Introduction to Radar

• Information in this presentation

can be found in a number of texts
on radar.
–“Introduction to Radar Systems”,
Skolnick, ISBN 0-07-290980-3
–“Principles of Modern Radar”, Eaves
and Reedy, ISBN 0-442-22104-5

1
Introduction to Radar
Table of Contents

Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The Radar Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Spectral Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Doppler Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Matched Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Detecting Signals in Noise . . . . . . . . . . . 50

CW Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2
 Introduction to Radar
• Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection
and location of reflecting objects such as aircraft, ships,
spacecraft, vehicles, people and the natural
environment.
• Radar can perform its function at long or short distances
and under conditions impervious to optical and infrared
sensors. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain, and
snow. Its ability to measure distance with high accuracy
and in all weather is one of its most important attributes.
• The range of radars can exceed hundreds of miles and
they can be placed on mobile platforms greatly
increasing their effectivity.

3
 Introduction to Radar
• The simplest radar system transmits a pulse of
high frequency energy and listens for the echo
of that pulse.
• Given that EM energy travels at 3 X 108 m/s, the
time it takes for a pulse to travel to a target and
the echo to travel back will tell us the range.
R = cTR/2
where R = range in meters
c = the speed of the EM pulse
TR = the round trip transit time

4
Introduction to Radar

EM wave is
Reflected off
Of target

5
 Introduction to Radar
• It becomes obvious that we cannot send out
another pulse until a time window has passed, in
which we expect to see a return echo. Through
estimations, we can assume that an echo pulse
that returns after that time window, will be too
small to detect due to the distance it would have
to travel and the noise in the receiver. Therefore
we can calculate the maximum unambiguous
range as:

Run = cTp/2 = c/2fp

where Tp = pulse repetition period
fp = pulse repetition frequency

6
Introduction to Radar

7
 Introduction to Radar
• Looking at this simple waveform, we can
determine:
– What the maximum unambiguous range is
– How much power (heat) we will have to cool. This will
be the average power which implies: the lower the
duty cycle, the larger the peak power can be without a
significant heat increase.
– What is the smallest target we can detect based on
the peak power transmitted.
– What the range resolution (δr) is based on τ
δr = cτ/2
8
 Introduction to Radar
• Throughout the years since the inception
of radar, designers have found numerous
ways to transmit more complicated
waveforms to gather more information
from the target. EX:
• Pulse Doppler
• FMCW
• Pulse Compression
• These will be discussed in detail later.
9
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
• When EM energy is transmitted, it follows
the laws of “spherical spreading”. That is,
the power spreads isotropically (in all
directions).
• Since the surface area of a sphere is
defined by 4πR2, the power per unit area,
as the power radiated from the antenna, is
defined by
Pdensity = Pt/4πR2

10
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
• However, by using an antenna that can
direct the energy in a certain geometric
space (direction) as opposed to the true
isotropic broadcasting, we can modify the
power density equation by adding a term
for the antenna gain:
(max power density radiated by a directive antenna)
Antenna gain =
(power density radiated by a lossless isotropic antenna with the same power)

Note: We cannot get more power out of an antenna than what we put in.
We can however, get more power/area than that of an isotropic radiator.
11
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
PtGA
Power Density at range R =
4πR2
Next, when the radiated power reaches the target, a certain amount
of it will be reflected back to the transmitter. The amount reflected back is
determined by the radar cross section (rcs) designated by σ.

As the transmitted energy is reflected back to the transmitter, it will once again
undergo spherical spreading. Thus our equation is growing in terms and it
is beginning to represent the power level of the signal we will have to detect at
the receiver.

PtGA σ
Reradiated power density = x
4πR2 4πR2
12
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
• We’re almost done in determining the
return power level at the radar receiver.
However, we have one more term to add.
Up to this point, the equation is giving us
watts/area. We need to multiply this term
by the effective aperture of the receiving
antenna in order to get watts. The
aperture is a published parameter of the
antenna and we will designate it as Ae.
13
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
• This brings the simple form of the radar
equation to :
PtGA σ
Preceived = x x Ae
4πR2 4πR2
PtGAAeσ
Preceived =
(4π)2R4
If we can define the minimum amount of Preceived that we can have and still
detect the signal, then based on this minimum value, we can define
our maximum range as:
1/4
PtGAAeσ
Rmax = where Smin = min Preceived
2
(4π) Smin
14
 The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation
This is the fundamental form, or “simple” form of the Radar Equation

1/4
PtGAAeσ
Rmax =
(4π)2Smin

15
The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation

16
The Simple Form of the
Radar Equation

17
Spectral Evaluation

18
Time Domain Evaluation

19
Spectral Evaluation

20
Time Domain Evaluation

21
Spectral Evaluation

22
Time Domain Evaluation

23
 Doppler Radars

• One of the “golden rules” of RF signal

processing is
“change in phase with respect to time = frequency”

dΦ
= frequency
dt

Because the change in phase vs. time must be calculated, the transmitted
Signal must have a stable phase signal that can be measured. This is called a
“phase coherent system”.
Let’s examine this in detail 24
Doppler Radars

25
Doppler Radars

26
Doppler Radars

27
 Doppler Spectrum
• Due to the Fourier property that all real
functions in time have double-sided and
symmetrical spectra in frequency, we need
an I-Q (aka Quadrature) receiver to fully
discriminate positive Doppler shifts from
negative Doppler shifts.

Let’s examine this.

28
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

Spectrum of transmitted CW signal at 1GHz

-1GHz +1GHz

A target approaching the transmitter creates a plus 1KHz Doppler Shift

-1.0001GHz +1.0001GHz

29
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

When the signal is down-converted to baseband (carrier removed), the frequency component
“leftover” is the Doppler component.

-1KHz +1KHz
DC

Remember this spectrum and let’s see what happens when we have a
negative 1KHz Doppler shift created by a target moving away from the transmitter.

30
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

A target moving away from the transmitter creates a minus

1KHz Doppler Shift

-999.9MHz +999.9MHz

31
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)
The down-conversion process for this particular hypothetical radar is designed
to down-convert a 1GHz signal to DC. In the case of the positive Doppler shift,
the echo signal was 1Khz above 1GHz, and hence after down-conversion we had
a 1KHz component “leftover”. Simple math will show that when we down-convert
999.9MHz to DC, we will have a NEGATIVE 1KHz component. However, our
spectrum is “double-sided symmetrical”. For this reason, our 999.9MHz signal shows
up as a negative 1KHz, however our MINUS 999.9MHz signal “passes through” the DC
point of the spectrum and comes to rest as a POSITIVE 1KHz component.

-1KHz +1KHz
DC

Hence, there is no way to distinguish between a positive Doppler shift, or a negative

Doppler shift. Resolving this could be the difference between life and death.
32
Doppler – Time Domain

33
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

• We will examine how we resolve positive

and negative Doppler shifts after we look
at the Doppler Spectrum of a pulse radar.

34
Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

35
Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) – RF Band

36
Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) – IF Band

37
 Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

• As you can see, this is duplicated in the IF

spectrum.
• However, the baseband (video) response is
slightly different, because it is centered around
DC, and the symmetry of the spectrum must
hold true according to Fourier. This is because
for any real time function:

For f(t) REAL, the magnitude of its Fourier spectrum is

symmetrical about 0 frequency, DC

F(-jω) = F(jω)
38
Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) – Baseband

39
 Video Pulse Train
with no Doppler Shift

If we have a radar pulse train at 50% duty cycle, the down-converted baseband video
(with carrier removed), will look like the following:

40
 Video Pulse Train
with Doppler Shift

This may look useless, as if all the information has been distorted. However, if
We expand it, we will see the Doppler Frequency show up (next slide). 41
Doppler – Time Domain
video pulse train with Doppler Shift

42
 Doppler Shift
Quadrature Receiver
In order to resolve this, we can “create” a time domain function
which is NOT all REAL, by using and I and Q, or “Quadrature” Receiver.

This receiver will resolve the Doppler shift in the time domain OR
the frequency domain.
43
 Doppler Shift
Resolved in Time Domain with I/Q Receiver

44
 Doppler Shift
Resolved in Frequency Domain with I/Q Receiver

45
 Matched Filtering

• A matched filter is a filter whose response

maximizes the S/N ratio for a given signal. That
signal is unique to the matched filter.
• We can quantify the design of the matched filter
if we know the characteristics of the signal we
are attempting to recover from the noise. The
matched filter will have an impulse response
which is the “time reversed” version of the
signal.

h(t)filter = f(-t)signal
46
 Matched Filtering
(cont.)

• Generally, matched filtering is performed

at the IF or video (baseband) stage.
• Matched Filtering does NOT preserve the
fidelity of the signal, but does maximize
the S/N ratio for maximum likelihood of
detection.

47
Matched Filtering
(cont.)

48
Matched Filtering

49
Detection of Signals in Noise
• Noise is a random statistical process. The exact
value cannot be predicted at a future time, as
with a periodic function.
• For this reason, noise must be described by its
statistical characteristics (mean, standard
deviation, PDF, etc.)
• Noise can have any number of PDFs (uniform,
Rayleigh, Gaussian, etc.)
• For the sake of this presentation, we will
concentrate on noise with a Gaussian PDF.

50
Detection of Signals in Noise

51
Detection of Signals in Noise

52
Detection of Signals in Noise

53
 CW Radars
(continuous wave radars)

• A CW radar works by providing some type of

“time stamp” on a CW signal. The easiest way
to do this is to change the frequency with
respect to time.
• If we know exactly how the frequency is
changing, then the frequency 9of the return echo
tells us how much time has elapsed and hence
we can determine the range.
• This is designated as an FMCW (frequency
modulated continuous wave ) radar and the
range accuracy can be very high (inches)
54
CW Radars
(cont.)

55
 CW Radars
(cont.)

Xmit Return Echo

Frequency Difference

Time

56
 CW Radars
resolving doppler frequencies

57
 CW Radars
resolving doppler frequencies

58
 CW Radars
(cont.)

• CW radars are very useful for highly

accurate distance mesurement:
• Autonomous landing of aircraft/spacecraft
– Underground location of objects
• Their resolution
FM Landing Radar on The
can be defined by:
Lunar Module Range Resolution = c/2B

c = speed of light
B = sweepable bandwidth
59
 Radar Systems
Fundamental concerns for shipboard
systems
• A ship is a very crowded environment from an electromagnetic
viewpoint.
• A ship can easily have 100 or more antennas on board
– These include transmit and receive for communications
– Multiple radars – phased arrays and parabolic dishes
– Low Frequency transceivers which use the entire ship as an antenna.
– GPS equipment
– Many of these systems can be 10’s of thousands of watts – this creates
a concern for the interference between systems, possible radiation
hazards for personnel, possible radiation hazards for other vessels
nearby.
– Many times there are not only electrical issues in placing radars on ship
platforms, but structural and thermal issues as well.
– Typically CW radars are lower peak power than pulse radars due to
thermal issues.
• This created problems for steel ships, it creates even bigger
problems for composite ships.
60
 Radar Systems
Electronic Signatures

• Much information can be derived from the

“electronic observation “ of a transmitted
radar signal.
• FMCW, pulse, pulse Doppler, etc. all have
a unique spectrum. Many radars can
perform in more than one mode.

61
 Radar Systems
Spectral Signature of a Simple Pulse Radar

62
 Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

• A pulse Doppler radar may only be interested in

“velocity” information and not range. Therefore,
the harmonic spacing in the spectrum may be
very large (less ambiguity) but the pulses may
be spaced very closely in the time domain.
• It is not uncommon that a radar may switch
between long pulse repetitions and short pulse
repetitions in order to obtain both range and
velocity information at critical times.

63
 Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

• An FMCW radar would have a much more

complex spectrum. Basically this can be
modeled as an FM signal. Spectra of FM
signals are determined by: the amount of
frequency deviation, the rate of frequency
deviation, and Bessel Functions.
• For an FMCW radar, there may be many
harmonics present, but typically they would not
follow the simple “sinc envelope” we’ve seen in
pulse radars up to this point. When observing
the spectrum from a distance, this would be a
clue as to what type of system it is.
64
 Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

Pulse compression, or “chirp” radars have

an even more elaborate spectrum. This si
a pulsed system that is also frequency
modulated.

65
 Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures
After processing the “chirp” through a matched filter, the long pulses
are converted to short pulses with a larger amplitude. These short
pulses take on the shape of a sinc function in the time domain and
exhibit an amplitude gain due to the matched filtering process.

66