also knownas cross sectionofthe tower—is givenbyduPreez and
the Heller System, utilises aclosed-cycle water cooling Krö ger. [4 ]
system as the primary coolant to condense steam, and the
heated water is air cooled. The cooling water ows Wet–Dry Cooling (Hybrid)
through bundles of tubeswith air owing over them, but
the cooling air never comes into contact with the cooling Combined wet–drycooling towerswere introduced due to
water. In both systems, direct and indirect, the ow rateof the recent stringent environmental protection laws. These
air required to achieve the samecooling capacity will have towers effectively suppress detrimental plume formation at
to be three or more timesgreater than in awet cooling an efficiency levelcomparable to that of wet cooling
tower,sothe tower will have to be muchlarger and more towers. In hybrid wet–drysystems, the hot water from the
expensive. power station condenser is cooled to the design discharge
Cooling towersare also characterizedbythe means by temperature as it passesinseries first through the dry
which air is moved. Similar to wet cooling towers, dry section and then throughthe wet sectionofthe tower.The
cooling towerscan be mechanical draft, natural draft, or low-humidity hot air stream from the dry system is mixed
fan-assisted draft. Mech anical-draft towersrely on power- with the moist warm air, leaving the tower at humidity
driven fans to draw or force the air through the tower. levels sufficiently low to prevent the formation of visible
Natural-draft cooling towers use the buoyancyofthe plumes.The wetand drycomponentscan be used
exhaustair rising in atall chimneytoprovide the draft. A separatelyorsimultaneouslyfor either water conservation
fan-assisted natural-draft cooling tower employs mechan- or plume abatement purposes. At low ambienttempera-
ical drafttoaugment the buoyancyeffect. Many early tures, the cooling tower can be operated as adry cooling
cooling towers relied only on prevailingwindtogenerate tower only, whereasathigh temperatures, it can be used as
the draft of air. awet cooling tower only to achieve the required cooling
without the risk of plume formation; the dry air is not put ( h Z KaV / L ), where K is theaverage mass transfer
into operation until the ambienttemperature startstofall. coefficient of condensed steam, a is the area of transfer
The design and construction of hybridcooling towers surface per unit volume, and V is the effective volume.
[ 5]
are more complicated, and according to Streng, the Manufactures supplycharts for their cooling towers that
following data need to be specified for winterand summer present the tower characteristics as afunction of L / G and
operation. These data are thermal performance; cooling the difference between the (outlet cooling water tempera-
water oworcooling range,which is the difference ture (CWT) and air wet-bulb temperature (WBT).
betweenthe water temperature at inlet and the water Cooling-tower performance can be specified from the
temperature at outlet; ambienttemperature; criteria for following parameters: water mass ow rate, inlet and exit
operating without plume; sound attenuation regulations; temperature of water,and atmospheric wet- and dry-bulb
and limitations with respect to the erection area or overall temperatures of air. Many researchers have attempted to
height and operating weight and water analysis of the analyze wetcoolingsystems to estimate theirper-
makeup water.Inhis work, [5 ] the construction, including formance. Abasic theory of wet-cooling-tower operation
material selection and automatic operation of the cooling was first proposed by Walker. [6 ] Thepractical use of basic
integrated over the whole length of the tower, the Merkel NTU Z
1 K C ln 1Ke:
equationwas derived:
Tð
C is the uid capacity rateratio and is defined as
a ALfi
D fi
a L
D f i fi
wi
cpw d Tw Cm in / Cm ax .Itistobenoted that the e-NTU method is
MeM Z h Zh Z applicable to the cross- ow arrangements, provided that
m_a Gw ð has; w K h a
Þ
T
wo
the air and water streams should be defined, whetherthey
where Me,Merkel number; L ,length; G ,mass velocity; are mixed, unmixed,oracombination.
subscript: M, according to Merkel approach; i, inlet; o, Khan and Zubair [1 1 ] presented an analysis to estimate
outlet. the effectivenessand NTU of acounter- ow wet cooling
The term on the right side is ameasureofthe cooling tower that matchedthe experimental data closely. They
requirement whereasthe term on the left side is ameasure includedintheir modelthe effect of the Lewis number,
of the performanceofthe packing. defined in asimilar fashion to Poppe’s as the ratio of the
Poppe includedthe effect of Lewis factor Le (definedas convective heat transfer coefficient to the convective mass
hc /hD cp a )and thereduction in water ow dueto transfer coefficient times the specific heat at constant
evaporation. He derived two equations for the Merkel pressure of moist air, the heat resistanceinthe air-water
number based on the state of the air at exit—unsaturated or interface,and the effect of water evaporation on the air
supersaturated. If the air is exiting as unsaturated, the states alongthe vertical length of the tower. In their
Merkel number can be obtained by an iterative procedure analysis, they assumed constant convective heat and mass
of integrating the following equation: transfer coefficient, and ignored the heat lost through the
tower walls, variation in specific heat properties,and water
d MeP h
lost by drift. Theyapplied themass andenergy
Zc = has ; w K h C ð Le K 1 Þfh Kh
d Tw pw a as ; w a conservation equations to adifferential volume to relate
i the change in enthalpy of moist air to its humidity ratio, in
K ð ws ; w K w Þ hv g K ð w s;w
K w Þ cpw Tw terms of Lewis number Le and otherproperties of moist
and saturated air. The outlet properties are obtainedby
In the above equation, w ,humidity ratio; the subscript numerically integrating the set of differential equations of
P, Poppe approach; v, vapor; a, air; s, saturated, and conservation of massand energy on an increment volume
w, water. of the cooling tower.
The Merkel numb er for air exits as supersaturated can They also gave the following definition of NTU and
be obtainedbyaniterative procedure of integrating the effectiveness:
following equation :
ðo
W
hD AV V dw
d MeP h NTU Z Z
Zc =h Kh C ð Le K 1 Þfh Kh Kðw m_a ws ; w K w
d Tw pw as ; w ss as ; w ss s;w
Wi
i
K ws ; a Þ vhg K ð w K ws ; aÞ pcw Tw C ð w K w s ; w Þ pcw Tw ho K h i
3Z :
hs ; w ; i K h i
The subscript ssZ supersaturated. Details can be found
AV ,surface area of water droplet per unit volume of
in Poppeand Ro¨ gener [ 9] and in Bourillot. [1 0 ]
the tower; V ,tower volume; subscript: o, outlet, and i,
According to the e-NTU method, in which the same
inlet.
simplification of Merkel is used, the Merkel number for
They also gave an empiricalequationfor NTU :
the case where dry air mass ow rate m a O m w cpw /(dh as w /
em
prin ciple be used as the sole basis of design or they can be REFERENCE
used to examine, modify, and improveexisting simpler S
methods—such as work by Kloppersand Kro ¨ ger, [1 4 ] who 1. Sirena, J.A. The use of athermo- uid dynamic efficiency in
used the finite difference method to compare the three cooling towers. Heat Trans. Eng. 2002, 23 (2), 22–30.
approaches of Merkel, Poppe, and e-NTU. 2. Al-Nimr, M.A. Modelling the dynamic thermal behaviour of
cooling towers containing packing materials. Heat Trans.
Eng. 1999, 20 (1), 91–96.
3. Al-Waked, R.; Behnia, M. The effect of windbreak walls on
the thermal performance of natural draft dry cooling towers.
CONCLUSIO Heat Trans. Eng. 2005, 26 (8), 50–62.
N 4. du Preez, A.F.; Kro¨ ger, D.G. Effect of the heat
exchanger
arrangement and wind-break walls on the performance of
The different types of cooling towers—wet,dry, and
natural draft dry-cooling towers subjected to cross-winds.
hybrid—have been presented. Research and experience
J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aero. 1995, 58 (3), 293–303.
show that the hybrid cooling towersconform well to the 5. Streng, A. Combined wet/dry cooling towers of cell-type
stringent environmental protectionrequirements and to the construction. J. Energ. Eng. 1998, 124 (3), 104–121.
stan dard operation reliability set for cooling systems; it is 6. Walker, W.H.; Lewis, W.K.; McAdams, W.H.,;
expected, therefore, that they will become morewide- Gilliland,
E.R. Principles of Chemical Engineering;McGraw-Hill,
spread. Diff erentmethods to estimate cooling-tower Inc.: New York, NY,
performance are presented, based on someassumptions 1923. F. Verdunstungshuhlung. Zeitschrift des Vereines
7. Merkel,
that simplify the problem.Asthe systemsget more Deutscher Ingenieure (V.D.I) 1925, 70,123–128.
complicated, however, CFD is capable of pred icting 8. Kloppers, J.C.; Kro¨ ger, D.G. Cooling tower
performance
evaluation: Merkel, Poppe, and e-NTU methods of analysis.
performance and can be used as the sole basis of design,
J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 2005, 127 (1), 1–7.
or it can be used to modify and improveexisting simpler
9. Poppe, M.; Ro¨ gener, H. Berechnung von Ru¨ ckku¨ hlwerken,
methods to makethem closer to reality.
VDI-Wa¨ rmeatlas;6.Au age, VDI Verlag GmbH
:Berlin,
Germany, 1991.
10. Bourillot, C. TEFERI: Numerical Model for Calculating the
Performance of an Evaporative Cooling Tower. EPRI Report
CS-3212-SR, Electric Power Research Institute: Palo Alto,
CA, 1983.
Glossary 11. Khan, J-U-R.; Zubair, S.M. An improved design and rating
analyses of counter ow wet cooling towers. J. Heat Trans.
Approach temperature: The difference between the temperature
2001, 123 (4), 770–778.
of the condenser water leaving the tower and the wet-bulb
12. Al-Waked, R.; Behnia, M. The performance of natural draft
temperate of the air entering the tower in the case of the wet
dry cooling towers under crosswind: CFD study. Int.
tower and the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the
J. Energ. Res. 2004, 28 (2), 147–161.
tower in the case of the dry tower.
13. Hasan, A.; Guohui, G. Simplification of analytical models
Blow-down: The quantity of the circulating water that is removed
and incorporation with CFD for the performance prediction
to maintainthe amount of dissolved solids andother
of closed wet cooling towers. Int. J. Energ. Res. 2002, 26,
impurities at an acceptable level.
1161–1174.
Blow-out: Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by
14. Kloppers, J.C.; Kro¨ ger, D.G. Acritical investigation into
wind—generally, at the air inlet openings. In the absence of
the heat and mass transfer analysis of counter ow wet-
wind, water may also be lost through splashing or misting.
cooling towers. Int. J. Heat Mass Trans. 2005, 48 (3–4),
Drift: Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower
765–777.
with the exhaust air.
Drift eliminator: Equipment containing acomplex system of
baf es designed to remove water droplets from cooling-tower
air passing through it.
Noise: The sound generated by the impact of falling water; the BIBLIOGRAPH
movement of air by fans; the fan blades moving in the Y
structure; and the motors, gearboxes, and drive belts. Some useful sites and references that wereused to collect some of
Plume: The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling the information in this article are:
tower. The plume is visible when the water vapor it contains 1. Hewitt, G.F., Shires, G.L., Polezhaev, Y.V., Eds.,
condenses in contact with cooler ambient air. Inter-
national Encyclopaedia of Heat and Mass Transfer,CRC
Range: The difference between the cooling water temperature Press: New York, NY,
entering the tower and the cooling water temperature leaving 1997.K.W. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refriger-
2. Shan,
the tower. ation,2nd Ed.; McGraw-Hill, Inc.: New York, NY,
More glossary words are available at the Cooling Technology 2001. Technology Institute. Available at:
3. Cooling www.cti.org .
Institute(CTI) Website( www.cti.org/whatis/ 4. Gulf Coast Chemical Commercial, Inc. Available at: www
coolingtowerdetail.shtml ). gc3.com/techdb/manual/coolfs.htm .
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: 8. Lenntech. Cooling Towers. Available at: www.lenntech.
www.epa.gov/waterscience/316b/technical/ch4 . com/cooling%20towers.htm
pdf#searchZ ‘wetdry%20cooling%20towers 9. Wikipedia. Available at: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
6. Online Chemical Engineering Information. Available at: Cooling_tower
www.cheresources.com/ctowerszz.shtml 10. Legionella Control. Available at: www.legionellacontrol.
7. GEA Cooling Tower Technologies. Available at: www com/legionella-glossary.htm
bgrcorp.com/default-gct.htm .
Technicians
Athula Kulatunga
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Te chnology,Purdue University,West
Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.
Abstract
Energy audits can be used to provide hands-on activities related to an energy management course. After
learning the necessary background concepts, students need to be aware of what measurements must be
taken to evaluate an existing energy system. In industry and universities, one may find apprentices and
students from different educational backgrounds, such as electricians with no exposure to newer measuring
instruments and students with no ability to take electrical and/or mechanical measurements. By studying
the capabilities and limitations of measuring instruments, newcomers to the energy auditing may collect
reliable data. This article introduces several hands-on activities that could be replicated to teach students
how to take accurate measurements of electrical, light, and heat ow parameters, ultrasonic leak detection,
electronic combustion analysis, and simple data acquisition before conducting energy audits. Asample
laboratory activity includes adescription of the measuring instrument, factors that contribute to inaccurate
readings, safety concerns, and several practice measurements useful to energy audits.
It has been accepted that engineering technology courses Preliminary or walk-through energy audits are the most
shouldhave some hands-on activities such as labs,projects, suitable for beginners. Apreliminary energy audit is a
and other practical experiences. In the field of energy process during which an auditor examines an existing
management, energy audits have been used effectivelyto energy consuming system according to apredetermined
provide hands-on experiences. [ 1]
An energyaudit, also set of procedures. The procedures are outlined as aresult
knownasenergysurvey, energy analysis,orenergy of ahistorical data analysis of the targeted system and
evaluation, is aprocess that examines the current energy conversations the auditor had with the owner or the
consumption of aprocess or facility and proposes alter- operator of the system. These proceduresinclude taking
native waystocut down energy consumption or costs. One electrical andother measurements undercertain
aspectofthe energy auditing process is to collect specific conditions.
data of aprocess or afacility. Measuring temperature, ow
rates (heat, liquid,and air), intensity of light, electrical
current, voltage, power, power factor (PF), humidity, ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
pressure, or vibration may be requiredtodetermine the
Data collection of any system that consumes electrical
energy consumption and waste.New measuring equipment
energy requires at leastthree basicmeasu rements—
is pouringintothe measurement worldmakingdata
voltage,current,and PF—for energy analysis calculations.
collection easier, more accurate, and safer.
Utility meters collect all these data at abuilding service
Accurate data collection is paramount not only to
entrancepoint or at any other sub-metering location, if
analyze energy consumption, but also to evaluatethe
such meters are installed. By contacting theutility
effectivenessofproposed changessuggested in an energy
provider,one can easily obtain the historical data related
auditreport. Some energy-savingelectrical retrofits may
to the above parametersand more for agivenfacility.
introduce electrical power quality problems that may not
However, whenitcomes to individual systems within a
be accounted for by traditional meters, causingerroneous
facility, these data may notbeavailable, unless additional
utilitymeters are installedateach of the service entrance
points to individualsystems.Inamodern power
*
This entry originally appeared as “Preparing Energy Managers and distributionsystem, harmonicsofthe fundamental
Techniciansfor Energy Data Collection” in Energy Engineering,Vol. 102,
frequency, 50 or 60 Hz, appeardue to non-linear devices
No. 4, 2005. Reprinted with permission from AEE/Fairmont Press.
connected into the system. Power line harmonics cause
Keywords:Energy audits; Energy data; Energy measurements. erroneous readings,ifameter is not capable of measuring
255
Fig. 2 Waveform, bar graph, and numerical displays of data presented by Fluke 41B. (Courtesy of Fluke Corporation).
software.
For example, the circuit showninFig. 4may help The concept of upstreamdisturbance can be demon-
students learn howtodetect harmonics and locate the strated by switching the DPDT switch to position Band
harmonicproducing sources in apower system.The three- starting the drive. Asample display taken under this
phase power supplyshould be takenfrom aY-connected condition is showninFig. 5B. Notethat the voltage sag
transformer secondary where the common point is taken as occurssimultaneously with the current sag, indicating that
neutral. It is also necessary to ground the common point, thesource of thedisturbance is upstream of the
if concepts related to overload ing are introduced. Adouble- measurement point. [4 ]
pole double-throw(DPDT)switch allows switching
betweenthe lamp-only circuit and the lamp with adimmer Precautions
circuit. The lamp-only path wouldallow the student to
studythe waveform characteristics and harmoniccontent of First of all, studentsmust have athorough understandingof
alinear load. The lamp with adimmer can be used to the instrument’s limitations. They shouldmake voltage
observe the voltage and current waveformvariation when measurements after acircuitbreaker and wearsafety gloves
harmonics are present to the right of the point, where the and eyewear whentaking measurements of live panels.
Fluke 43B meter is connected. Using the sag and swell
mode of the Fluke 43B meter, asample can be taken when
DPDTisinposition Aand the Variable Speed Drive (VSD) LIGHT
is off. The waveform wouldlook similar to the one shown in MEASUREMENTS
Fig. 5A . Note that the voltage sag coincides with acurrent On average, lighting consumes 35% of energy used in
swell indicating that the disturbance has occurred down- commercial buildings and 25% in industrial facilities.
stream of the measurement point. Lighting levels directlyaffectthe productivityof
employees. However, manylighting systems are impro- foot-can dles (fc). The purposeofmeasuring light is to
perly designed and unattended over the years. Lighting is determinethe incidentlight on ahorizontal or vertical
one of the areaswhere companies can save energy with the surface.Illumination Engineering Society of America
least amount of capitalinvestments. Fig. 6illustrates the (IESA) publishesrecommendedlight levels for specific
before and after appearance of awarehouse, where 50% tasks.
more light was obtained.
Light meters are very easy to use. The meter in Fig. 7 Practice Activity Outline
measures light intensity in Lumenand light density in
Select alocation where students can move aroundwith a
ladder for at least 2h.First, students draw an accurate
layout of the space beingaudited including the location of
furniture,windows, cabinets, and lighting fixtures. The
location couldbeaclassroom, alab, acorridor, or agym.
Using alight meter, studentsrecord the available light
intensityinfconhorizontal and vertical surfaces with and
withoutartificial lights.Thiswould yield alight
distribution map.Now compare the available light with
the recommended lighttodetermine levels and locate
poorly illuminated or over-illuminated areas. Most class-
room and labs are illuminated by uorescent light fixtures.
The amount of light generated by uorescentlight
deteriorates with time.Students may replace existing
uorescent tubes with new ones to examinethe available
light.
Precautions
BUILDING ENVELOP
MEASUREMENTS
The heat loss or gains of abuilding depend on many
Fig. 6 Fifty percent more light obtained through lighting factors: R -value of walls and roof material, window
retrofits in awarehouse. characteristics, ambienttemperature, humidity level, and
Source: From Business News Publishing Company (see Ref. 5 ). heating and cooling degree days of agiven location where
THERMAL
IMAGING
During any energy conversion process, heat is produced as
aby-product.Poor insulation of buildings and pipes
Fig. 7 Astick-type light meter with aretractable sensor. carrying hot or cold liquids causesenergy wastes. New
(Courtesy of Omega Inc.). retrofitsand devices containing switching power electronic
circuits may introduce harmonics, which may overheat the
neutral conductors. Poor connections of an electrical
the building is allocated. When R -value and U -values are
distribution system are the major contributortosystem
known, adetailed analysis of abuilding envelop would
inefficiencies and may lead to acatastrophic fire. All of the
yield Britishthermal unit lost or gain ed through walls,
above couldbeavoided, if one could detect them in
windows, and otherheating and cooling sources. It is very advance. To detect such abnormalities, one requires a
difficult to determin ethe R -values of even aseveral-year thermal imager.Athermal imager, compared to an IR
old facility due to poor record keeping and later add-ons to thermometer, is capable of measuring temperature vari-
the structures. The OMEGA w OS-650energy conserva-
ation betweentwo adjacent points. In the past, the cost of
tion and plant maintenancekit (see Fig. 8) is very useful in thermal imagersprevented widespread use in energy
energy audits and general plantmaintenance. The kit management and plant-maintenance activities. Industries
consists of an infrared (IR)thermometercapableof hired aconsultant to surveyall electrical distribution
measuring temperatures from K 2to2008 Fand aheat panels and othercriticallocations in afacility to determine
ow meter, which is aspecially designed IR radiometer the thermal profile annually. But prices have comedown
capable of displaying heat ow though ascanned wall in significantly, under $10,000, over the past few years. A
terms of British thermal unit per squarefeet hour. [6 ] The
specially designed, hand-held thermal imager made for
kit is priced around $1600. If purchased separately, either energy audits and plantmaintenance is shown in Fig. 9 .
the thermometer or the heat ow meter would cost about The imager can hold up to 100images,which are
$800. stampedwith time and date as they are taken. Through an
Universal Serial Bus (USB) port,the images can be
downloaded to the accompanying software installedona
Practice Activity Outline
PC for further analysis. Images can be further analyzed by
assigning asingle color to atemperature range and
Alaboratory activitycan be developed, so studentswill be
creating athermal profile. Athermal profile represents the
able to (1) estimate R -value value of an unknowninsulator,
temperature at the x and y axes as the cursor moves aroun d
(2) measureheat owthrough walls and windows, and
the image. [7 ]
(3) makeenergy cost analyzes at the end of the activity. To
estimate R -value, net heat owshouldbedetermined by
Practice Activity Outline
usingthe heat owmeter. This is done by taking two
measurements across awall at the same height—one from Many interesting activities can be developed aroundthis
inside and the other from outside of the room.The meter device. Students couldmeasure thetemperature of
showsaC orK number, indicating the direction of heat different light sources and compare the power consump-
ow. tion of each light bulb and the surface temperature. The
internal heat distribution of aroom couldbedetected and
documented by hanging black-painted aluminum sheets.
Since this device measures the re ectedthermal energy,
the manufacturer recommendspainting highly re ective
surfaceswith somedark colortominimize reading errors.
Students coulddevelop thermal images of buildings on
campus and analyze the heat losses. In apowerlab,
students could measure the temperature of conductors
when motors aredriven with variable speeddrives
( Fig. 10 ).
Precautions
Fig. 9 Raytek ThermoViewe Ti30 portable imager and its display. (Courtesy of Raytek Corporation).
imagers have aminimum focusing distancethat must be applications, because the humaneye can detect variations
adhered to. Most current thermal imagersallow users to of grayscale better when thermal changesare subtle. In
view the object using different colorpalettes such as addition, students mustbeaware of concepts such as
rainbow,ironbow, and grayscale. Despite the popularity of qualitative vs quantitative temperaturemeasurements,
color palettes, it is recommended to use grayscale for most distance to targetratio, field of view,effects of
environmental conditions (steam, dust, smoke, etc.), and
effects of emissivity.
COMBUSTION
ANALYSIS
The effectivenessoffossil-fuel burning receiveslittle
attention during an energy audit process unless the auditor
is well trained to perform mechanical tests. The
mechanical test, atedious process, requires aset of data
from several different pieces of equipment such as draft
gauges, thermometers, carbon monoxide (CO) stain length
tubes, wet chemical absorption instruments, etc. Then the
data are entered into aslide ruler calculator to determine
the combustion efficiency. [8 ]
New electronic combustion analyzersprovide more
reliable and provable data than atraditional “eyeballing
the ame” analysis. It also produces faster professional
analysis than amechanical test. Fyrite w Tec 50 and 60
Fig. 11 Fyrite w
Tec 50 and 60 residential combustion analyzers and amanufacturer’s comparison of combustion analysis techniques.
(Courtesy of Bacharach Inc.).
Precautions
system and the computers used to record the data.For
Peoplehave anatural tendency to clear the area around a laboratory applications and short-term data logging, one
suspected leak, especially pain ted or corroded surfaces, to may use the D1-194RS low-cost (less than $25) data
examinethe leak more closely. This may cause the hole to acquisition starter kit shown in Fig. 13.The kit includes
burst witho ut much warning, spewingdust and loose hardware, recorder software, and aserial port cable.
particlesall over. Therefore, studentsmust wear safety The hardwareisself-powered through the serial port of
glasses and dusk masks as appro priate whentesting leaks PC. Analog signals connectedtoany of the four channels
of any form. are digitized and saved into the hard drive while showing
on the screen as astrip-chart recorder. Each channel can be
sampledupto240 samples persecond with 12-bit
LOW COSTDATA resolution, which is adequate for most analog signals in
ACQUISITION the energy field. Each channelaccepts G 10 V, which is
Energy managers have to rely on historical data when large enough for most commercially available transducer
energy analyzes are performed. Atrend of ameasured outputs. The software includes Active-X control libraries
parameter such as current, voltage,temperature, etc. that allow the user to program the kit from any Windows
presentsabetter pictureofenergy-savingopportunities environment. Therecoded data may be play backedfor
than instantaneous readings.Mostdataloggers are later analysis. [1 0 ] The input signals are not optically
expensive, because they are designed to minimize potential isolated and measured with respect to acommon ground
damages to the front-end electronics of the data acquisition point.